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Streptococcus pyogenes

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), is a Gram-positive, beta-hemolytic bacterium that grows in chains and is a major human-specific pathogen responsible for a wide spectrum of infections, from mild noninvasive conditions like pharyngitis and impetigo to severe invasive diseases such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.^[1] It is classified in the Lancefield group A based on its cell wall carbohydrate antigen, which consists of N-acetylglucosamine and rhamnose, and is identified by its beta-hemolysis on blood agar plates.^[2] The bacterium is facultative anaerobic, catalase-negative, and oxidase-negative, forming pinpoint colonies optimally in 5-10% CO₂-enriched environments.^[1] Key virulence factors of S. pyogenes include the M protein, a surface-anchored fibrillar structure with more than 200 serotypes that enables immune evasion and tissue adherence, contributing to its pathogenicity.^[3] The organism is transmitted primarily through person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets, direct contact with infected secretions like saliva or wound discharge, or less commonly through contaminated food or fomites, with no established animal reservoirs.^[2] Carriage in the throat or skin occurs asymptomatically in 5-20% of individuals, facilitating spread in close-contact settings like households or schools.^[1] Epidemiologically, S. pyogenes imposes a significant global burden, with over 600 million infections annually as of 2024, including approximately 1.8 million invasive infections—showing a post-pandemic increase—and over 500,000 deaths from GAS diseases, alongside an estimated 55 million prevalent cases of rheumatic heart disease from postinfectious sequelae.^[4]^[5]^[6] In the United States, it accounts for 15-30% of pediatric pharyngitis and 5-15% of adult cases each year, with invasive disease incidence varying by region but tracked nationally due to its potential for outbreaks.^[2] Postinfectious complications, such as acute rheumatic fever and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, further highlight its impact, particularly in low-resource settings where access to antibiotics is limited.^[1] Prevention relies on prompt antibiotic treatment of infections, hygiene measures to reduce transmission, and targeted prophylaxis for at-risk contacts.^[2]

Microbiology

Morphology and Physiology

Streptococcus pyogenes is a Gram-positive bacterium characterized by its coccus morphology, appearing as spherical cells that typically arrange in pairs or chains due to division in one plane. Individual cells measure 0.6 to 1.0 μm in diameter and are non-motile and non-spore-forming. The bacterium is catalase-negative and coagulase-negative, distinguishing it from other cocci. It is encapsulated by a hyaluronic acid capsule, which contributes to immune evasion by inhibiting phagocytosis. On blood agar plates, S. pyogenes produces beta-hemolysis, resulting in clear zones around colonies due to complete lysis of red blood cells; this is mediated by oxygen-labile hemolysins such as streptolysin O and oxygen-stable streptolysin S. As a facultative anaerobe, it thrives in environments with or without oxygen, showing enhanced growth in 5–10% CO₂, and requires enriched media like blood agar for optimal cultivation. Growth is optimal at 37°C and pH 7.2–7.5, reflecting its adaptation as a human pathogen. Metabolically, S. pyogenes functions as a lactic acid bacterium, relying on fermentative pathways to generate energy; it primarily ferments glucose to lactic acid via homolactic fermentation using lactate dehydrogenase to regenerate NAD⁺. The bacterium produces several extracellular enzymes, including streptolysin O and S, which support its hemolytic capabilities and tissue invasion potential.

Genome and Genetics

The genome of Streptococcus pyogenes is a single circular chromosome typically ranging in size from 1.8 to 2.1 Mb, encoding approximately 1,700 to 1,900 protein-coding genes. This compact structure supports the bacterium's versatile pathogenic lifestyle, with an average of around 1,844 open reading frames (ORFs) detected across sequenced strains, including 1,752 protein-coding genes, 57 tRNAs, and 6 rRNAs. The GC content is consistently around 38.5%, contributing to a high coding density exceeding 85%, which reflects efficient genomic organization with minimal intergenic regions.^[7]^[8]^[9] Key reference strains have facilitated genomic studies of S. pyogenes. The first complete genome sequence was published in 2001 for the M1 serotype strain SF370, revealing a 1,852,442-bp chromosome with 1,752 predicted protein-encoding genes and an average GC content of 38.5%.^[10] Another widely used reference is the MGAS5005 strain (also M1T1 serotype), sequenced subsequently, with a genome size of 1,838,562 bp and similar genetic features, enabling comparative analyses of virulence and evolution.^[11] These milestones have supported over 10,000 S. pyogenes genome assemblies available in public databases as of 2025, highlighting the pathogen's genomic plasticity.^[12] The S. pyogenes genome is enriched with mobile genetic elements that drive variability and adaptation. These include transposons and insertion sequences (IS elements), with ten predicted transposons or IS elements dispersed across the SF370 genome, alongside seven additional mutated transposons.^[10] Pathogenicity islands, such as the RD2 island, further contribute to strain-specific traits by harboring virulence-associated genes, though their exact roles vary by isolate.^[13] Prophages and phage-like chromosomal islands (SpyCIs) represent additional mobile components, integrating at specific sites to influence genetic diversity.^[14] Genetic diversity in S. pyogenes is pronounced, particularly in the emm gene locus, which encodes the M protein and serves as a marker for more than 275 emm types.^[15] These emm types correlate with tissue tropism, where certain patterns (e.g., A-C) predominate in pharyngeal infections and others (e.g., E) in skin and soft tissue infections, reflecting evolutionary adaptations to host niches.^[16]^[17] This diversity, combined with horizontal gene transfer via mobile elements, underpins the bacterium's epidemiological success and variable disease manifestations.^[18]

Serotyping and Classification

Streptococcus pyogenes belongs to Lancefield serological group A, a classification established by Rebecca Lancefield in the 1930s based on the detection of a specific group-specific carbohydrate antigen in the bacterial cell wall, known as the C-polysaccharide.^[3] This antigen is shared among all S. pyogenes strains and distinguishes them from other beta-hemolytic streptococci, enabling rapid identification via serological or latex agglutination tests.^[19] Serotyping of S. pyogenes primarily relies on the M protein, a major surface virulence factor encoded by the emm gene, which exhibits significant antigenic variability. Traditional M protein serotyping used type-specific antisera to identify over 80 serotypes, but molecular methods sequencing the 5' end of the emm gene have expanded this to more than 275 distinct emm types, with over 1,600 subtypes defined by single nucleotide polymorphisms or insertions/deletions within a 180-base pair hypervariable region.^[15]^[19] Among invasive infections, emm1 (M1) and emm3 (M3) types predominate globally, often accounting for 20-40% of cases in surveillance studies from Europe and North America.^[20] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) maintains a public emm-typing database that catalogs these sequences and facilitates the assignment of new types based on <92% identity in the first 30 codons of the mature M protein.^[15] T protein typing serves as a complementary serological method for epidemiological tracking, particularly for strains with ambiguous M typing or in resource-limited settings. T antigens are trypsin-resistant surface proteins forming pilus-like structures encoded in the fibronectin-collagen T antigen (fct) region, with approximately 21 recognized T types identified through agglutination assays using specific antisera; many strains express multiple T types (e.g., T3/13/B3264).^[19] This typing correlates with fct region variants, such as FCT-3 and FCT-4, which are the most prevalent, aiding in outbreak investigations where M typing alone is insufficient.^[19] For higher-resolution phylogenetic analysis, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) examines sequence variations in seven housekeeping genes (gki, gtr, murI, mutS, recP, xpt, yqiL), assigning sequence types (STs) to reveal clonal relationships; over 100 STs have been identified, with most emm types associating stably with specific STs (sharing ≥5 alleles).^[21] Whole-genome MLST (cgMLST) extends this to thousands of loci, delineating subpopulations such as distinct sublineages within emm1 (e.g., M1 UK versus global) and emm89 clade 3, which emerged in the 2000s and shows geographic clustering in Europe and North America.^[22] These clades influence strain distribution, with clade 3 emm89 strains linked to increased invasive disease in specific regions, while broader emm type diversity reflects local epidemiological patterns tracked via integrated databases like PubMLST.^[22]^[23]

Virulence and Pathogenesis

Virulence Factors

Streptococcus pyogenes employs a diverse array of virulence factors that facilitate adhesion, immune evasion, tissue invasion, and modulation of host responses, enabling the bacterium to colonize and disseminate within the human host. These factors include surface-anchored proteins, secreted toxins and enzymes, and regulatory systems that coordinate their expression. Many of these elements interact with host tissues and immune components to promote pathogenesis. Recent studies have demonstrated that S. pyogenes can persist intracellularly in non-phagocytic epithelial cells and macrophages, contributing to immune evasion and chronic infections.^[24]^[25] Surface proteins play a critical role in initial host interaction and evasion of phagocytosis. The M protein, a coiled-coil dimer anchored to the bacterial cell wall via the LPXTG motif, exhibits antiphagocytic properties by binding human fibrinogen and complement inhibitors such as factor H, thereby inhibiting opsonization and phagocytosis by neutrophils and macrophages. This protein also mediates adhesion to host extracellular matrix components like fibronectin, contributing to tissue tropism. Lipoteichoic acid, a polymer of glycerol phosphate linked to the cell wall, enhances bacterial adhesion to epithelial cells by interacting with host fibronectin and other receptors, often in synergy with M protein and protein F. Cas9, known for its role in genome editing, has been identified as a virulence factor in S. pyogenes, promoting survival in human blood and adherence to host cells.^[1]^[26]^[1]^[24] Secreted toxins disrupt host cell integrity and amplify inflammatory responses. Streptolysin O (SLO), a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, forms pores in host cell membranes, leading to lysis of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and endothelial cells, while also facilitating the translocation of other virulence factors like NADase to evade immune detection. Streptolysin S (SLS), a smaller hemolysin, similarly lyses cells without requiring cholesterol and contributes to tissue necrosis during invasive infections. Superantigens, such as streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA), which is often encoded by prophages, bind simultaneously to major histocompatibility complex class II molecules and T-cell receptors, causing massive cytokine release and systemic effects like toxic shock. Recent research has identified novel superantigens SpeQ and SpeR, which further enhance T-cell activation and inflammatory responses.^[25]^[27]^[25]^[24] Enzymes secreted by S. pyogenes promote bacterial spread and nutrient acquisition. Hyaluronidase degrades hyaluronic acid in the extracellular matrix, reducing viscosity and enabling bacterial dissemination through tissues, with variants like HylA prominent in certain serotypes. Streptokinase activates host plasminogen to plasmin, which degrades fibrin clots and extracellular matrix proteins, facilitating escape from immune containment and enhancing invasiveness. Multiple DNases, such as Sda1, degrade DNA in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), preventing entrapment and killing of bacteria by the innate immune system.^[25]^[28]^[25] Immune modulation is further achieved through specific factors that impair host defenses. The C5a peptidase cleaves the complement-derived anaphylatoxin C5a, inhibiting chemotaxis of neutrophils to the infection site and reducing inflammation-mediated clearance. This enzyme, expressed on the bacterial surface, enhances survival during early colonization.^[1] Expression of these virulence factors is tightly regulated by two-component systems that sense environmental cues. The CovRS system, a major regulator, represses genes encoding hyaluronic acid capsule (has), streptolysin O (slo), and cysteine protease (speB) in response to magnesium ions and antimicrobial peptides, with mutations in covR leading to upregulated virulence and increased invasiveness. Other systems, such as RocA, modulate CovRS activity to fine-tune toxin production and capsule synthesis during infection. At least 13 two-component systems and numerous transcriptional regulators collectively control approximately 15% of the genome, adapting virulence to host niches.^[29]^[30]^[29]

Lysogeny and Phage Contribution

Streptococcus pyogenes, the causative agent of group A streptococcal infections, frequently harbors temperate bacteriophages that establish lysogeny by integrating into the bacterial genome as prophages. These phages, such as T12-like viruses, typically integrate at specific attachment sites, including the tmRNA gene or regions near DNA-binding proteins, allowing stable replication alongside the host chromosome.^[31] Genome analyses reveal that S. pyogenes strains carry between 1 and 8 prophages, which can constitute up to 14% of the total genome, significantly contributing to genetic diversity and strain-specific traits.^[32] In the reference strain SF370, four major prophage elements (Φ370.1 to Φ370.3 and SpyCIM1) account for approximately 10% of the genome, totaling around 130 kb of phage-derived DNA.^[33] Prophages encode key virulence factors that enhance the pathogenicity of S. pyogenes. Notable among these are superantigens such as SpeA, SpeC, and SpeL1, which are carried by lambdoid prophages and promote excessive T-cell activation, leading to cytokine storms in infections like scarlet fever and toxic shock syndrome. For instance, in the emergent M1UK clone, prophage integration leads to a 10-fold increase in SpeA production, contributing to recent outbreaks of scarlet fever as of 2024. Additionally, phages encode immune evasion proteins like SpeH and SpeJ, which interfere with phagocytosis and antibody-mediated clearance, further amplifying bacterial survival in the host. The M1T1 clone has acquired phage-encoded DNase (Sda1) for enhanced NET evasion. These phage-borne genes are often absent in non-lysogenic strains, underscoring their role in converting avirulent bacteria into potent pathogens.^[31]^[24]^[34]^[24] Lysogenic conversion by these prophages alters the host phenotype, most prominently by boosting toxin production and modulating metabolic pathways. For instance, integration of a prophage carrying speC can replace host promoters, increasing superantigen expression and thereby heightening inflammatory responses during infection.^[31] Experimental curing of all prophages from strain SF370 resulted in a 10% genome reduction and diminished DNase activity, confirming that lysogeny confers fitness advantages like enhanced extracellular enzyme production.^[33] The lifecycle of temperate phages in S. pyogenes involves a lysogenic state that can switch to lytic upon environmental stress, such as exposure to mitomycin C or interactions with host cells, leading to prophage excision, virion assembly, and bacterial lysis for dissemination.^[31] This induction mechanism ensures phage propagation while potentially lysogenizing nearby susceptible streptococci. Evolutionarily, phages drive horizontal gene transfer through transduction, exchanging virulence modules and antibiotic resistance genes across strains, which has shaped the diversification and adaptability of S. pyogenes populations over time.^[32] Such transfers, facilitated by shared genetic elements among streptococcal species, highlight the phages' pivotal role in pathogen emergence and epidemic potential.^[31]

Biofilm Formation

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), forms biofilms that contribute to its persistence in host environments. These biofilms are structured communities of bacterial cells embedded in an extracellular matrix, enabling adherence to surfaces and protection from host defenses and antimicrobials.^[35] The biofilm matrix of S. pyogenes primarily consists of extracellular DNA (eDNA), proteins, and polysaccharides. eDNA is released from lysed cells and provides structural integrity, while proteins such as M proteins anchor lipoteichoic acid (LTA) to the bacterial surface, facilitating matrix assembly. Polysaccharides, including hyaluronic acid capsules, form a glycocalyx that encases the community, with the hyaluronic acid capsule contributing to pilus formation and overall biofilm development; varying compositions across strains.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[24] Regulatory pathways governing biofilm formation include the LuxS quorum-sensing system and the CovRS two-component system. LuxS produces autoinducer-2 (AI-2), which coordinates population density-dependent behaviors, promoting biofilm development by regulating gene expression for matrix components. The CovRS system, a sensor kinase-response regulator pair, indirectly influences biofilm formation by modulating virulence factors and stress responses that support matrix production.^[38]^[39]^[40] Biofilm formation in S. pyogenes progresses through distinct stages: initial attachment, maturation, and dispersal. Reversible attachment occurs via adhesins like pili, allowing bacteria to bind abiotic or host surfaces; this transitions to irreversible attachment and microcolony formation. Maturation involves matrix expansion, creating a three-dimensional architecture with channels for nutrient diffusion. Dispersal follows, releasing cells to colonize new sites, often triggered by quorum-sensing signals.^[41]^[37]^[35] Clinically, S. pyogenes biofilms enhance antibiotic tolerance, contributing to treatment failures in recurrent infections such as chronic tonsillitis. The matrix impedes drug penetration, and persister cells within biofilms exhibit reduced metabolic activity, leading to persistence despite standard therapies. Biofilms are more prevalent in recurrent tonsillitis cases, underscoring their role in chronicity. Additionally, biofilms have been detected in approximately 33% of biopsies from patients with necrotizing soft tissue infections (NSTI), promoting bacterial persistence in severe invasive diseases.^[35]^[42]^[43]^[24] Strain variability affects biofilm characteristics, with M1 strains forming denser, more stable matrices compared to others like M3 or M41 types. This density correlates with enhanced adherence and persistence, though intra-serotype differences highlight strain-specific factors influencing biofilm architecture.^[36]^[35]^[44]

Epidemiology

Global Burden

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), imposes a substantial global health burden, with an estimated 700 million cases of GAS infections, including pharyngitis and skin infections, occurring annually worldwide.^[45] Additionally, approximately 18.1 million people suffer from severe GAS infections each year, including invasive diseases such as necrotizing fasciitis and bacteremia.^[46] These infections contribute to approximately 500,000 deaths globally per year, including around 163,000 from invasive cases and 360,000 from post-infectious sequelae like rheumatic heart disease (RHD).^[46]^[6] The burden is disproportionately borne by low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where limited access to healthcare exacerbates outcomes. RHD alone, a major post-streptococcal complication, affects over 55 million people and causes around 360,000 deaths annually (as of 2021), predominantly in these regions.^[6]^[47] Underreporting is prevalent in developing areas due to diagnostic limitations and inadequate surveillance systems, leading to underestimation of the true incidence.^[6]^[48] In high-income settings, the economic impact is significant, with healthcare and productivity costs for GAS-related illnesses, particularly acute pharyngitis and invasive infections, exceeding several billion dollars annually in the United States alone. Globally, the financial strain is even greater when considering treatment, hospitalization, and long-term management of complications. Historically, before the antibiotic era, scarlet fever—a GAS-associated illness—had mortality rates of 15-20%, making it a leading cause of childhood death in the 19th and early 20th centuries.^[49]^[50]

Transmission

Streptococcus pyogenes is primarily transmitted via respiratory droplets generated by individuals with pharyngitis or those who are asymptomatic carriers in the upper respiratory tract.^[51] This mode accounts for the spread of strains associated with respiratory infections, where close contact in enclosed spaces facilitates droplet dissemination.^[52] Asymptomatic pharyngeal carriage plays a key role, with prevalence rates of 15–20% among school-aged children in various populations.^[53] Carriage rates can reach up to 27–30% in pediatric settings during outbreaks, underscoring the potential for silent transmission.^[54] Direct contact with infected skin lesions or contaminated fomites contributes to transmission, especially for pyoderma and wound infections in crowded environments.^[55] The pathogen can persist on inanimate surfaces such as clothing, metal, or rubber for up to 13 days or even a month under favorable conditions, enabling indirect spread through touch.^[56] However, S. pyogenes is sensitive to desiccation and common disinfectants, limiting long-term environmental viability.^[57] Household transmission is notable, with secondary attack rates averaging 4.9% for linked cases among family members.^[58] Transmission is influenced by risk factors such as overcrowding, which promotes close contact and droplet exchange, and poor personal hygiene, including inadequate handwashing.^[51] Low socioeconomic conditions exacerbate these risks by increasing exposure opportunities.^[59] Incidence peaks seasonally in winter months, likely due to indoor crowding and reduced ventilation.^[60]

Recent Trends and Outbreaks

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, invasive group A Streptococcus (iGAS) infections caused by Streptococcus pyogenes have exhibited a marked resurgence globally, with cases increasing 2- to 5-fold in multiple regions from 2022 to 2025 compared to pre-pandemic baselines.^[61]^[62] In Europe, including the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, iGAS notifications rose sharply starting in late 2022, with pediatric cases in France and the UK reaching several-fold higher levels than equivalent pre-pandemic periods.^[63]^[61] Similarly, the United States reported a substantial uptick, with iGAS incidence more than doubling from 3.6 to 8.2 cases per 100,000 population from 2013 to 2022 and continuing to elevate into 2023-2025, particularly among adults aged 18-64.^[64]^[65]^[66] This surge has been driven in part by the emergence of hypervirulent clones, notably the M1UK sublineage of emm1 strains, which carry the speA2 phage-encoded gene for streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA), enhancing toxin production and associating with severe outcomes such as sepsis and toxic shock syndrome.^[67]^[68] The M1UK clone, characterized by 27 unique core genome SNPs and increased SpeA expression, expanded rapidly in the UK from 2022 onward and spread internationally, dominating invasive emm1 infections in regions like Europe, North America, and Australia by 2023-2024.^[69]^[70] The post-COVID-19 period has amplified these trends through disrupted population immunity, as non-pharmaceutical interventions reduced exposure to respiratory pathogens, leading to waning antibodies and a rebound in pediatric iGAS cases.^[71] Children aged 3-4 exposed to lockdowns showed significantly lower anti-Strep A antibody levels, contributing to heightened vulnerability and outbreaks of severe infections like scarlet fever and iGAS in school-aged groups.^[72] Regionally, surges in necrotizing fasciitis—a life-threatening iGAS manifestation—have been notable in the US and Spain during 2023-2024, with post-pandemic increases linked predominantly to S. pyogenes and higher case severity requiring intensive interventions.^[73]^[74] In Spain, pediatric iGAS cases escalated sharply in 2022-2023, with a disproportionate rise in aggressive forms including necrotizing fasciitis.^[74] Among Indigenous Australian communities, particularly Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations in northern regions, iGAS rates have remained hyperendemic, with ongoing increases in severe infections like rheumatic heart disease precursors reported through 2024.^[75]^[76] In response, public health agencies have intensified surveillance efforts since 2022, including the CDC's Active Bacterial Core surveillance system tracking iGAS trends and seasonal patterns into 2025, and WHO alerts prompting enhanced reporting across Europe and beyond to monitor clonal expansions and inform outbreak control. As of mid-2025, iGAS incidence remains elevated without major new outbreaks reported.^[66]^[77]^[78]^[66]

Clinical Manifestations

Non-Invasive Infections

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), commonly causes non-invasive infections that primarily affect the mucous membranes and superficial skin layers. These infections are typically mild and localized but can lead to significant morbidity if not managed appropriately. Among them, pharyngitis, or strep throat, represents the most frequent manifestation, particularly in children.^[79] Pharyngitis due to S. pyogenes presents with an abrupt onset of sore throat, fever often exceeding 38°C, pharyngeal erythema and swelling, and tender anterior cervical lymphadenopathy. Exudative tonsillitis with white patches may also occur, distinguishing it from viral causes in many cases. This infection accounts for 15–30% of acute pharyngitis episodes in children and 5–20% in adults, with higher incidence during late winter and early spring in temperate climates.^[80]^[79] Scarlet fever arises as a complication of S. pyogenes pharyngitis or wound infections when the bacterium produces erythrogenic toxins, such as streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA), which act as superantigens to trigger a hypersensitivity reaction. The hallmark is a diffuse, blanching, sandpaper-like erythematous rash that begins on the trunk and spreads to the extremities, often accompanied by circumoral pallor and Pastia's lines in skin folds. Additional features include a "strawberry tongue" with initial white coating followed by red, enlarged papillae, along with fever and sore throat. Historically, scarlet fever caused widespread epidemics in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with high mortality rates before the advent of antibiotics, though incidence has since declined dramatically; recent outbreaks have been reported in regions like the UK and China.^[81]^[82] Impetigo, also referred to as pyoderma when caused by S. pyogenes, is a superficial skin infection that manifests as erythematous papules progressing to pustules and then rupturing to form characteristic thick, golden-yellow or honey-colored crusts, predominantly on the face and extremities. It is highly contagious through direct contact and is especially prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, as well as among children aged 2–5 years in resource-limited settings, where environmental factors like overcrowding and poor hygiene contribute to its persistence. S. pyogenes accounts for a significant portion of non-bullous impetigo cases, often co-occurring with Staphylococcus aureus infections.^[83]^[84] The incubation period for most non-invasive S. pyogenes infections, such as pharyngitis and scarlet fever, is typically 2–5 days, while impetigo may take around 10 days. These infections are generally self-limiting, resolving within 3–7 days without antibiotics in the majority of cases, though symptomatic individuals remain contagious via respiratory droplets or direct contact for up to 2–3 weeks if untreated, emphasizing the importance of early intervention to curb transmission.^[85]^[82]^[85] Untreated non-invasive infections carry a risk of progression to post-infectious autoimmune conditions, with approximately 0.3–3% of susceptible individuals developing acute rheumatic fever following S. pyogenes pharyngitis due to molecular mimicry between bacterial antigens and host tissues. Prompt antibiotic therapy significantly mitigates this risk.^[86]

Invasive Infections

Invasive infections by Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), arise when the bacterium disseminates from a superficial site into the bloodstream or deep tissues, resulting in life-threatening systemic conditions such as sepsis, tissue necrosis, and multi-organ dysfunction.^[87] These infections are characterized by rapid progression, often within hours to days, and are driven by bacterial virulence factors including exotoxins and enzymes that facilitate tissue invasion and immune dysregulation.^[87] Unlike localized infections, invasive forms require immediate medical intervention, with outcomes influenced by early recognition and host factors.^[87] Bacteremia occurs when S. pyogenes enters the bloodstream, frequently leading to sepsis and septic shock with symptoms including high fever, hypotension, and organ hypoperfusion.^[87] It often originates from skin or soft tissue breaches and is associated with mortality rates of 20-30%, particularly in cases complicated by comorbidities.^[88] Prompt antibiotic therapy and supportive care are essential, though delays can exacerbate shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation.^[87] Necrotizing fasciitis, commonly referred to as the "flesh-eating" disease, involves rapid destruction of subcutaneous tissues and fascia due to bacterial spread along tissue planes, presenting with severe pain disproportionate to visible skin changes, followed by swelling, bullae, and necrosis.^[89] Initial signs include erythema and tenderness, progressing to dusky discoloration and crepitus within 24-48 hours, necessitating emergent surgical debridement to remove necrotic tissue and halt progression.^[89] Mortality ranges from 15-20% in recent series, though rates can exceed 70% without timely intervention.^[89] Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) manifests as acute hypotension, fever, and multi-organ failure, often superimposed on invasive soft tissue infections, triggered by superantigens such as streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins that cause massive cytokine release and systemic inflammation.^[90] Clinical features include rash, myalgias, vomiting, and rapid deterioration to renal or respiratory failure, with isolation of S. pyogenes from a sterile site required for diagnosis.^[90] Mortality rates for STSS are 30-70%, reflecting the severity of shock and tissue injury.^[90] Pneumonia and empyema due to S. pyogenes typically occur as superinfections following viral respiratory illnesses, leading to lobar consolidation, pleural effusion with pus accumulation, and respiratory distress.^[91] These are particularly severe in the elderly, with empyema complicating up to 40% of cases and requiring drainage alongside antibiotics.^[87] Mortality approaches 38% in affected adults, driven by delayed diagnosis and underlying frailty.^[87] Individuals at highest risk for invasive S. pyogenes infections include the immunocompromised, such as those with diabetes or HIV, and the elderly, who face elevated susceptibility due to weakened barriers and immune responses.^[87] Incidence has risen notably from 2022 to 2025, reaching 5-10 cases per 100,000 population in certain regions, coinciding with post-pandemic epidemiological surges in adults over 65.^[66]

Post-Infectious Complications

Post-infectious complications of Streptococcus pyogenes infections arise from aberrant immune responses rather than direct bacterial invasion, leading to autoimmune sequelae that can manifest weeks to months after the initial infection. These disorders, including acute rheumatic fever (ARF), post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN), and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS), result from molecular mimicry where host antibodies cross-react with self-tissues, causing inflammation in distant organs such as the heart, kidneys, and brain.^[92]^[93] Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a multisystem inflammatory disease primarily affecting children aged 5-15 years, occurring 1-5 weeks after untreated group A streptococcal pharyngitis. It features carditis, which involves inflammation of the heart valves and myocardium and is the most serious manifestation, potentially leading to rheumatic heart disease (RHD) with valvular damage; polyarthritis, presenting as migratory joint pain; and Sydenham's chorea, characterized by involuntary movements and emotional lability. Diagnosis relies on the modified Jones criteria, which require evidence of preceding streptococcal infection plus two major criteria (e.g., carditis, chorea) or one major and two minor criteria (e.g., fever, elevated acute-phase reactants). The risk of ARF following streptococcal pharyngitis is 0.3-3%, influenced by strain virulence and host genetic factors such as HLA class II alleles.^[93]^[94]^[95] Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) develops 1-3 weeks after pharyngitis or impetigo caused by nephritogenic strains of S. pyogenes, such as serotype M49, and presents with acute nephritic syndrome including hematuria (often gross, cola-colored urine), periorbital and lower extremity edema, hypertension, and mild proteinuria or oliguria. It results from immune complex deposition in the glomerular mesangium, triggering complement activation and inflammation, with most cases resolving spontaneously but a subset progressing to chronic kidney disease. Nephritogenic strains like M49 are characterized by specific virulence factors, including the production of nephritis-associated plasmin receptor (NAPlr), which binds plasminogen and contributes to glomerular injury.^[96]^[97]^[98] Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS) involve sudden-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms, motor and vocal tics, anxiety, and behavioral changes in children, typically following group A streptococcal infection. These manifestations are linked to anti-basal ganglia antibodies that cross-react with neuronal antigens in the striatum, disrupting dopamine signaling and leading to neuropsychiatric symptoms, with antibody titers correlating with symptom severity. PANDAS is diagnosed based on abrupt onset, temporal association with streptococcal infection, and neurological exam findings, though it remains controversial due to diagnostic challenges.^[99]^[100]^[101] The underlying mechanism for these complications is molecular mimicry, particularly involving antibodies against the S. pyogenes M protein, a surface virulence factor, which share epitopes with host tissues such as cardiac myosin in ARF, glomerular proteins in PSGN, and basal ganglia antigens in PANDAS, leading to autoimmune tissue damage. This cross-reactivity is exacerbated by superantigens like streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins, which amplify T-cell responses and cytokine production.^[92]^[102] Globally, these post-infectious sequelae impose a significant burden, with rheumatic heart disease (RHD)—a sequela of recurrent ARF—causing approximately 360,000 deaths annually, predominantly in children under 15 years in low- and middle-income countries where access to antibiotics and diagnostics is limited. An estimated 55 million people live with RHD, highlighting the need for targeted interventions in endemic regions.^[6]^[103]

Diagnosis

Laboratory Methods

The primary samples for direct detection of Streptococcus pyogenes in clinical settings are throat swabs, which are the gold standard for diagnosing non-invasive infections such as pharyngitis, and blood cultures for invasive infections like bacteremia or necrotizing fasciitis.^[104]^[105] Throat swabs should be collected from the posterior pharynx and tonsillar areas using a sterile swab to maximize yield, while blood cultures require multiple sets from different sites to detect bacteremia effectively.^[104]^[106] Culture remains a cornerstone of laboratory identification, with throat swabs or other specimens inoculated onto 5% sheep blood agar plates and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 18–24 hours.^[104] S. pyogenes typically forms small, translucent colonies exhibiting beta-hemolysis, characterized by complete clearing of the blood around the colonies due to the production of streptolysin O and S.^[104]^[2] Presumptive identification is achieved through the bacitracin sensitivity test, where S. pyogenes shows inhibition of growth around a bacitracin disk, distinguishing it from other beta-hemolytic streptococci with high specificity.^[104] The overall sensitivity of culture approaches 90–95% when proper sampling and processing techniques are employed.^[104] Gram staining provides a rapid preliminary assessment, particularly from throat swabs or pus, revealing chains of Gram-positive cocci measuring 0.5–1.0 μm in diameter.^[104]^[2] This morphology, combined with the absence of spores and motility, supports the initial suspicion of streptococcal infection, though it lacks specificity for S. pyogenes alone and is often followed by culture or molecular confirmation.^[104] Molecular techniques offer faster alternatives for direct detection. Rapid antigen detection tests (RADT) target group A carbohydrate antigens in throat swabs, providing results in 5–10 minutes with a specificity of approximately 95% but sensitivity ranging from 58% to 96%, depending on the assay and population.^[104]^[107] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays enhance sensitivity and can target conserved regions such as the 16S rRNA gene for genus-level detection or the spy gene (encoding a surface protein) for species-specific identification of S. pyogenes directly from clinical samples.^[104]^[108] A key limitation of RADT is the potential for false negatives due to its variable sensitivity, which is more pronounced in low-prevalence settings where the negative predictive value remains high but backup throat culture is recommended to confirm negative results and avoid missing infections.^[104]^[109] Culture, while highly accurate, requires 24–48 hours, highlighting the need for integrated approaches combining rapid and confirmatory methods in clinical practice.^[104]

Serological Tests

Serological tests for Streptococcus pyogenes detect antibodies produced by the host immune response to streptococcal antigens, aiding in the confirmation of prior infection, particularly in post-infectious complications such as acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN). These assays are indirect, measuring humoral immunity rather than the presence of the bacterium itself, and are especially useful when direct detection methods like culture are negative due to the timing of sample collection.^[104] The antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer measures antibodies against streptolysin O, a hemolysin produced by S. pyogenes. Antibody levels typically rise 1-3 weeks after infection, peaking at 3-6 weeks, and remain elevated for several months. A titer exceeding 200 IU/mL is considered diagnostic for ARF in appropriate clinical contexts, though upper limits of normal vary by age (e.g., 240-320 Todd units for children aged 6-15 years). ASO is less reliable for skin infections like pyoderma, where the antibody response may be weak.^[104]^[110] Anti-DNase B testing detects antibodies to deoxyribonuclease B, another extracellular enzyme of S. pyogenes. This assay is more specific for skin infections and tends to persist longer than ASO titers, appearing around 2 weeks post-infection and peaking at 6-8 weeks, with an upper limit of normal around 640 units for children aged 6-15 years. It complements ASO by providing higher sensitivity for impetigo-associated sequelae.^[104]^[110] The Streptozyme test is a slide agglutination assay that simultaneously detects antibodies to multiple S. pyogenes antigens, including streptolysin O, DNase B, hyaluronidase, NADase, and streptokinase. It offers broad screening for prior infection but has variable specificity and standardization compared to individual ASO or anti-DNase B tests, with sensitivity comparable but not superior.^[111]^[104] In diagnosing post-infectious complications, serological evidence requires demonstration of a fourfold rise in ASO or anti-DNase B titers between acute and convalescent samples, or persistently elevated levels above age-specific norms, confirming antecedent S. pyogenes infection in ARF or PSGN. Combining ASO and anti-DNase B increases diagnostic sensitivity to approximately 95%.^[104]^[110] These tests have limitations, including cross-reactivity with antigens from other streptococcal species (e.g., groups C and G for ASO), which can lead to false positives. They are not suitable for acute diagnosis, as antibodies develop weeks after infection, and normal baseline titers in some populations may complicate interpretation.^[104]^[110]

Treatment

Antibiotic Therapy

The primary treatment for non-invasive infections caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, such as pharyngitis, is penicillin G or amoxicillin, administered orally for 10 days to achieve high cure rates exceeding 90%. For children, typical dosing includes amoxicillin at 50 mg/kg/day (maximum 1,000 mg/day) divided into two or three doses, or penicillin V at 250 mg two to three times daily; adults receive amoxicillin 500 mg two to three times daily or penicillin V 500 mg two to four times daily.^[112]^[85]^[80] Intramuscular benzathine penicillin G is an alternative for patients unlikely to complete oral therapy, providing equivalent efficacy with a single dose of 600,000 units for children under 27 kg or 1.2 million units for those over 27 kg.^[112] For penicillin-allergic patients without anaphylaxis history, first-generation cephalosporins like cephalexin (25-50 mg/kg/day in children, maximum 4 g/day; 500 mg four times daily in adults) for 10 days are recommended as alternatives, offering comparable bacteriologic cure rates to penicillin.^[112] In toxin-mediated diseases, such as scarlet fever or recurrent pharyngitis, clindamycin (20 mg/kg/day divided into three doses, maximum 1.8 g/day) is preferred due to its ability to suppress toxin production, often used for 10 days.^[112] The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines stress completing the full 10-day course to prevent post-infectious complications like acute rheumatic fever.^[112]^[85] Invasive infections, including bacteremia, necrotizing fasciitis, and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, require intravenous high-dose penicillin G (2-4 million units every 4-6 hours) combined with clindamycin (600-900 mg every 8 hours) to rapidly eradicate bacteria and inhibit exotoxin synthesis; susceptibility testing is advised given rising clindamycin resistance.^[113]^[114] This combination therapy continues until clinical improvement, typically followed by oral transition for a total duration of 10-14 days or longer based on source control.^[113] Adjunctive supportive care, including intravenous fluids for hydration, analgesics for pain management, and anti-inflammatory agents as needed, complements antibiotic therapy to address symptoms and maintain hemodynamic stability across infection severities.^[85]^[113]

Management of Complications

Management of complications from Streptococcus pyogenes infections focuses on supportive and specialized interventions to address severe invasive diseases and post-infectious sequelae, aiming to mitigate organ damage, prevent progression, and promote recovery. For invasive conditions like necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS), rapid intervention is critical, while post-infectious complications such as acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) require targeted prophylaxis and monitoring to avert long-term morbidity. In necrotizing fasciitis, the cornerstone of management is urgent surgical debridement to remove necrotic tissue and halt bacterial spread, often necessitating multiple procedures in the initial days.^[89] Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may be considered as an adjunct in select cases, particularly when extensive tissue involvement persists despite surgery, as it can enhance oxygenation in hypoxic areas and potentially reduce the need for additional debridements, though evidence is limited to observational studies without randomized trials confirming efficacy specifically for S. pyogenes-associated cases.^[115] For STSS, which involves profound shock and multi-organ dysfunction driven by superantigen-mediated cytokine storms, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) at a dose of 1-2 g/kg is administered early to neutralize superantigens and modulate the inflammatory response, potentially improving survival when combined with supportive care.^[116] Vasopressors, such as norepinephrine, are employed to maintain hemodynamic stability in patients with refractory hypotension following initial fluid resuscitation.^[117] ARF management includes anti-inflammatory agents like high-dose aspirin to control fever, joint pain, and carditis during the acute phase, typically for 4-8 weeks or until symptoms resolve.^[118] To prevent recurrent episodes and progression to rheumatic heart disease (RHD), secondary prophylaxis with intramuscular benzathine penicillin G is recommended every 3-4 weeks for 5-10 years, depending on the presence of carditis, age, and risk of exposure; as of July 10, 2025, a voluntary recall affects specific lots of Bicillin L-A, so current availability should be verified, with oral penicillin V twice daily as an alternative.^[118] PSGN treatment is primarily supportive, emphasizing fluid and salt restriction, diuretics for edema, and antihypertensives to manage hypertension, with most cases resolving spontaneously within weeks to months.^[98] Dialysis is indicated in severe cases with oliguric renal failure or electrolyte imbalances, but over 90% of patients recover fully without specific interventions targeting the glomerulonephritis itself, as antibiotics do not alter the course once immune-mediated damage is established.^[98] Ongoing monitoring for RHD sequelae involves regular echocardiography to detect subclinical valve involvement, using criteria such as pathological regurgitation with morphological features like valve thickening, to guide prophylaxis duration and intervention timing.^[119] Long-term follow-up with periodic clinical assessments and imaging is essential to identify progression and manage complications like heart failure.^[119]

Antimicrobial Resistance

Streptococcus pyogenes exhibits several patterns of antimicrobial resistance, primarily to non-β-lactam antibiotics, though rare resistance to β-lactams has emerged. The bacterium is intrinsically susceptible to penicillin and other β-lactams, but acquired resistance to tetracycline is common, mediated by the tetM gene, which encodes a ribosomal protection protein that prevents tetracycline binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit.^[120] This resistance is widespread, with rates reaching 64% in recent Turkish isolates and up to 87% in some Asian populations.^[121]^[122] Resistance to macrolides and clindamycin affects 5-20% of strains globally, though rates vary regionally, with higher prevalence in Asia (up to 95% in China) and parts of Europe (30-40% in Spain and Turkey); in the US, nonsusceptibility to macrolides and clindamycin in invasive infections has increased to approximately 33% as of 2025.^[122]^[121]^[66] Key mechanisms include ribosomal modification by erm genes, such as ermB, which methylates the 23S rRNA to block macrolide and clindamycin binding, and efflux pumps encoded by msrD and mef(A), which expel the antibiotic from the cell.^[120] These resistance determinants often spread via phage-mediated horizontal gene transfer or integrative conjugative elements, facilitating rapid dissemination among strains.^[120] Beta-lactam resistance remains rare, occurring in less than 1-2% of isolates worldwide, primarily due to nonsynonymous mutations in the pbp2x gene that reduce penicillin-binding protein affinity for β-lactams; such mutations are geographically widespread but appear to be increasing in Asia and Africa, as evidenced by elevated minimum inhibitory concentrations in recent isolates, though full susceptibility persists in most regions.^[123]^[122]^[124] Surveillance data as of 2025 highlight concerning trends, with macrolide and clindamycin resistance exceeding 30% in outbreaks across Europe, Asia, and the US, including rates up to 40% in Belgian and Turkish strains linked to epidemic emm types like 1 and 12.^[121]^[125]^[126] These patterns underscore clinical implications, particularly for penicillin-allergic patients relying on macrolides or clindamycin as alternatives, and for invasive infections where clindamycin is essential for toxin suppression, contributing to treatment failures in non-invasive and severe cases.^[127] Consequently, routine antimicrobial susceptibility testing is recommended to guide therapy, especially in high-resistance regions, to mitigate risks of persistent or recurrent infections.^[122]

Prevention and Vaccine Development

Public Health Measures

Public health measures for controlling the spread of Streptococcus pyogenes emphasize infection control practices, targeted screening, prophylactic interventions, surveillance, and community education to mitigate disease burden without relying on vaccines.^[128] Infection control strategies focus on basic hygiene and isolation protocols to interrupt transmission, particularly in healthcare and community settings. Hand hygiene, including frequent washing with soap and water or use of alcohol-based sanitizers, is a cornerstone measure, as it significantly reduces the risk of person-to-person spread through respiratory droplets or contact with contaminated surfaces.^[129] In outbreak scenarios, such as clusters in long-term care facilities or schools, patient isolation or cohorting of infected individuals is recommended to prevent further transmission, alongside enhanced environmental cleaning.^[130] During surges in community transmission, temporary school closures have been implemented in affected areas to curb intense spread among children, where S. pyogenes pharyngitis circulates rapidly.^[131] Screening programs target high-risk populations to detect asymptomatic carriage or early infection, enabling timely intervention. Routine throat cultures are advised for close contacts of individuals with rheumatic fever, particularly in endemic regions, to identify and treat carriers who could perpetuate outbreaks or post-infectious complications.^[132] These efforts are prioritized in communities with elevated rheumatic fever incidence, where active case finding through swabbing schoolchildren has proven effective in reducing disease progression.^[133] Prophylactic antibiotic administration is a key strategy for preventing secondary cases among vulnerable groups. For household contacts of patients with invasive S. pyogenes infections, intramuscular benzathine penicillin G is commonly recommended as a single-dose prophylaxis to eradicate potential carriage and lower the risk of invasive disease, ideally administered within 24 hours of case identification.^[134] This approach is supported by evidence showing reduced secondary attack rates in close contacts, though it is not universally mandated due to varying regional guidelines.^[135] Surveillance systems play a critical role in monitoring S. pyogenes epidemiology and informing public health responses. The CDC's Active Bacterial Core surveillance and ABCs networks track invasive group A streptococcal disease incidence, while global efforts through WHO collaborations focus on emm typing to identify dominant strains and emerging resistance patterns.^[66] These systems enable real-time detection of outbreaks, such as shifts in emm type prevalence, and guide targeted interventions like enhanced prophylaxis in high-risk areas.^[136] Antimicrobial resistance surveillance, integrated into these networks, tracks macrolide and other resistances to adjust empirical treatment recommendations.^[137] Educational campaigns in endemic areas promote early recognition and antibiotic treatment of S. pyogenes pharyngitis to avert acute rheumatic fever. Community and school-based initiatives emphasize symptoms like sore throat and fever, encouraging prompt medical evaluation and adherence to a full 10-day antibiotic course, which has been shown to decrease rheumatic fever incidence by up to 70% in high-burden settings.^[138] These programs, often led by health authorities, also stress hygiene practices to foster behavioral changes that sustain long-term control.^[139]

Vaccine Candidates

Development of vaccines against Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), has spanned over a century, but progress has been hampered by the bacterium's antigenic diversity and safety concerns. In the 1970s, early clinical trials of M protein-based vaccines demonstrated up to 89% efficacy against homologous strains in challenge studies, but they failed to provide broad protection due to type-specific immunity and raised fears of autoimmune reactions linked to molecular mimicry, leading to a regulatory halt by the FDA in 1977.^[140]^[141] Current vaccine candidates target conserved antigens to overcome S. pyogenes antigenic variation, focusing on epitopes less prone to immune evasion. The J8 peptide, derived from a conserved C-terminal region of the M protein, elicits opsonic antibodies that promote phagocytosis without triggering cross-reactive autoimmunity, as shown in preclinical models where J8-DT conjugates protected mice against multiple serotypes. A phase 1 trial initiated in 2024 evaluates the safety and immunogenicity of J8 conjugated to the K4S2 peptide in healthy adults, aiming for broad mucosal immunity.^[142]^[143] Similarly, the C5a peptidase (SCPA), a surface enzyme that cleaves complement C5a to evade phagocytosis, serves as a conserved target; immunization with SCPA enhances bacterial clearance in murine models of nasopharyngeal infection and has been incorporated into multicomponent formulations for cross-protection.^[144]^[145] Multivalent vaccines address M protein diversity by including epitopes from multiple serotypes. The 26-valent M protein vaccine, developed using N-terminal fragments to minimize mimicry risks, advanced to phase 1/2 trials in the early 2000s, inducing type-specific opsonic antibodies in adults without adverse cardiac events. This approach evolved into the 30-valent vaccine (StreptAnova), which completed phase 1 in 2020, demonstrating strong immunogenicity and tolerability in humans, covering over 90% of global circulating strains.^[145]^[146] Key challenges in GAS vaccine development include the M protein's hypervariable N-terminal domain, which undergoes antigenic variation to escape host immunity, and the risk of molecular mimicry where M epitopes resemble cardiac proteins, potentially exacerbating rheumatic heart disease. However, recent studies in rheumatic heart disease models indicate that modern candidates, including J8 and multivalent M protein vaccines, do not induce cross-reactive autoantibodies or cardiac inflammation. A 2025 study found no compelling evidence that vaccination with Streptococcus pyogenes group A carbohydrate elicits cross-reactive rheumatic fever autoantibodies, alleviating some safety concerns for GAC-based candidates.^[147]^[148]^[149] As of 2025, there are eight vaccine candidates in the development pipeline, including four based on M protein, coordinated by the Strep A Vaccine Advisory Committee (SAVAC) established in 2023 to guide global efforts toward a licensed vaccine.^[150]^[151] Fusion proteins and novel platforms continue to be explored for broader efficacy. The SpyAD adhesin, a conserved surface protein involved in host cell attachment, has been fused with other antigens like SCPA in multicomponent formulations such as the Spy7 vaccine, providing protection against skin and systemic infections in mice via enhanced opsonization.^[152] mRNA platforms have gained traction; a 30-valent M protein mRNA vaccine demonstrated immunogenicity in preclinical studies in rabbits in 2024, eliciting robust antibody responses, while a multicomponent mRNA-lipid nanoparticle formulation (Combo#5) targeting five conserved antigens demonstrated preclinical efficacy against diverse serotypes in 2025, offering scalable manufacturing and rapid adaptability.^[153]^[154]

Applications

Bionanotechnology

Streptococcus pyogenes components have found applications in bionanotechnology, particularly in nanomaterial synthesis and drug delivery systems. The hyaluronic acid (HA) from the bacterial capsule is a key biopolymer leveraged for nanoparticle fabrication in tissue engineering. Through microbial fermentation, S. pyogenes produces HA, which can be impregnated with silver nanoparticles (SNPs, 5–30 nm in size) to form HA/SNP composites. These composites exhibit strong antibacterial activity against pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while maintaining low endotoxin levels (0.04 EU/mL) and dose-dependent cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ of 0.25 mg/mL in MTT assays on fibroblast cells). This makes the material promising for biocompatible scaffolds that promote cell proliferation and prevent infections in tissue regeneration.^[155] Biofilm models utilizing S. pyogenes-derived extracellular matrices provide valuable platforms for evaluating antimicrobial coatings, especially in the context of chronic wound management. These models replicate the glycocalyx-rich structure of S. pyogenes biofilms, consisting of proteins, extracellular DNA, and polysaccharides, to test coating efficacy against biofilm persistence.^[156] A 2020 study on M protein-based vaccines delivered via high-density microarray patches showed robust humoral responses.^[157] Safety considerations in these applications emphasize the use of non-pathogenic or engineered strains to mitigate risks associated with wild-type S. pyogenes. Due to the pathogen's toxin production and infectivity, industrial HA synthesis has shifted to recombinant systems, such as Bacillus subtilis expressing the streptococcal has operon (hasA, hasB, hasC), achieving yields up to 0.72–6.8 g/L without endotoxins. Similarly, attenuated or heterologous hosts ensure safe scale-up for bionanomaterials, avoiding clinical hazards while preserving functional properties.^[158]^[159]

Genome Editing

The Cas9 endonuclease from Streptococcus pyogenes, known as SpyCas9, was identified as the first RNA-programmable CRISPR nuclease capable of precise DNA cleavage, marking a pivotal discovery in 2012 that enabled targeted genome editing.^[160] Derived from the type II CRISPR-Cas immune system of this bacterium, SpyCas9 functions by forming a complex with a guide RNA that directs it to complementary DNA sequences, where it induces double-strand breaks to facilitate subsequent repair mechanisms like non-homologous end joining or homology-directed repair. This breakthrough transformed SpyCas9 into the foundational tool for modern genome engineering, surpassing earlier nucleases in programmability and ease of use.^[160] A key feature of SpyCas9 is its requirement for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence of 5'-NGG-3', where N represents any nucleotide, which provides specificity by ensuring cleavage occurs only adjacent to this motif on the non-target DNA strand. This NGG PAM constraint limits targetable sites but enables high precision in double-stranded DNA cutting, as the enzyme's two nuclease domains (HNH and RuvC) coordinately cleave both strands ~3 base pairs upstream of the PAM. The PAM specificity has been instrumental in designing guide RNAs for accurate targeting, minimizing unintended cuts while allowing broad applicability across genomes.^[160] SpyCas9 has been widely applied for gene knockout in mammalian cells by introducing insertions or deletions (indels) at targeted loci via error-prone repair pathways, enabling loss-of-function studies and functional genomics. Pioneering demonstrations in human and mouse cells achieved efficient knockouts of multiple endogenous genes, establishing SpyCas9 as a versatile tool for reverse genetics. Additionally, its capacity for multiplex editing—simultaneously targeting several genes with distinct guide RNAs—has facilitated complex pathway dissections and high-throughput screening, as shown in early applications where up to four genes were edited concurrently without significant interference. To address off-target effects inherent in wild-type SpyCas9, engineered high-fidelity variants have been developed, incorporating mutations that stabilize the enzyme's interaction with on-target DNA while reducing non-specific binding. In the 2020s, advancements like the Sniper2L variant demonstrated near-undetectable off-target activity across diverse genomic contexts, maintaining robust on-target efficiency comparable to the original SpyCas9. These improvements, achieved through directed evolution and structural rational design, have enhanced the safety profile for therapeutic applications by minimizing unintended mutations.^[161]

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Feb 22, 2021 · Streptococcus pyogenes, (colloquially named “group A streptococcus” (GAS)), is a pathogen of public health significance, infecting 18.1 million ...
[55]
Seasonal variations and risk factors of Streptococcus pyogenes ...
Oct 19, 2022 · We assessed seasonal variations and risk factors of GAS pharyngitis and ICD-10-diagnosed necrotizing fasciitis.
[56]
Increase in Invasive Group A streptococcal infections ... - ECDC
Dec 12, 2022 · In France and the UK, the increase in iGAS cases observed in children has been several-fold higher than pre-pandemic levels for the equivalent ...
[57]
Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections in Europe After the COVID ...
In 2022, there was a notable rise in invasive group A streptococcal (iGAS) infections in many countries, including Germany.
[58]
Severe Group A Streptococcus Infection among Children, France ...
Aug 21, 2025 · Group A Streptococcus infections have increased in Europe since September 2022. The French Pediatric Intensive Care and French Pediatric ...
[59]
CDC study finds substantial US increase in invasive group A strep ...
Apr 8, 2025 · A surveillance study of 10 US states shows the incidence of invasive group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection more than doubled from 2013 through 2022.<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Increase in Invasive Group A Strep Infections, 2022-2023 | CDC
Based on preliminary 2022–2023 data, less severe group A strep infections in children have returned to levels similar to or higher than those seen in pre- ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Characterization of emergent toxigenic M1UK Streptococcus ...
Streptococcus pyogenes genotype emm1 is a successful, globally distributed epidemic clone that is regarded as inherently virulent. An emm1 sublineage, M1UK, ...Missing: severe | Show results with:severe
[62]
Invasive Group A Streptococcus Hypervirulent M1UK Clone ... - CDC
Oct 20, 2024 · The M1UK lineage is characterized by increased production of speA (streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A) and is differentiated from the M1global ...
[63]
Rapid expansion and international spread of M1 UK in the ... - Nature
May 10, 2024 · Core genome alignment was obtained by mapping trimmed reads of S. pyogenes genomes to MGAS5005 (GenBank accession: CP000017.2) reference ...
[64]
Emergence and Impact of the M1UK Lineage on Invasive Group A ...
We show that M1 UK is now the dominant invasive emm1 lineage in Aotearoa New Zealand and is genomically related to community infections.
[65]
Post-pandemic upsurge of group A streptococcus infections - NIH
The global reduction in microbial exposure during the COVID-19 lockdown has led to widespread depletion of trained immunity, weakening population-level defenses ...Missing: pediatric | Show results with:pediatric
[66]
COVID-19 linked to decline in immunity to life-threatening childhood ...
Oct 15, 2025 · They found that children aged 3-4 who were exposed to NPIs during the pandemic had significantly lower levels of antibodies to Strep A compared ...Missing: aftermath | Show results with:aftermath
[67]
Increase in Streptococcal Necrotizing Fasciitis During and After the ...
Mar 1, 2024 · This study highlights a notable increase in NF during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, predominantly associated with Streptococcus pyogenes-induced infections.
[68]
Sharp increase in the incidence and severity of invasive ...
In Spain, pediatric iGAS cases sharply increased during 2022-2023, with a remarkable increase in severity. Epidemiological surveillance of iGAS remains crucial.
[69]
Little-known strep bacteria behind growing number of severe ...
Oct 8, 2025 · An under-recognized strep bacterium is causing a growing number of serious infections in Australia, with First Nations Australians ...
[70]
Housing Initiatives to Address Strep A Infections and Reduce RHD ...
While further research is underway, Indigenous communities are taking action to prevent Strep A infections using the most pragmatic, evidence-informed ...
[71]
Group A Strep Disease Surveillance and Trends - CDC
Jul 8, 2024 · Globally. Globally, the burden from non-invasive group A strep infections is even greater. For example, the World Health Organization estimates ...
[72]
Increased incidence of scarlet fever and invasive Group A ...
Dec 15, 2022 · Group A Streptococcal (GAS) infection commonly causes mild illnesses such as tonsillitis, pharyngitis, impetigo, cellulitis and scarlet fever.
[73]
Changes in Group A Streptococcus emm Types Associated ... - CDC
Oct 3, 2023 · In December 2022, the World Health Organization issued an alert about increasing rates of invasive GAS (iGAS) infections in children in Europe ( ...Missing: enhanced | Show results with:enhanced
[74]
Epidemiology of Streptococcus pyogenes - NCBI - NIH
Oct 30, 2022 · Other factors identified as increasing transmission risk are nasal colonization and symptomatic status.
[75]
Streptococcal Pharyngitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 15, 2025 · It typically presents with a sudden onset of sore throat, fever, pharyngeal inflammation, and tender cervical lymph nodes.
[76]
Scarlet Fever - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
In some cases, the infection can recur. With the advent of antibiotics, the mortality rate for scarlet fever is now less than 1%. Morbidity is primarily ...
[77]
Streptococcus pyogenes Pharyngitis and Scarlet Fever - NCBI
Sep 5, 2022 · Sore throat is a frequently presenting complaint for outpatient medical visits, and infection with S. pyogenes is diagnosed in 20 to 40% of ...
[78]
Clinical Guidance for Group A Streptococcal Impetigo - CDC
Aug 5, 2025 · Impetigo (also called pyoderma) is a superficial bacterial skin infection caused by either S. pyogenes or S. aureus.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[79]
The Global Epidemiology of Impetigo: A Systematic Review of the ...
Aug 28, 2015 · We estimate the global population of children suffering from impetigo at any one time to be in excess of 162 million, predominantly in tropical, resource-poor ...Missing: symptoms | Show results with:symptoms
[80]
Clinical Guidance for Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis - CDC
Aug 5, 2025 · Group A strep pharyngitis is most common among children 5 through 15 years of age. It's rare in children younger than 3 years of age.Antibiotic Prescribing and Use · Scarlet Fever · Acute Rheumatic Fever
[81]
StreptInCor, a Group A Streptococcal Adsorbed Vaccine: Evaluation ...
... rheumatic fever and ... RF generally develops after the occurrence of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis and affects ~0.3–3% of susceptible individuals.Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[82]
Severe Streptococcus pyogenes Infections - NCBI - NIH
Sep 7, 2022 · These invasive infections are often associated with shock and multi-organ failure, features similar to those of severe staphylococcal toxic ...
[83]
The Shock of Strep: Rapid Deaths Due to Group a Streptococcus - NIH
Worldwide, the death toll is estimated at 500 000 annually (2). Those numbers include thousands of people who initially complained of a strep throat or injury- ...
[84]
Clinical Guidance for Type II Necrotizing Fasciitis | Group A Strep
Aug 5, 2025 · Initial signs and symptoms. It usually begins with pain in the affected area accompanied by. Erythema; Heat; Swelling; Tenderness. Visually ...
[85]
Toxic Shock Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Jan 2, 2025 · Mortality rates for streptococcal TSS are 30-70%. Morbidity ... streptococcal infections and the streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.Practice Essentials · Pathophysiology · Etiology · Epidemiology
[86]
Streptococcus pyogenes Pneumonia: A Rare and Severe Presentation in a Patient With Asthma
### Summary of S. pyogenes Pneumonia and Empyema in Vulnerable Groups (Elderly)
[87]
Molecular Mimicry, Autoimmunity, and Infection: The Cross-Reactive ...
Cross-reactive antigens are molecules on the group A streptococci that mimic host molecules and during infection or immunization induce an autoimmune response ...
[88]
Acute Rheumatic Fever - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
High-risk patients with a history of ARF have an estimated 50% recurrence rate of ARF following untreated GAS pharyngitis.[11] Globally, the reported ...
[89]
Acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease - PubMed Central
Acute rheumatic fever is diagnosed according to the Revised Jones Criteria and has a tendency to recur with subsequent group A streptococcal infections.
[90]
Rheumatic fever and its management - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Only a few people (0.3-3%) with acute streptococcal pharyngitis develop acute rheumatic fever. A genetic predisposition is certain. The presence of HLA class II ...
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A Comprehensive Review Study on Glomerulonephritis Associated ...
Dec 6, 2021 · Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is an immune-complex mediated inflammation that used to be considered one of the commonest causes of acute ...
[92]
Genome sequence of a nephritogenic and highly transformable M49 ...
The 1,815,783-bp genome of a serotype M49 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus [GAS]), strain NZ131, has been determined.
[93]
Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Oct 9, 2022 · When symptomatic, PSGN typically presents with features of the nephritic syndrome such as hematuria, oliguria, hypertension, and edema. Less ...Missing: nephritogenic M49
[94]
Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with ...
Jul 7, 2024 · PANDAS is marked by the sudden onset of various psychiatric, behavioral, cognitive, and physical symptoms, including but not limited to anxiety.
[95]
Antibodies From Children With PANDAS Bind Specifically to Striatal ...
Jun 16, 2020 · It has been suggested that PANDAS results from the postinfectious production of antibodies that target the basal ganglia, perhaps through the ...
[96]
Antibodies from children with PANDAS bind specifically to striatal ...
It has been suggested that PANDAS results from the post-infectious production of antibodies that target the basal ganglia, perhaps through the phenomenon of ...
[97]
Molecular Mimicry, Autoimmunity, and Infection: The Cross-Reactive ...
Human and murine antibodies cross-reactive with streptococcal M protein ... A new heart-cross-reactive antigen in Streptococcus pyogenes is not M protein.
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Global Disease Burden of Streptococcus pyogenes - NCBI - NIH
Aug 21, 2022 · The 2017 Global Burden of Disease study estimated that there are 8,400,750 cases of impetigo and 527,476,500 cases of scabies globally each year ...
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Laboratory Diagnosis of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A ... - NCBI
Sep 15, 2022 · When properly performed and interpreted, culturing throat swabs on a 5% sheep blood agar with trypticase soy base incubated in air remains the ...
[100]
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcal Disease or GAS)
This page provides information on emm typing of invasive or outbreak related Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes; GAS) at Public Health Ontario (PHO).
[101]
Group A Streptococcal (GAS) Infections Workup
Dec 12, 2024 · Culture of a single throat swab on a blood agar plate yields a sensitivity of 90-95% for the detection of group A streptococci (GAS) in the pharynx.
[102]
Diagnostic Accuracy of Group A Streptococcus Rapid Antigen ...
In a recent Cochrane review, the sensitivity and specificity of a GAS RADT in children with sore throat was 85.6% (95% CI: 83.3%–87.6%) and 95.4% (95% CI: 94.5% ...
[103]
Real-time polymerase chain reaction for microbiological diagnosis ...
The PCR targets were the lytA gene for S pneumoniae (21), the hpd gene for H influenzae (21), the nuc gene for S aureus (22), the spy gene for S pyogenes ...
[104]
Rapid antigen detection test for group A streptococcus in children ...
In children, the reported sensitivity of RADTs is about 85% (Gerber 2004), but varies greatly amongst studies (from 66% (Van Limbergen 2006) to 99% (Harbeck ...
[105]
https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Laboratory-Services/Test-Information-Index/Streptococcus-Pyogenes
[106]
Streptozyme test for antibodies to group A streptococcal antigens
The ability of the Streptozyme test to identify significant antibody rises in 46 patients with streptococcal pharyngitis was comparable to, but no greater than,
[107]
Streptococcal Pharyngitis - IDSA
Sep 1, 2012 · Penicillin or amoxicillin remain the treatments of choice, and recommendations are made for the penicillin-allergic patient, which now include ...
[108]
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections - IDSA
Jul 15, 2014 · Empiric antibiotic treatment should be broad (eg, vancomycin or linezolid plus piperacillin-tazobactam or a carbapenem; or plus ceftriaxone and ...
[109]
Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Skin and ...
When streptococci alone are the cause, penicillin is the drug of choice, with a macrolide or clindamycin as an alternative for penicillin-allergic patients.
[110]
Necrotizing fasciitis: pathogenesis and treatment - PubMed
Adjunctive clindamycin, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and intravenous immunoglobulin are frequently employed in the treatment of necrotizing fasciitis, but their ...
[111]
Intravenous Immunoglobulin G Therapy in Streptococcal Toxic ...
In this study, the patients received 3 infusions of IVIG with the highest dosage (1 g/kg body weight) provided at day 1, followed by 0.5 g/kg on days 2 and 3.Abstract · Subjects, Materials, and Methods · Results · Discussion
[112]
Toxic Shock Syndrome - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is an acute-onset illness characterized by fever, hypotension, sunburn-like rash, and end-organ damage.Continuing Education Activity · History and Physical · Treatment / Management
[113]
Clinical Guidance for Acute Rheumatic Fever | Group A Strep - CDC
Individuals with a history of acute rheumatic fever have an increased risk of recurrence with subsequent streptococcal infections. The risk of recurrence after ...
[114]
Rheumatic Heart Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Rheumatic heart disease causes at least 200000 to 250000 premature deaths every year. [6] It is also the major cause of cardiovascular death in children and ...Epidemiology · Pathophysiology · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
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Mechanisms of Streptococcus pyogenes Antibiotic Resistance - NCBI
Sep 19, 2022 · Streptococcus pyogenes, or group A streptococcus, is a major human pathogen that causes over 600 million infections and 517,000 deaths annually ...
[116]
Antimicrobial resistance and epidemiological patterns of ...
This study investigated the major S. pyogenes strains responsible for infections in Türkiye and their susceptibility to beta-lactam and macrolide antibiotics.
[117]
A Review of the Impact of Streptococcal Infections and Antimicrobial ...
Apr 15, 2024 · Major mechanisms are ribosomal target modifications encoded by erm genes, ribosomal alterations, and active efflux pumps that regulate ...
[118]
Reduced In Vitro Susceptibility of Streptococcus pyogenes to β ...
Reduced In Vitro Susceptibility of Streptococcus pyogenes to β-Lactam Antibiotics Associated with Mutations in the pbp2x Gene Is Geographically Widespread.
[119]
Pathogenesis, epidemiology and control of Group A Streptococcus ...
Mar 9, 2023 · Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus; GAS) is exquisitely adapted to the human host, resulting in asymptomatic infection, pharyngitis, pyoderma, ...Missing: physiology | Show results with:physiology
[120]
Antibiotic Treatment, Mechanisms for Failure, and Adjunctive ...
This review focuses on the challenges in the treatment of GAS infection, the mechanisms that contribute to antibiotic failure, and adjunctive therapeutics.Abstract · Group A Streptococcus Infections · Mechanisms for Treatment...
[121]
Public Health Response for Outbreaks | Group A Strep - CDC
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[122]
[PDF] GUIDE TO INFECTION CONTROL IN THE HEALTHCARE SETTING ...
Handwashing is one of the most important infection control practices for the prevention of spread of infection with Streptococcus pyogenes.
[123]
Group A Streptococcus | Infection Control - CDC
Jan 31, 2025 · Although rare, spread of GAS infections may also occur via food. Foodborne outbreaks of pharyngitis have occurred due to improper food handling, ...
[124]
Frequency of transmission, asymptomatic shedding, and airborne ...
Transmission of S pyogenes in schools is intense and might occur before or despite reported treatment of cases, underlining a need for rapid case management.Introduction · Results · DiscussionMissing: droplets | Show results with:droplets
[125]
Primary prevention of acute rheumatic fever - RACGP
Primary prevention involves the identification of Strep A infections and delivery of appropriate antibiotic treatment to prevent ARF (as distinct from ...
[126]
Active Case Finding for Rheumatic Fever in an Endemic Country
Jul 29, 2020 · We report the results of the first prospective epidemiologic survey to diagnose and characterize ARF at the community level in Africa.
[127]
Invasive group A streptococcal disease: Management and ... - NIH
Clindamycin, Second-line treatment: Children: 8 mg/kg to 16 mg/kg daily divided into three or four equal doses for 10 days (not to exceed maximum of adult dose) ...
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Effectiveness and Safety of Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Close Contacts ...
Nov 26, 2024 · Antibiotic prophylaxis is often recommended for close contacts of index cases of invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections.Abstract · Notes · References
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Streptococcus pyogenes emm Type 3.93 Emergence, the ... - CDC
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Prevalence and emm typing of multi-drug resistant Streptococcus ...
Jun 11, 2025 · While S. pyogenes is generally sensitive to many antibiotics, reports of increasing resistance to penicillin, the drug of choice are emerging ...
[131]
Research opportunities for the primary prevention and management ...
Oct 31, 2023 · Primary prevention of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) encompasses the timely diagnosis and adequate treatment ...
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First Presentation Acute Rheumatic Fever is Preventable in a ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Early antibiotic treatment has been shown to reduce the severity, duration, and transmission of GAS pharyngitis and, in high-risk settings ...
[133]
Status of research and development of vaccines for Streptococcus ...
Jun 3, 2016 · Vaccines against Streptococcus pyogenes are considered as impeded ... vaccines in the 1970s. Vaccine efficacy of up to 89% was ...
[134]
Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngitis elicits diverse antibody ... - Nature
Dec 3, 2024 · The last time the efficacy of an S. pyogenes vaccine was evaluated in humans was in 1970s challenge trials in which parenteral and mucosal ...
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Protection against Group A Streptococcus by Immunization with J8 ...
Protection against Group A Streptococcus by Immunization with J8-Diphtheria Toxoid: Contribution of J8- and Diphtheria Toxoid-Specific Antibodies to Protection.Abstract · Materials and Methods · Results · Discussion
[136]
A phase 1 randomized controlled trial of a peptide-based group A ...
Nov 19, 2024 · This Strep A vaccine clinical trial aims to investigate safety and immunogenicity of two novel conjugated peptide-based vaccines, J8-KS42 and p*17-K4S2.
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Immunization With C5a Peptidase From Either Group A or ... - PubMed
Immunization With C5a Peptidase From Either Group A or B Streptococci Enhances Clearance of Group A Streptococci From Intranasally Infected Mice · Abstract.
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The Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine landscape - Nature
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[139]
Engaging Broader Stakeholders to Accelerate Group A ... - NIH
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[140]
Challenges to developing effective streptococcal vaccines to prevent r
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[141]
Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidates do not induce ... - Nature
Feb 4, 2023 · We have developed a candidate vaccine to protect against multiple strains of Streptococcus pyogenes infections. The candidate vaccine ...
[142]
Recent Scientific Advancements towards a Vaccine against Group A ...
Peptide-based subunit vaccines use a minimal microbial antigenic peptide sequence derived from a pathogenic protein to stimulate adaptive immunity against a ...
[143]
Immunogenicity of a 30-valent M protein mRNA group A ...
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[144]
An mRNA vaccine encoding five conserved Group A Streptococcus ...
Jul 1, 2025 · Here, we evaluate the immunogenicity and preclinical efficacy of a multicomponent mRNA-LNP vaccine formulation based on the GAS vaccine, Combo#5.
[145]
Production, assessment, and impregnation of hyaluronic acid with ...
Jan 29, 2016 · In this research a bacterium with both abilities of HA and silver nanoparticles (SNPs) production was used; HA containing SNPs (HA/SNPs) was obtained.
[146]
3D Biofilm Models Containing Multiple Species for Antimicrobial ...
We established two 3D biofilm models to distinguish the effectiveness of wound dressings on important microorganisms present in chronic wounds.
[147]
Streptococcus pyogenes biofilms—formation, biology, and clinical ...
In this review we will discuss the current knowledge on GAS biofilm formation, the biofilm-phenotype associated virulence factors, regulatory aspects of biofilm ...
[148]
FbaA- and M protein-based multi-epitope vaccine elicits strong ...
It contains seven predominant epitopes of FbaA identified by phage display technology, five non-tissue cross-reactive M protein fragments expressed on four ...
[149]
M-protein based vaccine induces immunogenicity and protection ...
Aug 7, 2020 · We evaluated vaccination against Streptococcus pyogenes with the candidate vaccine, J8-DT, delivered by a high-density microarray patch (HD-MAP).Missing: phage nanoparticles
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Biotechnological production of hyaluronic acid: a mini review
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Genetic basis for hyper production of hyaluronic acid in natural and ...
Jul 1, 2016 · Microorganisms that naturally produce HA Some bacterial pathogens such as Pasteurella multocida and Gram-positive Streptococcus Group A and C ...
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A Programmable Dual-RNA–Guided DNA Endonuclease ... - Science
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Sniper2L is a high-fidelity Cas9 variant with high activity - Nature
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An acute rheumatic fever immune signature comprising ...
Aug 16, 2024 · Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a serious post-infectious, autoinflammatory consequence of a Streptococcal pyogenes (group A Streptococcus [GAS]) ...