Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Tail rotor

A tail rotor, also known as an anti-torque rotor, is a smaller, vertically oriented rotor mounted at the tail of a single-main-rotor helicopter, designed primarily to counteract the torque generated by the main rotor system and to provide directional control by adjusting the helicopter's yaw.^[1] This component is essential for maintaining stability during hover and low-speed flight, as the main rotor's rotation creates an opposing rotational force on the fuselage that would otherwise cause uncontrolled spinning.^[2] In typical designs, the tail rotor consists of two to five blades with adjustable pitch, driven by a tail rotor drive shaft connected to the main transmission, often via a right-angle gearbox to redirect power along the helicopter's tail boom.^[1] Pilots control its thrust by varying blade pitch through pedals, which modulates the sideways force to achieve precise heading changes or to compensate for torque variations during maneuvers.^[2] Design considerations include blade solidity (typically around 0.20 for optimal efficiency), tip speeds of 700–750 feet per second, and positioning to minimize interference from the main rotor wake or fuselage, with critical performance evaluated under conditions like 20-knot crosswinds from the right front.^[3] Advancements in tail rotor technology have focused on noise reduction, durability, and performance enhancement; for instance, NASA-developed airfoils like the RC(4)-10 provide zero pitching moment for smoother operation, while composite materials and swept-tip blades extend service life to 5,000 hours and cut noise by up to 40%.^[2] Alternatives to traditional exposed tail rotors include the Fenestron, a shrouded ducted fan for improved safety and reduced vulnerability to foreign object damage, and the NOTAR system, which uses engine exhaust and the Coanda effect for thrust without moving blades, providing up to 60% antitorque in hover.^[1] These innovations are particularly vital for applications in military, emergency, and high-altitude operations, where reliability under extreme conditions is paramount.^[2]

Purpose and Operation

Counteracting Main Rotor Torque

The primary function of the tail rotor in a single main rotor helicopter is to counteract the torque reaction generated by the main rotor system, preventing uncontrolled yaw rotation of the fuselage. According to Newton's third law of motion, which states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction, the main rotor's rotation—typically counterclockwise when viewed from above in conventional designs—produces a clockwise torque on the helicopter body. This torque effect arises as the engine applies force to drive the main rotor against aerodynamic drag, resulting in an equal and opposite rotational tendency on the fuselage. To neutralize this, the tail rotor generates a sideways thrust that produces an opposing torque, maintaining directional stability during hover and low-speed flight.^[4] The magnitude of the tail rotor thrust required for torque balance can be derived from the principle of angular momentum conservation applied to the helicopter's steady-state operation. The main rotor experiences a torque Q (in N·m) from the engine to maintain constant angular velocity \Omega against drag; by Newton's third law, this imparts an equal and opposite torque -Q to the fuselage. For equilibrium, the tail rotor must generate a counter-torque equal to Q. Since the tail rotor thrust T (in N) acts at a lever arm equal to the tail boom length r (in m), the balance condition is Q = r \cdot T, or rearranged, T = \frac{Q}{r}. This relationship ensures no net angular acceleration of the body about the vertical axis, as the total external torque on the system sums to zero in steady flight. The derivation follows from the rotational analog of Newton's second law, \tau = I \alpha, where for \alpha = 0 (no angular acceleration), \sum \tau = 0, balancing the main rotor reaction torque with the tail rotor moment.^[5] Power consumption by the tail rotor typically accounts for 5-10% of the total engine output in single-rotor helicopters during hover, as it must drive the blades to produce the necessary anti-torque thrust while overcoming its own drag. For example, in the Bell UH-1 Iroquois, a conventional single-engine utility helicopter, the tail rotor draws approximately 10% of engine power in a pure hover to balance the main rotor torque, reducing available power for lift generation. This allocation varies with flight conditions but underscores the efficiency trade-off inherent in tail rotor designs.^[6] Variations in altitude and forward speed influence the torque balance by altering air density and airflow over both rotors, requiring dynamic adjustments to tail rotor pitch. At higher altitudes, reduced air density (\rho) decreases the main rotor's lift efficiency, necessitating increased power input and thus higher torque Q, which demands greater tail rotor thrust; however, the tail rotor's smaller disk area makes it more sensitive to density changes, potentially requiring up to 20% more relative power for equivalent thrust. In forward flight, increasing speed introduces dissymmetry of lift on the main rotor, where the advancing blade generates more lift than the retreating one due to relative wind differences, but this is primarily managed by blade flapping rather than torque; for the tail rotor, forward speed creates its own dissymmetry, unevenly loading blades and inducing a minor rolling moment on the tail boom that indirectly affects yaw stability, though the net anti-torque thrust requirement remains tied to main rotor power. These effects highlight the need for pilot inputs to maintain balance, particularly in high-altitude or high-speed regimes.^[7]^[6]

Providing Directional Control

The tail rotor enables pilots to control the helicopter's yaw axis by varying the thrust it produces, primarily through anti-torque pedals that adjust the collective pitch of the tail rotor blades. These pedals, positioned on the cabin floor, allow the pilot to increase pitch for greater thrust in one direction—typically right pedal for nose-right yaw (thrust to the left)—or decrease it for the opposite effect, facilitating precise heading changes during hover or low-speed flight. This mechanism generates a horizontal thrust vector that rotates the fuselage about the vertical axis, independent of the main rotor's torque-counteracting baseline function.^[8] In flight dynamics, the tail rotor integrates with cyclic and collective controls to execute coordinated maneuvers, such as turns, where pedal inputs maintain heading while the cyclic tilts the main rotor disc for lateral movement. The yaw response is generally rapid and proportional to pedal deflection, with the time to arrest yaw rates varying based on the magnitude of the input and environmental factors like wind; for instance, full left pedal can halt yaw rates up to 115 degrees per second in certain models like the OH-58A. This responsiveness supports stable pedal turns in hover, achieving 360-degree rotations, and trims the aircraft longitudinally during cruise.^[8]^[6] However, the tail rotor's effectiveness for directional control diminishes in forward flight due to interference from the main rotor's downwash, which reduces the tail rotor's angle of attack and thrust efficiency. Authority limits become evident in high-speed conditions or sidewinds; for example, a 40-knot right crosswind can exceed the tail rotor's capability in helicopters like the Bell 206 or OH-58, necessitating increased left pedal input that may not fully compensate, particularly in wind sectors of 30 to 150 degrees relative. Tailwinds in the 120- to 240-degree sector can accelerate unintended yaw, amplifying the need for proactive pedal adjustments.^[6]^[8] In autorotation, a power-off descent scenario, the tail rotor continues to provide yaw control as it is driven by the main rotor transmission through the freewheeling unit, allowing pedal inputs to adjust pitch and counter transmission drag despite the engine failure. This maintains heading stability throughout the maneuver, with pilots coordinating pedals during the flare and touchdown to prevent yaw excursions, though low rotor rpm in low-inertia systems may require larger inputs for adequate authority.^[9]

Design and Components

Blades and Pitch Control

Tail rotor blades are engineered for efficient thrust production at low speeds and in hover conditions, typically consisting of 2 to 5 blades to balance aerodynamic efficiency and structural simplicity.^[3] These blades are constructed from lightweight composite materials, such as glass fiber reinforced plastics, which provide durability and resistance to fatigue; carbon fiber composites were increasingly adopted starting in the 1980s to further reduce weight while maintaining high strength-to-weight ratios.^[1]^[10] Airfoil profiles, such as the VR-7 or NACA 0012, are selected for their performance in generating lift at low Reynolds numbers and Mach numbers typical of tail rotor operation.^[3] The pitch control system enables precise adjustment of blade angle to modulate thrust for directional control, primarily through collective pitch changes rather than cyclic variations. A swashplate assembly, driven by linkages from the pilot's antitorque pedals, tilts or translates to alter the pitch of all blades simultaneously via pushrods and pitch horns; in some designs, individual linear actuators replace the swashplate for direct control.^[1] The collective pitch range typically spans 10 to 20 degrees, with maximum angles around 20 degrees critical for high-thrust conditions like hover or maneuvering.^[3] Performance of tail rotor blades is influenced by factors such as tip speed and solidity ratio, which determine thrust output and power requirements. Blade tip speeds generally range from 213 to 229 m/s (700 to 750 ft/s), selected to optimize efficiency while avoiding excessive compressibility effects and noise.^[3] The solidity ratio, defined as the total blade area divided by the rotor disk area, is typically around 0.20 for conventional tail rotors, allowing sufficient thrust with minimal power draw; higher values improve low-speed performance but increase drag.^[3]^[11] Tail rotor hubs vary in design between teetering and rigid types to accommodate flapping motions from aerodynamic loads. Teetering hubs, which allow the blade assembly to pivot as a unit, simplify construction and reduce parts compared to rigid hubs with individual flapping hinges; the Robinson R22 uses a teetering hub in its two-bladed tail rotor for enhanced simplicity and lower maintenance.^[12]

Drive System and Gearbox

The tail rotor drive system transmits power from the main transmission to the tail rotor assembly via a long driveshaft running along the length of the tail boom. This driveshaft typically consists of multiple sections connected by universal joints or flexible couplings to accommodate the bending and torsional loads experienced during flight, ensuring reliable power delivery despite the helicopter's dynamic motions.^[1]^[13] At the tail boom's end, a bevel gearbox redirects the power 90 degrees to drive the vertical tail rotor shaft, utilizing right-angle bevel gears for this orientation change.^[1] Gear ratios in the tail rotor drive system are designed to optimize performance by increasing the rotational speed from the main rotor output to the tail rotor, typically achieving a speed multiplication of 4:1 to 6:1 relative to the main rotor RPM. For instance, with a main rotor operating at approximately 300 RPM, the tail rotor may reach 1200 to 1800 RPM, providing sufficient thrust authority while balancing power efficiency.^[14]^[15] This gearing occurs primarily in the tail rotor gearbox, though the overall reduction from engine speed (often around 3000 RPM) to tail rotor speed incorporates contributions from the main transmission.^[13] The drive system is integrated into the tail boom structure for structural efficiency, with the driveshaft supported by hanger bearings at intervals to minimize deflection and vibration. Vibration dampers, such as elastomeric elements in the couplings, further protect components from fatigue caused by operational harmonics. In helicopters with extended tail booms, like the Sikorsky S-76, an intermediate gearbox is incorporated midway along the driveshaft to maintain alignment and distribute loads, connected via interconnecting shafts.^[16] Maintenance of the tail rotor drive system emphasizes lubrication to reduce wear in high-cycle components like the driveshaft joints and gearboxes, with systems often using dedicated oil reservoirs or grease fittings checked during pre-flight inspections. Wear indicators, such as magnetic chip detectors in the gearboxes, monitor for metallic debris from gear or bearing degradation, enabling condition-based servicing through health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS). These features are critical given the driveshaft's exposure to continuous rotation and environmental stresses.^[17]^[18]

Historical Development

Invention and Early Use

The concept of the tail rotor emerged in the early 20th century as engineers grappled with the torque imbalance produced by a single main rotor in helicopter designs, which caused uncontrolled yawing and instability. French engineer Étienne Oehmichen addressed this challenge in his 1920s experiments by incorporating small vertically mounted auxiliary rotors that rotated opposite to the main lifting rotors, providing directional control and stability in his Oehmichen No. 2 quadrocopter, which achieved the first Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) rotorcraft world record on April 14, 1924.^[19]^[20] These vertical rotors served as precursors to the modern tail rotor, enabling controlled flight despite the limitations of multi-rotor configurations. German engineer Henrich Focke pursued an alternative approach in the mid-1930s, developing the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, the first fully controllable practical helicopter, which first flew on June 26, 1936. To counter torque without a tail rotor, Focke employed counter-rotating side-by-side main rotors mounted on outriggers, demonstrating safe autorotation landings.^[21] This design highlighted the complexities of multi-rotor systems but underscored the need for simpler anti-torque solutions in single-rotor helicopters. Igor Sikorsky advanced the tail rotor to practical maturity with the Vought-Sikorsky VS-300 prototype, the first successful helicopter featuring a single main rotor paired with a dedicated tail rotor for torque compensation and yaw control. The VS-300's initial tethered flight occurred on September 14, 1939, powered by a 75-horsepower engine driving a 28-foot main rotor and a 7.5-foot tail rotor that spun four times faster; its first free flight followed on May 13, 1940.^[22] By December 8, 1941, Sikorsky refined the configuration to emphasize main rotor cyclic control, solidifying the single main rotor and tail rotor as the dominant helicopter architecture. The tail rotor's viability was proven in production with Sikorsky's R-4, the world's first mass-produced helicopter, which entered service in 1942 following the prototype's debut flight on January 13. Over 100 R-4 units were built for U.S. military evaluation, marking the transition from experimental prototypes to operational rotorcraft.^[23] Early alternatives to the tail rotor, such as intermeshing counter-rotating rotors in Charles Kaman's K-225 experimental helicopter—which first flew in 1947—demonstrated superior lift and stability but greater mechanical complexity, ultimately affirming the tail rotor's simplicity and efficiency for most designs.^[24]^[25]

Evolution in Modern Helicopters

Following World War II, tail rotor technology in helicopters advanced significantly through material innovations that enhanced performance and scalability for larger civil and military aircraft. In the 1950s and 1960s, manufacturers shifted from heavier steel components to aluminum alloys for tail rotor blades and hubs, reducing weight and improving torque counteraction efficiency without compromising structural integrity.^[26] This transition supported the development of more versatile designs, such as the Bell 206 JetRanger introduced in 1967, which incorporated an optimized metal tail rotor that contributed to the aircraft's overall fuel efficiency and reliability in light utility roles.^[27] By the 1970s, early adoption of composite materials, including fiberglass-reinforced plastics, began appearing in tail rotor components, enabling lighter constructions that further boosted hover performance and payload capacity in emerging medium-lift helicopters.^[28] The 1980s and 1990s saw deeper integration of advanced tail rotor systems in Eurocopter (now Airbus Helicopters) designs, particularly through the Fenestron, a ducted tail rotor first certified in 1972 but widely refined and incorporated into production models like the AS365 Dauphin during this period.^[29] These integrations improved safety and yaw control in confined spaces while reducing vulnerability to foreign object damage.^[30] Concurrently, aerodynamic refinements such as swept blade tips emerged to address noise concerns, with designs like those on the Eurocopter EC135 demonstrating measurable reductions in tail rotor broadband noise through altered blade-vortex interactions, aiding compliance with evolving urban operation regulations.^[31] Into the 2000s, these evolutions extended to larger platforms, where composite tail rotors became standard for weight savings and fatigue resistance, facilitating adaptations for heavy-lift missions. From the 2010s onward, tail rotor advancements have focused on electrification and autonomy, particularly in unmanned and hybrid-electric systems. Electric actuators have been integrated into tail rotor pitch controls for precise, lightweight operation, reducing hydraulic dependencies and enabling faster response times in dynamic environments.^[32] In eVTOL prototypes, companies like Joby Aviation advanced certification efforts in 2023, incorporating electric propulsion and control systems that parallel traditional tail rotor functions through vectored thrust for directional stability.^[33] Adaptive control algorithms, leveraging neural networks and real-time feedback, have also proliferated in unmanned helicopters, optimizing tail rotor authority against varying loads and winds for enhanced autonomy.^[34] By 2025, composite materials are widely used in civil helicopter tail rotors and contribute significantly to airframe construction, with military models often exceeding 50% composite airframe weight and blade designs offering up to 40% weight reduction compared to 1980s-era metal ones, as of November 2025.^[35]^[36]

Reliability and Safety

Common Failure Modes

Tail rotor failures have historically been a significant factor in helicopter accidents, accounting for approximately 5.6% of U.S. civil rotorcraft accidents from 1963 to 1997, with more recent analyses indicating they remain among the leading causes of loss of control events.^[37] According to Federal Aviation Administration statistics, tail rotor failures rank as the third highest cause of fatal helicopter accidents overall.^[38] These failures are often non-catastrophic when design redundancies are present, allowing pilots to maintain partial control through autorotation or other maneuvers.^[39] More recent data as of 2024 shows overall helicopter accident rates continuing to decline, with fatal rates at historic lows (0.57 per 100,000 flight hours), though tail rotor issues remain a monitored concern.^[40]^[41] Mechanical issues frequently arise in tail rotor systems, with driveshaft fatigue being a prominent failure mode due to cyclic loading, corrosion pitting, and material degradation over time. For instance, in Bell 206 helicopters, tail rotor driveshaft tubes have fractured from fatigue cracks originating at corrosion sites on the exterior surface, leading to complete loss of thrust.^[42] Similarly, fatigue failures in the tail rotor gearbox output shaft have caused sudden power loss, as documented in National Transportation Safety Board investigations of Robinson R44 incidents.^[43] Blade delamination in composite tail rotors, particularly in models like the UH-1, occurs from environmental exposure, paint cracking, and repeated stress, resulting in separation of layered materials and reduced aerodynamic efficiency.^[44] Operational causes include external impacts and aerodynamic limitations, such as bird strikes, which often target the exposed tail rotor blades due to low-altitude flight paths.^[45] These strikes can sever blades or disrupt pitch control, as seen in multiple Australian Transport Safety Bureau cases where wedgetail eagles caused in-flight breakups.^[46] Loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) is another critical operational failure, occurring in low-speed, high-power conditions where main rotor downwash or crosswinds reduce tail rotor thrust, leading to unanticipated right yaw in counterclockwise main rotor systems.^[47] This phenomenon has been a factor in numerous pilot-error-related accidents involving single-rotor helicopters, per rotorcraft community analyses.^[48] Symptoms of tail rotor failures typically manifest as unusual vibration from mechanical wear or imbalance, and uncommanded yaw drift indicating thrust loss, which can be detected through onboard health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) that track anomalies in real-time.^[49] Early detection via vibration monitoring has proven effective in mitigating escalation, as evidenced in Sentient Science prognostic studies on H-60 tail rotor drive systems.^[50]

Design and Operational Safeguards

Tail rotor systems incorporate redundancy features to enhance reliability and prevent single-point failures. In designs like the AgustaWestland AW139, dual independent hydraulic systems provide redundant control for tail rotor pitch adjustments, ensuring continued operation if one system fails.^[51] Additionally, many modern helicopters feature automatic pitch locking mechanisms that secure blade pitch in the event of power failure to the actuator, maintaining directional control and avoiding uncontrolled yaw.^[9] Inspection protocols are critical for maintaining tail rotor integrity under regulatory standards. For operations under FAA Part 135, pre-flight checks require visual examination of the tail rotor assembly, including blades, driveshafts, and control linkages, to detect damage, corrosion, or loose components before each flight.^[52] Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, such as ultrasonics and radioscopy, are mandated for tail rotor blades at intervals like every 100 hours of operation in models such as the Bell 206, allowing early detection of internal defects without disassembly.^[53]^[54] Pilot training emphasizes recognition and mitigation of conditions like loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE), where main rotor torque overwhelms tail rotor thrust, often during low-speed maneuvers. Standard recovery techniques include applying full opposite pedal (typically left for right yaw in single-engine helicopters), slightly reducing collective to decrease torque, and adding forward cyclic to increase airspeed and translational lift on the tail rotor.^[55]^[56] These procedures are integrated into FAA-approved training programs, with simulator practice recommended due to the risks of in-flight demonstration. Advancements in the 2020s have introduced health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) for real-time tail rotor anomaly detection. In 2025, Sikorsky partnered with SKYTRAC for real-time HUMS integration on the S-92 helicopter, monitoring tail rotor bearings using sensor data to predict failures, enabling proactive maintenance and improving safety in offshore operations.^[57] These systems analyze vibration and temperature metrics during flight, alerting crews to deviations that could precede issues like those seen in past bearing failures.

Alternative Technologies

Ducted Tail Rotors (Fenestron)

The Fenestron is a shrouded variant of the tail rotor, featuring multiple small blades arranged in a ducted fan configuration at the rear of the helicopter's tail boom. Developed by Sud-Aviation in the 1960s, it was first flight-tested on a Gazelle prototype in 1968 and achieved certification on the production Gazelle in 1972.^[58] Like conventional open tail rotors, the Fenestron generates thrust to counteract the torque produced by the main rotor and maintain directional control. Subsequent generations evolved the design, including all-composite construction in the late 1970s for a 20% diameter increase to 1.10 meters and uneven blade spacing introduced in 1994 on the H135 to further optimize performance.^[58] Key advantages of the Fenestron stem from its enclosed duct, which shields the blades from foreign object debris, ground strikes, and environmental hazards such as sand, rain, snow, and ice, thereby enhancing overall safety for both the aircraft and ground personnel. The design also reduces noise emissions compared to open tail rotors, with modern implementations like the H130 achieving external sound levels 6 dB below International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards through optimized blade and shroud geometry. Additionally, the ducted structure improves aerodynamic efficiency by directing airflow more effectively, resulting in 2-3% total power savings during forward flight relative to conventional tail rotors.^[58]^[59]^[60] Despite these benefits, the Fenestron introduces drawbacks, primarily higher weight from the added shroud and stator components, as well as increased mechanical complexity requiring specialized gearing to achieve the higher rotational speeds typical of ducted fans—often around 10 times the main rotor speed for adequate thrust. Maintenance demands are elevated due to the enclosed assembly, though advancements in composite materials have mitigated some issues in later models.^[61] The Fenestron has become a hallmark of Airbus Helicopters (formerly Eurocopter) designs, finding widespread application in models such as the SA 341 Gazelle, AS365 Dauphin, H130, H135, H145, and the latest H160, where a 1.20-meter diameter version canted at 12 degrees boosts low-speed stability and payload capacity. For instance, U.S. Coast Guard AS365 Dauphin variants equipped with Fenestrons have accumulated over 1.5 million flight hours, demonstrating proven reliability in demanding maritime operations.^[58]

No-Tail-Rotor Systems (NOTAR)

No-Tail-Rotor Systems (NOTAR) represent an innovative approach to counteracting main rotor torque in helicopters by eliminating the traditional tail rotor in favor of a pressure-thrust mechanism. The system, developed by McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Systems in the 1980s, relies on engine bleed air directed through slots along the tail boom to generate yaw control forces via the Coanda effect, where high-velocity airflow adheres to the boom's surface, creating a lateral thrust that deflects the main rotor wake. This circulation control principle allows the tail boom to function like an airfoil, producing anti-torque without mechanical blades or driveshafts. Research into the concept began in 1975, with significant scale model testing in a water tunnel in 1985, leading to the first integrated flight demonstration in 1981 and significant refinements by 1987 through improved fan designs achieving 85% efficiency.^[62]^[63] Key components of NOTAR include a variable-pitch blower fan mounted within the fuselage, which pressurizes ambient air to approximately 0.5 psi and circulates it through the tail boom, and augmentation nozzles consisting of longitudinal slots (typically two, positioned at angles like 70° and 140° for optimal flow) along the boom's length. A rotating direct jet thruster at the tail end supplements the system by providing precise directional control for the remaining torque, expelling air to generate up to 40% of the total anti-torque force. Thrust is produced through momentum conservation as the thin air stream from the slots interacts with the rotor downwash, avoiding the need for exposed rotating parts and enabling a lightweight composite tail boom structure weighing around 90 pounds. Experimental wind tunnel studies confirm that dual-slot configurations yield higher side force coefficients (up to optimal at momentum coefficients below 0.45) compared to single slots, ensuring stable performance across hover and low-speed conditions.^[64]^[65]^[62] The primary advantages of NOTAR stem from its simplified design, which eliminates maintenance requirements for tail rotor blades, gearboxes, and driveshafts, thereby reducing mechanical complexity and vulnerability to foreign object damage or strikes—common factors in helicopter accidents. It also lowers noise levels by up to 50% and vibration, enhancing pilot comfort and operational safety in confined areas, while allowing for increased payload capacity, such as an additional 300 pounds in the MD 520N compared to equivalent tail-rotor models. In hover, NOTAR achieves efficiency comparable to conventional tail rotors, with circulation control providing up to 60% anti-torque through boundary-layer management, though its power draw from the engine limits broader adoption.^[64]^[62]^[65] Applications of NOTAR have been primarily confined to light helicopters due to the system's reliance on engine power for air pressurization. The first production model, the MD 520N, achieved its initial flight on December 29, 1989, and received FAA certification in 1991, entering service for roles including law enforcement, aerial surveying, firefighting, and medical evacuation. Over 750,000 flight hours have been accumulated by the NOTAR fleet, demonstrating reliability in civilian and paramilitary operations, though its implementation remains niche owing to higher power demands in larger aircraft. As of October 2025, upgrades to the MD 530N model integrate a more powerful engine, improving hover performance and payload capacity to support expanded use in demanding environments.^[64]^[62]^[66]

References

[1]
[PDF] Chapter 4 - Helicopter Components, Sections, and Systems
A coaxial rotor system is a pair of rotors mounted on the same shaft but turning in opposite directions. This design eliminates the need for a tail rotor or ...Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[2]
Tail Rotor Airfoils Stabilize Helicopters, Reduce Noise | NASA Spinoff
A helicopter tail rotor serves two essential functions. It provides a counteracting force to the helicopter's main rotor; without the sideways thrust produced ...Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[3]
[PDF] Tail Rotor Design Guide - DTIC
This program was initiated to develop guidelines for tail rotor design by using wind tinnel test data for a tail rotor in the proximity of a main rotor and fin.Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[4]
[PDF] Helicopter Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21B) Chapter 1
This torque causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. (Newton's Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite.
[5]
[PDF] Helicopters - Aerostudents
To prevent the rotor from slowing down, the helicopter engine causes an equal but opposite (and thus counter-clockwise) torque. However, Newton's third law ...
[6]
[PDF] Understanding the Performance and Limitations of the Tail Rotor in ...
Air striking the blade causes a downward deflection of air (Newton's third law of action-reaction). Likewise, the movement of air across the rotor blade causes.Missing: counteraction | Show results with:counteraction
[7]
[PDF] Helicopter Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21B) Chapter 7
This increased tail rotor thrust absorbs power from the engine, which means there is less power available to the main rotor for the production of lift. Some ...
[8]
[PDF] Helicopter Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21B) Chapter 3
Tail rotor pitch angle and thrust in relation to pedal positions during cruising flight. are used for directional control of the aircraft while in flight, as ...
[9]
[PDF] Helicopter Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21B) - Chapter 11
Since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission during autorotation, heading control is maintained with the antitorque pedals as in normal flight.
[10]
Makin' the Blade - ROTOR Media
Oct 20, 2022 · Technicians at Van Horn Aviation, on the left, piece together plies of carbon fiber and other materials for Bell 206 tail-rotor blades, and on ...
[11]
[PDF] Helicopter Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21B) Chapter 2
As the engine supplies more power to the main rotor, the tail rotor must produce more thrust to overcome the increased torque effect. This control change is ...
[12]
Robinson Tri-Hinge Rotor Head R22 Helicopter - Redback Aviation
Feb 23, 2018 · The R22 rotor hub is hinged at the top, allowing the blades to flap up and down teeter-totter fashion just as they do in a Bell. Main rotor ...
[13]
[PDF] Summary of Drive-Train Component Technology in Helicopters
The helical gears provide an offset between the engine and bevel pinion axis and allow power to be ex- tracted from the final helical gear for the tail rotor.
[14]
What is the main and tail rotor speed (RPM) for a Sikorsky S52?
Sep 1, 2020 · For the tail rotor this is proportionally bigger and equals 1900rpm. It could be that due to the technological limitations of those times, the ω ...What is the main rotor speed (RPM) of Sikorsky CH-53E Super ...Rotor Tip Speed vs Forward Airspeed - IAS or TAS?More results from aviation.stackexchange.com
[15]
[PDF] Stability of the Sikorsky S-76 Bearingless Main Rotor
Shaft angle sweep at 80 knots from +5 to -I0 degrees. • Rotor speed sweep at 160 knots, from 285 to 315 rpm. • B1S cyclic sweep.
[16]
[PDF] Sikorsky S‑76C++™ Helicopter - Polaris Aviation Solutions
• Dual-input main transmission rated at 1,605 shp for takeoff. • intermediate and tail gearboxes with interconnecting drive shafts. • magnetic chip connectors ...
[17]
[PDF] Helicopter Drive System On-Condition Maintenance Capability - DTIC
This Directorate plans to develop a drive system reliability and maintainability design guide that will incorporate the findings of this effort.
[18]
[PDF] Correlate Life Predictions and Condition Indicators in Helicopter Tail ...
HUMS use accelerometers to monitor the health of all components in the transmission. When fatigue damage begins to occur on a bearing or gear, specific fault.
[19]
Helicopter Development in the Early Twentieth Century
Another French pioneer, Etienne Oehmichen, began his experiments in 1920 by suspending a balloon above a twin-rotor helicopter to provide additional lift. A ...
[20]
What links a dragonfly and the centenary of the first FAI rotorcraft ...
Apr 14, 2024 · One hundred years ago, on 14 April 1924, his Oehmichen 2 quadrocopter rose vertically into the air above Courcelles-lès-Montbéliard, France, and made a journey ...
[21]
None
Summary of each segment:
[22]
VS-300: The First Practical Helicopter – Igor I Sikorsky Historical ...
Sikorsky's VS-300 was America's first practical helicopter and the first successful helicopter in the world to perfect the now familiar single main rotor and ...
[23]
Sikorsky R-4B Hoverfly - Air Force Museum
Developed by Igor Sikorsky from his famous VS-300 experimental helicopter, the R-4 became the world's first production helicopter, and the U.S. Army Air Force' ...
[24]
Kaman K-225 - National Air and Space Museum
The Kaman K-225 was the first helicopter with a gas turbine transmission, a 2-seat experimental helicopter with intermeshing twin rotor, and a steel-tube ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[25]
Kaman K-225 "Mixmaster" > United States Coast Guard > Air
Jun 3, 2022 · The K-225 used two two-bladed intermeshing rotors, thereby eliminating the tail rotor. The blades were made of laminated spruce covered with ...Missing: pre- alternative<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
Aviation's material evolution | Airbus
Feb 18, 2017 · Glass fibre-reinforced plastic, or fibreglass, was the first lightweight composite material to be found in aircraft. Its initial use was in the ...
[27]
https://www.pilotmall.com/blogs/news/bell-ranger-206
[28]
[PDF] Evolution of Aerospace Materials: A Review - IRJET
The first lightweight composite materials to be found in aircraft was Glass fiber-reinforced plastic or fiberglass. It was used in rotor blades for helicopters ...
[29]
50th anniversary of the trademark Fenestron - Helicopter Industry
Apr 24, 2018 · It was first certified on the Gazelle in 1972 and then subsequently integrated into the first single-engine Dauphin prototype, whose first ...
[30]
Airbus celebrates 50th anniversary of the trademark Fenestron
Apr 12, 2018 · Fifty years on, the H160 possesses the latest and largest Fenestron to be built on an Airbus helicopter with a diameter of 1m20.Missing: designs 1980s- 2000s
[31]
The science behind helicopter noise — and how the industry is ...
Feb 25, 2021 · The blades feature a dramatic swept-back tip to reduce the noise generation of BVI. Another evolution has taken place at the rear of aircraft. ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[32]
Electromechanical Actuator Partnership Solidifies eVTOL Aircraft ...
Nov 25, 2024 · Electromechanical Actuator Partnership Solidifies eVTOL Aircraft Development. Volz Servos partners with BETA Technologies to advance ALIA eVTOL ...
[33]
Joby Completes Submission of Stage Three Certification Plans to ...
Jul 6, 2023 · In February, Joby became the first eVTOL company to complete the second stage of the certification process, after becoming the first to complete ...Missing: tail rotor actuators
[34]
L1 Adaptive Control for Small-Scale Unmanned Helicopters - MDPI
Nov 6, 2024 · This paper focuses on the application of L 1 adaptive control to the speed autopilot loop of small-scale unmanned helicopters.
[35]
https://www.stratviewresearch.com/108/helicopter-blades-market.html
[36]
A Novel Composite Helicopter Tail Rotor Blade with Enhanced ...
Jul 19, 2023 · This paper describes the transition towards a composite structure, with the same overall aerodynamic characteristics, for a tail rotor blade ...Missing: delamination | Show results with:delamination<|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] Investigation of Hazards of - Helicopter Operations and Root
These accidents are: o. Tail Rotor Failure Accidents o. Main Rotor Failure Accidents. During 1980, these two accident types account for II percent of all.
[38]
Control and Limitations of Navigating a Tail Rotor/Actuator Failed ...
Dec 7, 2010 · According to Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) statistics on mechanical failures, tail rotor failure is the third highest cause of fatal ...
[39]
Loss of tail rotor thrust - AOPA
Aug 27, 2009 · A complete loss of tail rotor thrust can happen from an internal drive system failure or if an object contacts the tail rotor and damages the blades or gearbox.
[40]
[PDF] Tail rotor driveshaft failure involving Bell 206, VH-CHO - ATSB
Mar 24, 2017 · The tail rotor driveshaft tube fractured as a result of fatigue cracking that likely originated from corrosion pitting on its outside surface.
[41]
[PDF] Aviation Investigation Final Report - NTSB
Jan 19, 2023 · The loss of tail rotor drive due to a fatigue failure of the tail rotor gearbox output shaft, which resulted in a loss of control during landing ...
[42]
Paint Cracking on UH-1 Tail Rotor Blades - Van Horn Aviation
Jun 29, 2020 · So long as the delamination is monitored and does not exceed the permitted length, the blades are entirely safe to fly with no adverse effects ...
[43]
R22 & R44 blade delamination - Page 8 - PPRuNe Forums
Apr 19, 2006 · The tail rotors have been known to delaminate following misuse by Radio Station Traffic 'copters and Law enforcement choppers in the USA. New models have been ...
[44]
Bird Strike Prevention in Helicopter Operations: Technologies and ...
Main or Tail Rotor Damage: A strike to the main or tail rotor can result in holes or broken blades. Loss of Engine Power: Bird strikes can shut down engines ...
[45]
Helicopter in-flight break-up accident highlights birdstrike hazards
May 12, 2023 · “Unfortunately, these inputs led to the main rotor striking and severing the tail boom, and the helicopter breaking up in flight.” Several ...
[46]
[PDF] Advisory Circular (AC) 90-95 - Federal Aviation Administration
If less tail rotor thrust is generated, the helicopter will yaw or turn to the right. By varying the thrust generated by the tail rotor, the pilot controls the ...Missing: time | Show results with:time
[47]
Data-driven analysis and new findings on the loss of tail rotor ...
Feb 16, 2022 · Loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) is an unstable dynamic phenomenon that affects single-rotor helicopters and frequently leads to accidents.
[48]
[PDF] Tail Rotor Failures - What can be done? An Engineering Approach
Action should be taken to further define the HUMS required for specific types or categories of helicopter. This should take into account the specific failure ...
[49]
In the 1990s a USAF Sikorsky MH-53 Pave Low from Mildenhall ...
May 27, 2020 · A USAF Sikorsky MH-53 Pave Low from Mildenhall experienced gearbox failure over my back yard in Bacton, Suffolk. The helicopter had to make an emergency ...UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter crashed on Highway 53 near ... - RedditI'm no expert here. I've only briefly been med crew on a helicopter ...More results from www.reddit.comMissing: rotor | Show results with:rotor
[50]
[PDF] Failure Modes And Prognostic Techniques For H-60 Tail Rotor Drive ...
Water is known to promote oil oxidation, attack rust inhibitors, and impede the formation of a load carrying elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) film [1].
[51]
[PDF] Agusta AW139 | HeliTrader
• Fully articulated Tail Rotor (T/R) with four composite blades, four ... • Dual independent, redundant hydraulic systems. • Two hydraulic Power Control ...
[52]
[PDF] AC 135-44 - Part 135 Operator Aircraft Configuration Inspection
Sep 25, 2018 · The configuration inspection must be conducted by the operator. In the inspection, the operator will:
[53]
[PDF] Bell 206 Component Times - mcsprogram
Tail Rotor Blades: Inspection: Every 100 hours or annually. Overhaul: As per manufacturer's recommendations, often every 2,000 hours or 12 years. Fuselage and ...
[54]
NDE Methodologies for Examination of Tail Rotor Blades ... - NDT.net
Since the blades were used, the possibility of delaminations in the GFRP skin could not be ruled out. Due to the varied type of materials used, such as metals ...
[55]
Understanding loss of tail rotor effectiveness - Vertical Magazine
Oct 28, 2024 · Pilots can reduce, but never entirely eliminate, the risk of LTE occurring. They can certainly become better informed with implementing ...
[56]
Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness - Mornington Sanford Aviation
If the tail rotor generates more thrust than is required to counter the main rotor torque, the helicopter will yaw or turn to the left about the vertical axis.
[57]
VFS - Vertical Flight Society Award Winners
2024. S-92 Tail Rotor Bearing Monitoring team; Sikorsky, a Lockheed Martin Company. For the development, certification, and fielding of a more capable ...
[58]
Vertical News -2024-03-08
Mar 8, 2024 · Sikorsky's S-92 Tail Rotor Bearing Monitoring team was selected for the 2024 Harry T. Vertical Flight Society announces 2024 group recipients ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Safety innovation #2: The Fenestron - Airbus
Jul 1, 2022 · The idea behind shrouding the tail rotor was initially developed to provide additional safeguards for workers on the ground but also to protect ...Missing: Sud- disadvantages applications
[60]
H130 missions | Airbus
Its very low external sound level is 6 dB below the ICAO requirement and ... Airbus' Fenestron® shrouded tail rotor enhances safety in flight and when ...Missing: noise reduction efficiency
[61]
[PDF] AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING - NASA Technical Reports Server
Jul 31, 1989 · ... advantages of the fenestron tail rotor for vertical flight aircraft. Compared to conventional tail rotors, the fenestron design offers ...
[62]
History and Devolopment
Now, McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company has developed an antitorque, no-tail-rotor-system - NOTAR. SHEDDING THE TAILROTOR. Helicopter designers have been ...
[63]
[PDF] NOTAR anti-torque systems for small helicopters - INCAS BULLETIN
NOTAR is the name of an anti-torque system which replaces the use of a tail rotor on a helicopter. It was developed by McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Systems.Missing: principle | Show results with:principle
[64]
[PDF] md 520n helicopter - TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Mar 4, 2014 · The NOTAR® system improves safety: o Elimination of tail rotor strikes o No dramatic center of gravity shift with loss of conventional tail- ...
[65]
[PDF] EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF NO TAIL ROTOR (NOTAR ...
The heart of NOTAR system is the circulation control tailboom which achieves the antitorque forces by a thin stream of air exiting from the slot in the tail ...