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Stepped Stone Structure

The Stepped Stone Structure is a massive Iron Age retaining substructure located on the eastern slope of the City of David in Jerusalem, consisting of multiple terraces built with large, roughly hewn boulders and walls that form a stepped mantle over natural rock scarps, measuring over 20 meters in height and extending along approximately 50 meters of the hillside.^[1]^[2] This monumental feature, the largest known Iron Age construction in the region, supported upper buildings and likely served a defensive or terracing function to stabilize the steep terrain descending to the Kidron Valley.^[3]^[4] Excavations of the structure, first partially exposed in the early 20th century by Robert Macalister and later by Kathleen Kenyon and Yigal Shiloh, were extensively continued from 2005 to 2008 under Eilat Mazar, revealing its integration with overlying architecture including the Large Stone Structure.^[5]^[4] Pottery and stratigraphic evidence date its construction to the early Iron Age IIA period, circa the 10th century BCE, with use continuing into the 9th or 8th century before partial destruction.^[6]^[7] Scholars interpret the Stepped Stone Structure as evidence of advanced engineering and centralized authority in ancient Jerusalem, potentially linked to biblical descriptions of fortifications built by King David or Solomon, such as the "Millo," though debates persist over precise chronology and attribution due to varying stratigraphic interpretations.^[2]^[1] Some researchers propose a slightly later 9th-century date tied to the Kingdom of Judah, but the scale and pottery assemblages support an early Iron IIA origin consistent with empirical ceramic typology.^[6]^[8] This structure underscores the material basis for assessing the historicity of early monarchic Judah, privileging direct archaeological data over revisionist minimalism in academic discourse.^[9]

Location and Context

Site Description in the City of David

The Stepped Stone Structure is a monumental terraced edifice situated on the eastern slope of the City of David, the southeastern hill of ancient Jerusalem, specifically in Area G. This location overlooks the Kidron Valley and is part of the original urban core south of the Temple Mount. The structure consists of cascading rows of large, roughly hewn limestone blocks arranged in irregular courses forming approximately 55 descending steps or terraces.^[8]^[10] Rising to a height of about 18 to 20 meters, the curved and narrow profile of the structure spans a significant portion of the slope, with some exposed sections reaching up to 60 feet in vertical extent over its terraced layout. Constructed from fieldstones and larger boulders, some weighing several tons, it employs a technique of dry-laid masonry without extensive cutting, creating a stepped substructure that interlocks with overlying walls and bedrock features, including a possible integrated tunnel system.^[1]^[11] Prominently visible from the Mount of Olives across the valley, the Stepped Stone Structure represents the largest uncovered Iron Age monumental feature in the region, characterized by its imposing mass and integration with the natural topography to form a stabilizing platform for upper buildings or fortifications. Adjacent elements, such as a glacis and casemate walls, enhance its defensive appearance, underscoring its role in the ancient city's southeastern ridge defenses.^[1]^[12]

Relation to Surrounding Structures

The Stepped Stone Structure occupies a prominent position on the eastern slope of the City of David in Jerusalem, functioning primarily as a massive retaining feature that integrates with adjacent architectural elements to stabilize the steep terrain. Excavations led by Eilat Mazar between 2005 and 2007 uncovered direct physical connections, including interlocking walls, between the upper levels of the Stepped Stone Structure and the Large Stone Structure to its west, suggesting they comprised a single monumental complex constructed in the 10th century BCE.^[1] This integration positions the Stepped Stone Structure as a substructural podium supporting the larger edifice above, which Mazar interpreted as part of King David's palace based on its scale, Phoenician-influenced ashlar masonry, and strategic location.^[13] Adjoining the structure from the north at its upper courses is a casemate wall approximately 5 meters wide, which archaeological evidence links to the Iron Age defensive system and potentially served as an early city wall segment.^[6] This wall's abutment underscores the Stepped Stone Structure's role within the broader fortification network of ancient Jerusalem, enhancing the site's defensibility along the vulnerable eastern ridge. Later modifications include a 10th-century BCE tunnel incorporated behind the structure for possible water management, further tying it to utilitarian infrastructure.^[1] In subsequent periods, the enduring stability of the Stepped Stone Structure facilitated reuse by later builders; for instance, the House of Ahiel, a residential complex from the 8th century BCE, was constructed against its facade, exploiting its vertical support.^[12] By the Persian period around 450 BCE, portions of Nehemiah's wall were erected atop it, adapting the feature into the evolving urban perimeter.^[1] Although these relations affirm its foundational significance, some scholars, citing stratigraphic discrepancies, argue against a unified construction phase for the Stepped and Large Stone Structures, proposing phased development instead.^[14]

Discovery and Excavation History

Early 20th-Century Excavations

The Stepped Stone Structure in the City of David was first systematically excavated during the Palestine Exploration Fund's operations from 1923 to 1925, under the direction of British archaeologists Robert A. S. Macalister and J. G. Duncan.^[5] Their work targeted the eastern slope of the ridge, where they exposed substantial sections of the monumental feature, consisting of large, irregularly shaped limestone blocks arranged in overlapping courses to form a terraced, stepped profile.^[15] The excavations revealed the structure's north-south extent, measuring approximately 23 meters in length, with individual stones up to several tons in weight, indicating significant engineering effort to stabilize the steep incline.^[15] Macalister and Duncan interpreted it as a retaining element supporting upper-level buildings, possibly part of the ancient Ophel fortifications, though they also associated the surrounding area with potential cultic activity based on scattered finds.^[16] The excavators' approach involved clearing debris down to bedrock in places, uncovering the stepped courses that descend the slope in a series of offsets rather than uniform steps.^[5] Associated artifacts included Iron Age pottery sherds, which provided preliminary dating to the late Bronze or early Iron Age, though without refined stratigraphic separation.^[15] Their 1926 report emphasized the structure's scale as one of the largest ancient features in Jerusalem at the time, yet documentation was limited to plans, photographs, and brief descriptions, omitting detailed section drawings or locus records.^[13] These early efforts laid the groundwork for later interpretations but faced criticism for methodological shortcomings typical of the period, such as minimal attention to stratigraphy and potential disturbance of contexts through rapid digging.^[16] No major restoration occurred during this phase, leaving much of the exposed structure vulnerable to erosion until subsequent campaigns.^[15] Prior explorations in the City of David, such as Raymond Weill's 1913–1914 digs focused on shafts and tombs further south, did not directly intersect the Stepped Stone Structure's core exposures.^[17]

Mid-to-Late 20th-Century Work

Kathleen Kenyon directed excavations in the City of David from 1961 to 1967, exposing larger sections of the stepped stone structure, including elements interpreted as a glacis or terracing mantle descending the eastern slope.^[6] Kenyon associated overlying deposits with Hellenistic activity but identified the core structure with Iron Age construction phases, estimating its build over an extended period based on stratigraphic layers and ceramic finds.^[18] Yigal Shiloh conducted systematic digs in Area G from 1978 to 1985, clarifying that the structure's disparate stone walls, fills, and terraces formed a cohesive Iron Age IIA substructure approximately 20 meters high and spanning over 30 meters north-south.^[19] Shiloh's analysis of pottery from the construction fills dated the unified edifice to the 10th century BCE, attributing it to a single-phase build as a retaining system for upper fortifications, differing from Kenyon's multi-phase view.^[18] These efforts, detailed in Shiloh's interim reports, integrated prior exposures and emphasized the structure's role in stabilizing the steep ridge, with ashlar masonry and rubble cores evidencing advanced engineering for the period.^[20]

Recent Investigations and Findings

A landmark 2024 radiocarbon dating study analyzed 103 samples from Iron Age contexts across Jerusalem, including the City of David where the Stepped Stone Structure (SSS) was excavated by Yigal Shiloh in the 1970s and 1980s. The results yielded calibrated dates primarily between the 10th and 6th centuries BCE, confirming monumental construction and occupation in the SSS area during Iron Age IIA (c. 1000–900 BCE), consistent with stratigraphic evidence of large-scale terracing predating later fills. This empirical data challenges minimalist chronologies proposing negligible 10th-century development, as the dates from secure contexts align with pottery assemblages indicating early Iron Age activity.^[21] Eilat Mazar's 2005–2008 excavations at the City of David summit, adjacent to and above the SSS, uncovered a 50-meter-long tunnel hewn into the bedrock directly behind the structure. Dated to the Iron Age via associated artifacts, the tunnel is interpreted as a defensive or drainage feature supporting the SSS's role in fortification systems. Published findings from these digs emphasize the SSS's integration into a broader 10th-century BCE urban complex, with limestone masonry and fill layers providing causal links to contemporary regional architecture.^[1] Ongoing analyses, including 2023 reassessments of ceramic typology and comparative studies, have reinforced the SSS's construction in the late 11th to early 10th century BCE, based on the absence of post-collapse Iron IIC pottery in primary debris and parallels to dated Levantine retaining walls. Despite debates—such as Israel Finkelstein's advocacy for a 9th-century date relying on selective stratigraphic interpretations—radiometric and typological evidence prioritizes the earlier attribution, as later dates fail to account for the structure's foundational position beneath verified 8th-century layers.^[16]^[22]

Physical Characteristics

Construction Materials and Techniques

The Stepped Stone Structure is constructed primarily from limestone blocks and boulders, quarried or gathered locally in the Jerusalem region.^[8] These materials form a series of approximately 55 steps descending the eastern slope of the City of David, with upper steps composed of larger, roughly worked blocks averaging 48 by 36 centimeters (19 by 14 inches), transitioning to smaller stones in the lower 15 steps. The variation in stone size reflects adaptive construction to the terrain's topography, enhancing stability on the steep incline. Building techniques involved dry-laid masonry, where stones were carefully selected, shaped minimally, and interlocked without mortar, relying on precise fitting, gravity, and mutual support for structural integrity.^[13] This method, common in Iron Age retaining walls, created terraced courses rising eastward, functioning as a substructure to contain earthen fill and support overlying buildings or fortifications. Behind the visible stepped facade lies a substantial fill of soil, debris, and smaller stones, indicating a composite technique combining revetment walling with backfilling to bridge bedrock irregularities and prevent slippage.^[13] The overall design demonstrates advanced engineering for erosion control and load distribution in a geologically challenging hillside setting.^[8]

Dimensions and Structural Design

The Stepped Stone Structure measures over 20 meters in height, spanning the steep northeastern slope of the City of David and representing the largest uncovered Iron Age monumental feature in Israel.^[3] It consists of approximately 55 steps constructed primarily from limestone blocks, with notable variations in stone size: larger blocks form the upper steps, while smaller stones characterize the lower 15 steps.^[8] The structure's width reaches about 13 meters, and its curved form adapts to the topography of the hill, extending eastward-westward for roughly 27 meters when including associated terraces.^[8] Structurally, the design functions as a terraced retaining system, comprising multiple levels of fill-backed retaining walls faced with stepped stone courses to stabilize the incline and support overlying buildings.^[1] The steps decrease in size downward, likely to distribute load and resist soil pressure on the slope, with the overall assembly built directly on bedrock in places for foundational stability.^[8] A casemate wall abuts the northern side, integrating the structure into a broader defensive or architectural complex.^[13] This stepped configuration, rather than a smooth revetment, indicates an emphasis on massive, labor-intensive construction suited to the Iron Age II period's engineering capabilities.^[23]

Dating Evidence

Stratigraphic and Ceramic Analysis

The Stepped Stone Structure (SSS) in the City of David was investigated stratigraphically during Yigal Shiloh's excavations from 1978 to 1985, revealing a series of substructural terraces carved into bedrock, filled with soil and rubble, and overlain by a mantle of large undressed stones forming steps. A rectangular probe (approximately 8 by 13 feet) exposed vertical sections demonstrating the integration of these elements as a single construction phase, with no evidence of later additions interrupting the core fills. The structure rests directly on Middle Bronze Age scarps in places, but the immediate substructural compartments contain sealed deposits undisturbed by later activity, overlain by Iron Age II buildings that were destroyed in the Babylonian conquest of 586 BCE.^[18] Subsequent work by Eilat Mazar in 2005–2008 confirmed this sequence, identifying the SSS as supporting higher structures with consistent Iron Age stratification, though lacking clear floor levels within the SSS itself for precise phasing.^[24] Ceramic analysis from Shiloh's excavations yielded approximately 500 potsherds associated with the SSS, including about 100 from stone fills, 350 from soil fills, and 50 from the rubble core; these assemblages are compositionally uniform, dominated by wheel-made forms typical of the Late Bronze Age II–Iron Age I transition. Key types include everted-rim bowls, collared-rim storage jars, and cooking pots with thickened rims, with the latest diagnostic sherds assignable to circa 1200 BCE, providing a terminus post quem for the fills. Mazar's related contexts produced similar Iron Age I repertoires, including bichrome-decorated vessels and early monolithic forms, but with an emphasis on continuity into the 10th century BCE, as collared-rim jars persisted without abrupt Iron Age II innovations like red-slip burnishing. Overlying strata contain 9th–8th century BCE pottery, such as Assyrian-influenced bowls, indicating post-construction accumulation rather than construction debris.^[18]^[24]^[25] The stratigraphic superposition and ceramic evidence underpin ongoing debates over construction timing, with Jane Cahill interpreting the sealed fills' Late Bronze–Iron I pottery as evidence for building in the 13th–12th centuries BCE, arguing against later reuse due to the absence of contamination. In contrast, Eilat Mazar contended that the repertoire aligns with 10th-century BCE Jerusalem, citing the lack of developed Iron II types as consistent with early monarchy material culture rather than an earlier sealed deposit, supported by comparative highland sites. Critics, including Israel Finkelstein, highlight potential for recycled fill material, favoring a 9th-century BCE date based on overlying architecture and regional pottery phasing, though the ceramics themselves offer no direct Iron II markers within the SSS core.^[18]^[24]^[9]

Radiocarbon and Other Scientific Methods

Radiocarbon dating has been applied to charred organic remains, such as seeds and wood, recovered from fills, floors, and destruction layers in and around the Stepped Stone Structure (SSS) in the City of David. These samples provide calibrated age ranges that inform the structure's construction chronology, often in conjunction with stratigraphic contexts. A comprehensive 2024 study analyzed 103 accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates from reliable short-lived organic materials across five Iron Age excavation areas in Jerusalem's Southeastern Hill, including those adjacent to or overlying the SSS, such as Areas U and G.^[21] Microarchaeological sampling ensured minimal contamination, with dates calibrated using IntCal20 and verified against 100 tree-ring measurements for precision within decades. The results indicate significant activity in the 10th century BCE, with 18 dates spanning the 12th–10th centuries BCE (e.g., one sample at 1020–970 BCE), supporting construction or major use of monumental features like the SSS during the early Iron IIA period rather than earlier Late Bronze or Iron I phases.^[21] These radiocarbon data challenge lower chronologies that place the SSS in the 9th century BCE or earlier, as the 10th-century clusters align with ceramic evidence from associated fills dated to the late 11th–early 10th centuries BCE by excavator Eilat Mazar, who linked organic samples from the Large Stone Structure (built atop the SSS) to circa 1000–960 BCE.^[26] The PNAS study's detection of a regional radiocarbon offset (about 20 years earlier than expected) further refines the timeline, tying Jerusalem's expansion—including terrace supports like the SSS—to the early monarchic era, with subsequent phases in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE marked by additions like Building 100 (dated 900–850 BCE).^[21] Critics of higher chronologies, such as Israel Finkelstein, have proposed Iron I dates based on typology, but the empirical radiocarbon sequences provide independent corroboration for 10th-century development, privileging measurable isotopic decay over interpretive pottery sequences alone.^[27] Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, which measures trapped electrons in quartz grains from sediments to estimate last exposure to sunlight, has been tested on aeolian deposits and construction fills related to the SSS and overlying Large Stone Structure. In Eilat Mazar's excavations, OSL analysis of samples from the Large Stone Structure yielded a broad range of 1380–1030 BCE, consistent with Iron I deposition but not pinpointing construction due to the method's sensitivity to sediment mixing and incomplete bleaching.^[24] This technique offers potential for dry-stone contexts lacking organics but yields wider error margins (centuries) compared to radiocarbon, limiting its resolution for distinguishing Iron I from early IIA phases; no dedicated OSL studies exclusively on the SSS core have been reported, with reliance instead on associated stratigraphic proxies. Other methods, such as thermoluminescence on ceramics, have not been prominently applied to SSS dating, as pottery typology dominates traditional assessments.

Scholarly Interpretations

Function as Retaining Wall or Terrace Support

The Stepped Stone Structure (SSS) serves primarily as a terraced retaining system engineered to stabilize the steep eastern slope of the Ophel ridge in the City of David, enabling the construction of level platforms for buildings above.^[23] Comprising large, irregularly shaped limestone blocks arranged in overlapping rows forming a stepped profile, the visible masonry spans roughly 35 meters north-south and rises approximately 11 meters in height, with underlying fills and substructures extending the total elevation to over 20 meters—comparable to a 12-story edifice.^[23] This configuration, backed by rubble and soil fills, distributes loads across the 30–40-degree incline, preventing erosion and collapse while creating artificial terraces for habitation or monumental architecture.^[28] Archaeologist Yigal Shiloh, who exposed much of the SSS during excavations from 1978 to 1985, interpreted it as a substructural support for Iron Age IIA settlement terraces, with houses and public buildings perched atop the stabilized platforms.^[28] Similarly, Eilat Mazar regarded the SSS as foundational underpinning for the adjacent Large Stone Structure, forming a unified complex that terraced the hillside to accommodate elite constructions, potentially including a royal palace.^[23] David Ussishkin characterized it explicitly as "a kind of retaining wall supporting the steep rocky slope above," emphasizing its role in hillside fortification and expansion. The structure's stepped design—distinct from vertical retaining walls—facilitates shear resistance through interlocking stones weighing up to several tons each, a technique suited to seismic-prone regions and capable of withstanding long-term soil pressures without mortar. Recent analyses by scholars like Yuval Gadot, Yehiel Shalev, and Joe Uziel reinforce its function in slope engineering, linking it to early Iron Age urban development that transformed Jerusalem's topography for sustained occupation.^[28] While debates persist over its precise dating and builders, the SSS's engineering demonstrably prioritized terrace support over defensive perimeters, as evidenced by the absence of battering or arrow slits and its integration with overlying fills rather than exposed fortifications.^[23]

Association with the Biblical Millo

The Stepped Stone Structure (SSS) in Jerusalem's City of David has been proposed by numerous archaeologists as the physical manifestation of the biblical Millo, a significant construction project mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as part of Jerusalem's early fortifications. This identification stems from the SSS's prominent location on the eastern slope of the City of David, aligning with biblical descriptions of the Millo as a terracing or retaining feature integrated into the city's defensive and urban framework following King David's conquest. Scholars such as Kathleen Kenyon, who excavated portions in the 1960s, initially linked the structure to Solomonic-era building activities referenced in 1 Kings 9:15, where Solomon undertakes works including "the Millo" alongside walls at Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer.^[29]^[30] The term Millo, derived from a root meaning "fill" or "mound," suggests a massive earthwork or stepped terrace designed to level and support upper structures, a function that matches the SSS's design as a sloping, tiered retaining wall composed of thousands of megalithic stones supporting an estimated 2,000 cubic meters of fill. Eilat Mazar, in her excavations, reinforced this view by associating the SSS with pre-Davidic Jebusite fortifications that David repaired, as described in 2 Samuel 5:9: "David then took up residence in the stronghold and called it the City of David. He built up the area around it, from the terraces (Millo) inward." This interpretation posits the SSS as a foundational element enabling the expansion of Jerusalem into a royal capital during the early Iron Age II period, circa 1000 BCE.^[12]^[30]^[3] However, the association remains debated, with critics arguing that the identification relies on circumstantial evidence rather than direct epigraphic confirmation, and stratigraphic data indicating possible origins in the late Bronze Age or earlier Iron Age I, predating David. Alternative proposals include equating the Millo with Middle Bronze Age fortifications around the Gihon Spring, as suggested in a 2023 study by Yuval Gadot and others, which attributes monumental terracing there to Hyksos-era engineering repurposed in biblical narratives. Proponents of the SSS-Millo link counter that biblical texts emphasize repairs and additions by Israelite kings—such as Joash in 2 Kings 12:20—consistent with the structure's multi-phase use evidenced by overlying Iron Age remains.^[31]^[32]^[30] Despite these challenges, the SSS's scale—spanning approximately 25 meters wide and descending over 10 meters— and its role in stabilizing the steep topography underscore its plausibility as the Millo, particularly given the scarcity of comparable monumental features in the City of David attributable to the United Monarchy era. Ongoing excavations continue to refine this hypothesis through ceramic and radiocarbon analysis, though consensus eludes scholars divided between maximalist views affirming biblical historicity and minimalist skepticism of early Iron Age monumentalism in Judah.^[2]^[29]

Biblical Connections and Historical Implications

References in the Hebrew Bible

The Millo (Hebrew: ha-Millo', often translated as "the filling" or "terrace") is referenced multiple times in the Hebrew Bible as a significant fortification or terraced structure within the City of David in Jerusalem. In 2 Samuel 5:9, following David's conquest of the Jebusite stronghold, it is recorded that "David built the city all around from the Millo inwards," indicating early fortification efforts to secure the expanded urban area.^[2] This passage portrays the Millo as a foundational element in David's consolidation of power, potentially involving terracing or retaining works on the steep eastern slope. A parallel account in 1 Chronicles 11:8 reinforces this, stating David "built the city all around from the Millo round about; and Joab repaired the rest of the city."^[33] Solomon's reign features prominently in subsequent references, linking the Millo to royal building projects. 1 Kings 9:15 describes Solomon conscripting forced labor to construct "the house of the Lord, and his own house, and Millo, and the wall of Jerusalem," positioning it alongside major infrastructural developments funded by tribute and labor from conquered territories.^[2] Further, 1 Kings 11:27 notes that during Solomon's later years, amid political unrest, he "built Millo, and repaired the breaches of the city of David his father," suggesting ongoing maintenance or expansion to address vulnerabilities in the original Jebusite or Davidic fortifications.^[3] Later monarchs are depicted repairing or utilizing the Millo, underscoring its enduring strategic role. For instance, 2 Kings 12:20 records the assassination of King Joash "at Beth-millo, on the road that goes down to Silla," implying the Millo as a public or accessible area within the city. King Hezekiah's preparations against Assyrian invasion in 2 Chronicles 32:5 include "rebuilding the Millo and raising up the walls," as part of broader defensive enhancements around 701 BCE.^[33] These texts collectively depict the Millo not merely as a static feature but as a dynamically maintained element integral to Jerusalem's defensive topography, often associated with royal initiatives to terrace and fortify the acropolis against the Kidron Valley's incline. Scholarly interpretations vary on whether these descriptions align precisely with archaeological remains like large-scale stepped retaining structures, but the biblical accounts emphasize its role in urban expansion and security from the late 11th century BCE onward.^[2]^[3]

Evidence for Iron Age Jerusalem's Development

The Stepped Stone Structure (SSS), a massive retaining wall in the City of David, stands over 20 meters tall and spans multiple terraces, representing the largest known Iron Age man-made feature in Israel.^[3] Its construction, involving limestone blocks arranged in stepped compartments with a stone mantle, required substantial quarrying, transportation, and assembly, implying organized labor mobilization beyond the capacity of a small village settlement.^[34] Pottery from fills beneath the structure dates to Late Bronze III/Iron I, while overlying buildings indicate use into Iron IIA, supporting pre-8th century BCE erection during a phase of urban expansion.^[34] This monumental substructure facilitated terrace support for upper buildings, such as the adjacent Large Stone Structure, evidencing planned vertical urban growth on Jerusalem's steep eastern slope.^[23] The engineering scale and public character suggest centralized authority capable of directing resources for infrastructure, contrasting with sparse Late Bronze Age remains and indicating Iron Age population increase and administrative sophistication.^[34] Associated finds, including Iron IIA pottery like Cypriot imports, reinforce mid-10th century BCE activity tied to economic networks.^[23] Radiocarbon data from 103 samples across Jerusalem sites confirm continuous settlement from the 12th-10th centuries BCE, with westward expansion and monumental constructions like Building 100 by the 9th century BCE (900-850 BCE), aligning with SSS-related development phases.^[21] The structure's integration with fortifications, such as a nearby Iron Age moat, further attests to an evolving urban landscape with defensive and terraced residential capabilities, marking Jerusalem's rise as a regional center.^[7] These features collectively demonstrate a shift to sustained growth, public investment, and complexity in Iron Age Jerusalem prior to later Assyrian influences.^[34]

Controversies and Debates

Chronological Disputes: Jebusite vs. Davidic Origins

The Stepped Stone Structure (SSS), a massive terraced retaining feature spanning approximately 600 square meters and rising up to 11 meters in height, has sparked debate over its construction chronology, pitting a Late Bronze Age Jebusite origin against an early Iron Age Davidic attribution around 1000 BCE. Kathleen Kenyon's excavations in the 1960s uncovered abundant Late Bronze II pottery (circa 1400–1200 BCE) in the debris mantle supporting the terraces, which she interpreted as evidence of Jebusite terracing predating the Israelite conquest, with the structure possibly serving as a foundational element of the pre-Davidic city.^[4] Subsequent analyses by scholars like Israel Finkelstein have emphasized this stratigraphic layering, arguing that the SSS core reflects Canaanite/Jebusite engineering, with any Iron Age modifications being secondary and the overall monumentality overstated for a purported Davidic kingdom lacking corroborative scale elsewhere.^[35] In contrast, Yigal Shiloh's systematic excavations from 1978 to 1985 revealed Iron Age I-IIA ceramics, including collared-rim store jars diagnostic of the 11th–10th centuries BCE, sealed directly within the construction fills and joints of the SSS's fieldstone walls, indicating primary construction in the late 11th or early 10th century BCE rather than mere reuse of earlier debris.^[18] Eilat Mazar's work further supported this by demonstrating the SSS's integration with the overlying Large Stone Structure, whose ashlar foundations and associated artifacts align with 10th-century BCE typology, positing the SSS as a Davidic fortification project to stabilize the steep eastern slope for elite buildings atop, consistent with biblical accounts of David's consolidation of Jerusalem post-conquest.^[23] The dispute hinges on interpretive differences in ceramic phasing and stratigraphic integrity: proponents of the Jebusite dating prioritize the underlying Late Bronze fills as integral to the structure's formation, potentially biasing toward a minimalist view skeptical of biblical-scale urbanization in the 10th century BCE, while Davidic advocates stress the sealed Iron Age deposits as definitive for the SSS's deliberate assembly, with earlier materials representing natural colluviation rather than constructional intent.^[9] Empirical resolution favors the Iron Age build phase, as no Late Bronze artifacts appear in the SSS's primary matrix, and comparable terracing techniques elsewhere align with transitional Late Bronze-Iron Age practices, though academic minimalism—often influenced by broader ideological resistance to high biblical chronology—continues to favor earlier attributions without refuting the key ceramic evidence.^[36]

Maximalist and Minimalist Perspectives

Maximalist scholars maintain that the Stepped Stone Structure represents a key element of 10th-century BCE monumental architecture in Jerusalem, underpinning the biblical depiction of King David's fortified capital. Eilat Mazar, who excavated the adjacent Large Stone Structure identified as David's palace, dates the Stepped Stone Structure to the mid-10th century BCE (Iron Age IIA), citing pottery such as Cypriot bichrome juglets and local red-slipped wares, alongside stratigraphic evidence of construction on leveled bedrock without prior buildings.^[23] This interpretation posits the structure as a massive retaining terrace supporting elite edifices, demonstrating advanced engineering consistent with a centralized Judahite polity capable of urban expansion, as described in 2 Samuel 5:9-11.^[23] Such views align with broader maximalist affirmations of the United Monarchy's historicity, where the structure's scale—covering over 2,000 square meters and comprising thousands of megalithic stones—evidences state-level organization rather than a mere village chiefdom.^[23] Proponents argue that dismissing this as pre- or post-Davidic ignores integrated ceramic assemblages and biblical topography, such as David's descent to the "stronghold of Zion."^[23] In opposition, minimalist perspectives, advanced by Israel Finkelstein, relegate the structure's primary construction or refurbishment to the 9th century BCE, attributing any earlier fills to Iron Age I (11th century) but questioning links to a Davidic empire. Finkelstein contends that Jerusalem remained a small highland settlement with limited population and resources in the 10th century, incapable of producing such fortifications without evidence of widespread Judahite material culture.^[37] He highlights stratigraphic complexities, including multiple building phases and destruction layers from the Babylonian conquest in 586 BCE, to argue that the structures reflect incremental Canaanite-Jebusite continuity rather than a sudden Davidic transformation.^[37]^[14] Minimalists further assert that the biblical narratives exaggerate Jerusalem's early significance, projecting 8th-7th century realities onto a fictionalized United Monarchy, with scant contemporary extra-biblical corroboration beyond contested inscriptions like Tel Dan.^[37] This approach prioritizes low settlement surveys and ceramic distributions indicating sparse 10th-century occupation, viewing maximalist claims as influenced by ideological commitments to scriptural literalism over empirical phasing.^[14] While acknowledging the structure's Iron Age antiquity, minimalists emphasize its disconnection from provenanced Davidic artifacts, framing it within regional patterns of modest fortifications predating or postdating the purported monarchy.^[14]

References

[1]
Discoveries of Eilat Mazar: The Summit of the City of David
Standing 20 meters tall and clearly visible from the Mount of Olives across the valley, the Stepped Stone Structure is the largest uncovered Iron Age structure ...
[2]
King David's Palace and the Millo - Biblical Archaeology Society
Two major monuments lie south of the Temple Mount in the City of David: the Large Stone Structure and Stepped Stone Structure. Building on previous suggestions, ...
[3]
The Moat of Ancient Jerusalem | ArmstrongInstitute.org
Measuring over 20 meters (66 feet) tall, the Stepped Stone Structure is by far the largest man-made feature from the Iron Age ever discovered in Israel. We know ...<|separator|>
[4]
The Interrupted Search for King David's Palace
In 2007, prominent Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar was excavating a monumental public building in Jerusalem's City of David—a structure she believes might be ...
[5]
Unwinding the Stepped Stone Structure, Part 1: Macalister and ...
Aug 4, 2023 · In the most recent major excavation in this area, the tower was removed by Eilat Mazar (more on that later), and only its foundation can be seen ...
[6]
Jerusalem in the 10th / 9th centuries BC | Bible Interp
She found that the stepped stone structure could definitively be dated to the beginning of the Iron II period. It went out of use somewhere in the 8th century ...
[7]
Full article: An Early Iron Age Moat in Jerusalem between the Ophel ...
Oct 11, 2023 · The dating of the Stepped Stone Structure has been discussed extensively. We share the commonly accepted view that it was constructed during ...
[8]
(PDF) The "Stepped Stone Structure” At Jerusalem: A Monumental ...
Faust, The Large Stone Structure in the City of David. A Reexam- losing its function as a defensive and/or retaining structure30, and inside and over it ...
[9]
The "Large Stone Structure" in Jerusalem: Reality versus Yearning
The LSS and the Stepped Stone Structure (hereafter SSS, referring to the stone mantle over the terraces on the slope)6 form one architectural complex7.
[10]
Stone Stepped Structure, 12th century BCE
This restored Stepped Stone Structure was built in Jebusite Jerusalem, in an area known today as Area G in the City of David.
[11]
https://www.bibleplaces.com/city-of-david/
[12]
Millo, Jebusite Wall - Jerusalem 101 - Generation Word
A massive stepped podium for the Canaanite-Jebusite palace/fortress that was also used as David's palace. Eilat Mazar dates the building of this structure from ...
[13]
The Search for King David's Palace | ArmstrongInstitute.org
The Stepped Stone Structure in the City of David is one of the largest, most impressive archaeological features in all of Israel. Situated on the east side of ...
[14]
The Debate Over “King David's Palace” - Emek Shaveh
Aug 20, 2020 · Furthermore, the team of researchers found evidence that the Large Stone Structure and Stepped Stone Structure were not built as one complex, ...<|separator|>
[15]
Ch. 2 - The Stepped Stone Structure - ResearchGate
From 2005 to 2008 archaeological excavations were carried out at the summit of the City of David under the directorship of Dr. Eilat Mazar on behalf of the ...
[16]
Unwinding the Stepped Stone Structure, Part 2
Sep 1, 2023 · This archaeological landmark and the area around it has been progressively uncovered since 1923. This series explores each excavation from the perspective of ...
[17]
Raymond Weill - City of David - עיר דוד
Sep 5, 2023 · Raymond Weill (1874-1950), a French-Jewish archaeologist, came to Jerusalem twice to excavate in the City of David at the beginning of the twentieth century.Missing: Stepped early 20th
[18]
Jerusalem in David and Solomon's Time, Jane Cahill, BAR 30:06 ...
There is also ceramic evidence that the Stepped-Stone Structure's substructural terraces and superstructural mantle are one architectural unit, built at the ...
[19]
Excavating the City of David - Biblical Archaeology Society
Mar 21, 2012 · From 1978 to 1985 Shiloh directed large-scale excavations in the City of David aimed at establishing an archaeological park.
[20]
EXCAVATIONS AT THE CITY OF DAVID 1978–1985 DIRECTED BY ...
In: D. T. Ariel (ed.). Excavations at the City of David 1978-1985 Directed by Yigal Shiloh, Vol. V: Extramural Areas (Qedem 40). Jerusalem: 155-169. Ariel, ...
[21]
Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals ... - PNAS
Apr 29, 2024 · We present 103 radiocarbon dates from reliable archaeological contexts in five excavation areas of Iron Age Jerusalem, which tie between archaeology and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
The Rather Stunning Backlash Against Professor Garfinkel's Latest ...
Aug 23, 2023 · Eilat Mazar as “David's palace”) in blue, supported by the buttressing Stepped Stone Structure in yellow, dated by Mazar to the same period (and ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[23]
Did I Find King David's Palace? - Biblical Archaeology Society
Oct 21, 2012 · We found giant walls from the Large-Stone Structure between 6 and 8 feet wide extending in every direction beyond the area of our excavation!
[24]
The Large Stone Structure in the City of David: A Reexamination, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 126: 116-130.
### Summary of Stratigraphy and Ceramics Related to the Stepped Stone Structure and Large Stone Structure
[25]
Pottery production in Jerusalem during the Iron Age - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · ... Stepped Stone Structure' represents at least two phases of construction—the lower (downslope) and earlier, possibly dating to the Iron IIA ...
[26]
What archaeological evidence supports the existence of King David ...
... radiocarbon of associated organic material centers on 1000-960 BC. Mazar correlates the complex with “the palace of David” (2 Samuel 5:11). Stepped Stone ...
[27]
Finkelstein, I. 2022. The Iron Age Complex in the Ophel, Jerusalem ...
Excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem have revealed some of the most elaborate Iron Age remains in the city. They are of great importance for reconstructing ...
[28]
What's New in Biblical Jerusalem? - Biblical Archaeology Society
Mar 26, 2025 · Biblical Jerusalem has revealed many secrets over the past decade. · The Stepped Stone Structure is identified by some with the biblical Millo (2 ...
[29]
The Jerusalem Millo and its Implications - Berean Insights
Kathleen Kenyon uncovered what Eilat Mazar now calls the Stepped Stone Structure. Kathleen Kenyon announced to the world that she had found the Millo of Solomon ...
[30]
King Joash and Jerusalem's Beit Millo - Biblical Archaeology Society
The Stepped Stone Structure, one of the proposed sites of the Millo. Credit: Nathan Steinmeyer. The new study, however, rejects this traditional ...
[31]
New Study Proposes Alternate Location for the Millo
Feb 11, 2022 · ... Stepped Stone Structure ... This theory is sure to generate academic debate as scholars seek to identify the enigmatic Millo in Jerusalem.
[32]
Lost Biblical Monument in Jerusalem Is in Plain Sight, New Theory ...
Nov 16, 2023 · Study suggests the monumental fortifications surrounding Jerusalem's Gihon Spring may be the enigmatic 'Millo' that the Bible claims Solomon built.
[33]
Locating Jerusalem's Millo - Biblical Archaeology Society
Nov 8, 2023 · The Millo is referenced in several places in the Hebrew Bible. We ... Stepped structure on the east side of the City of David. Following ...
[34]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03344355.2017.1357273
[35]
(PDF) Jerusalem, Bronze and Iron Age - Academia.edu
... Large Stone Structure of the Iron I. The ashlars and especially Bullae bearing Hebrew names from the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E. Zev Radovan / www ...
[36]
[PDF] The Monumentality of Iron Age Jerusalem Prior to the 8th Century BCE
Sep 13, 2017 · Even though the Stepped Stone structure did not function as a fortification, its massive nature demonstrates the existence of public.
[37]
Did David and Solomon's United Monarchy Exist? Vast Ancient ...
Nov 21, 2017 · "Minimalists" argue that the ruins have not been proved to be related to an Israelite kingdom, let alone one run by David or Solomon.