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Tauri

The '''Tauri''' were an ancient people who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula, particularly its mountainous southern regions, from the late Bronze Age through the 1st millennium BC.^[1] They are considered among the earliest known residents of the area, which derived its ancient name ''Taurica'' (or ''Tauris'') from them. The Tauri were known to ancient Greek sources for their rugged territory in the Crimean Mountains, a mixed Scythian-influenced culture, and religious practices including the worship of a virgin goddess identified by Greeks as Artemis Tauropolos, associated with rituals that may have involved human sacrifice.^[2] ^[1] During the Classical period, the Tauri interacted with Greek colonists in the region, such as at Chersonesos, and later faced pressures from Scythian expansions, leading to cultural assimilation by the 1st century AD. Archaeological evidence from sites like the Scythian necropolises in Crimea supports their presence and material culture, including fortified settlements and artifacts reflecting a pastoral, warrior society.^[3] The Tauri's legacy persisted in regional nomenclature and mythology, notably in Euripides' play ''Iphigenia in Tauris''.^[1] ''For the open-source software framework, see [[Tauri (software framework)]].''

Name and Etymology

Origin of the Name

The name "Tauri" derives from the ancient Greek term "Ταῦροι" (Tauroi), first attested in the 5th century BC in Herodotus' Histories (Book 4, chapter 103), where he portrays the Tauri as an indigenous people inhabiting the Tauric Chersonese, a peninsula in the northern Black Sea region.^[4] This earliest reference establishes "Tauroi" as the standard ethnonym used by Greek writers to denote the group, emphasizing their localized presence without implying migration or external origins.^[4] Linguistically, "Tauroi" likely stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *táwros, which evolved into words denoting "bull" or "cattle" across Indo-European languages, including Greek "ταῦρος" (tauros) for "bull."^[5] This connection suggests the name may reflect cultural associations with bovine symbolism, possibly tied to rituals or economic practices involving livestock among the Tauri, though Herodotus provides no explicit etymological explanation.^[5] An alternative derivation links "Tauroi" to the Greek "ταῦρος" (tauros) in its sense of "mountain" or "ridge," interpreting the Tauri as "mountain dwellers" based on their settlement in the rugged uplands of the peninsula.^[2] This topographic etymology aligns with the landscape described by early sources. Subsequent ancient authors preserved variations of the term, such as Ptolemy's "Tauric Chersonese" in his Geography (Book 3, chapter 6).^[6]

Historical Nomenclature

In Roman geographical and historical texts, the name "Tauri" was frequently adapted to describe the indigenous people of the Crimean Peninsula, often in conjunction with Scythian affiliations to reflect their cultural and ethnic context. Pliny the Elder, in his Naturalis Historia (4.85), refers to the region as Scythia Taurica and its inhabitants as Tauri Scythae or Tauroscythae, emphasizing their settlement along the southern coast and the associated harbors and lakes.^[7] Similarly, Strabo in his Geography (7.4.3–5) identifies the Tauri as a Scythian tribe occupying the Tauric Chersonese, noting their control over much of the peninsula's mountainous interior and their interactions with Greek colonies.^[8] While the term occasionally appeared in broader contexts, such as references to the Celtic Taurisci in the eastern Alps (mentioned by Pliny in Naturalis Historia 3.46 as a Norican people), these were distinct groups, with the Crimean Tauri maintaining a primary association with the Black Sea region.^[9] The nomenclature persisted into later antiquity but saw limited use until its revival in medieval and early modern European scholarship, where classical sources were rediscovered and applied to contemporary geography. During the Renaissance, cartographers and historians like Ptolemy's interpreters retained "Taurica" for the Crimean Peninsula in maps and treatises, distinguishing it from unrelated Alpine or Italian tribes. A notable example is the Taurini, a Ligurian people in the Po Valley of northern Italy (near modern Turin), described by Livy in Ab Urbe Condita (5.34) as adversaries of early Roman expansion; this group's name, while phonetically similar, referred to a separate Indo-European branch with no historical overlap with the Crimean Tauri.^[10] In the 18th century, the ancient name experienced a significant imperial revival when Russia annexed Crimea following the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774. Catherine the Great formalized the designation as "Taurida" (or Tavrika in Russian), drawing directly from classical Greek and Roman sources like Herodotus' initial mention of the Tauri in Histories (4.103). This culminated in the establishment of the Taurida Governorate in 1802, with Simferopol as its administrative center, encompassing Crimea and parts of southern mainland Ukraine; the name symbolized Russia's claim to the region's Hellenistic heritage and persisted until the Soviet era.

Geography

Territory and Location

The Tauri inhabited the core mountainous and southern coastal regions of the Crimean Peninsula, an area anciently designated as the Tauric Chersonese. Their territory primarily encompassed the Crimean Mountains and the adjacent southern Black Sea coast, extending from the vicinity of Cape Fiolent—near modern Sevastopol—to the Kerch Strait in the east.^[11]^[12] This region, roughly 6,500 square kilometers in the Crimean foothills, supported Tauri settlements from at least the 6th century BCE.^[13] The northern limits of Tauri habitation bordered the Scythian steppes, where nomadic Scythians dominated the open plains beyond the mountains.^[11] To the east, their domain overlapped with territories historically associated with the Cimmerians, an earlier nomadic group whose presence in Crimea predated the Tauri.^[14] Western boundaries included narrow coastal strips along the Black Sea, facilitating maritime activities.^[12] Herodotus precisely delineates this extent from Carcinitis (modern Yevpatoria area) southward to the Rough Peninsula near Feodosia, portraying it as a promontory protruding into the sea.^[11] A prominent site within Tauri territory was Symbolon Limen, the modern inlet of Balaklava, which functioned as a key base for their piracy operations. Strabo records that the Tauri, described as a Scythian tribe, assembled raiding parties there to attack vessels seeking shelter in the harbor.^[12] This location underscored the Tauri's reliance on the rugged southern seaboard for such activities, spanning approximately 1,000 stadia eastward to Theodosia.^[12] The broader peninsula derived its classical name, Taurica, directly from the Tauri, attesting to their foundational role in the region's ancient geography.^[13]

Natural Environment

The natural environment of the region inhabited by the Tauri featured the Crimean Mountains, a range with karstic plateaus known as yailas rising to elevations of 700 to 1,545 meters, including the peak of Roman Kosh, and characterized by asymmetric topography with gentler northern slopes and steeper southern faces that provided natural defensive barriers.^[15] Dense forests of beech (Fagus sylvatica), oak (Quercus spp.), pine (Pinus spp.), and Mediterranean species such as juniper (Juniperus excelsa) and pistachio (Pistacia mutica) covered the mountain slopes, offering timber essential for shipbuilding and other construction in support of the Tauri's maritime activities along the Black Sea coast.^[15] Rivers like the Salgir (238 km long), Al’ma, Kacha, Bel’bek (with an average discharge of 2.75 m³/sec), and Chorna originated in the mountains and flowed northward, irrigating valleys and enabling limited agriculture, while the southern coast provided access to natural harbors such as Sevastopol Bay and a sub-Mediterranean climate conducive to coastal settlements.^[15] Resource availability in this landscape included abundant timber from oak and beech forests for shipbuilding, metals extracted from the uplands' geological formations and volcanic rocks, and fertile chernozem soils in piedmont valleys and balki (small valleys) that supported horticulture of cereals, pulses, and early viticulture, though agriculture remained constrained by the rugged terrain.^[15] These resources shaped Tauri settlement patterns by favoring locations in mountainous hillforts and coastal zones for defense and resource proximity, with forests and rivers providing shelter, fuel, and water essential to their semi-sedentary lifestyle.^[15] The isolation afforded by the Crimean range's steep slopes and dense woodlands fostered a degree of cultural independence among the Tauri, yet the open steppe borders to the north exposed them to vulnerabilities from invasions by neighboring nomadic groups.^[15] This environmental setting overlapped briefly with Scythian territories in the northern steppes, influencing intergroup interactions without dominating Tauri adaptations to the mountainous south.^[15]

History

Origins and Early Period

The Tauri are believed to have originated from Indo-European groups associated with the Timber-Grave (Srubnaya) culture during the late Bronze Age, approximately 2000–1000 BC, as part of broader pre-Scythian migrations into the Crimean region.^[13] These migrations involved Iranian-speaking pastoralist tribes that contributed to the ethnogenesis of later steppe peoples, including the Cimmerians and Scythians, with archaeological continuity evident in Crimean foothill settlements.^[16] The Tauri likely emerged as a distinct entity through the consolidation of these tribes in the Crimean mountains, where they adapted to a semi-nomadic lifestyle focused on herding and limited agriculture.^[13] By the 8th century BC, the Tauri transitioned from Bronze Age traditions to the early Iron Age, marked by the development of the Kizil-Koba culture, characterized by fortified hilltop settlements and cist burials in the Crimean foothills.^[16] This period saw the spread of these settlements from areas near Sevastopol to Feodosia, reflecting population movements and cultural differentiation from neighboring steppe groups.^[13] The association with earlier Bronze Age influences, such as elements of the Catacomb culture in the broader Pontic steppe, underscores the Tauri's roots in regional Indo-European networks, though their core identity formed in Crimea's isolated southern terrain.^[13] The earliest definitive archaeological evidence for the Tauri dates to the 6th century BC, with migrations into the southern Crimean mountains leading to the formation of a unique economic-cultural type centered on transhumance herding and seasonal highland pastoralism.^[16] Sites such as the Mal-Muz cemetery and Shpil settlement reveal cist graves containing iron tools, pottery, and animal remains indicative of this adaptation, distinguishing the Tauri from lowland Scythian influences.^[13] Herodotus later described the Tauri as indigenous to this rugged landscape, emphasizing their long-standing presence in the peninsula./Book_IV)

Classical Greek Interactions

During the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus provided one of the earliest detailed accounts of Tauri interactions with Greek maritime activities in the Black Sea region. In his Histories (ca. 430 BC), he described the Tauri as inhabiting the southern Crimean peninsula and engaging in systematic sea-raiding and plundering, targeting Greek ships navigating near their territory, particularly those approaching the Greek colony of Chersonesos (modern Sevastopol). Herodotus noted that the Tauri "live by plundering and war," capturing shipwrecked sailors and Greek mariners whom they encountered during these raids, often sacrificing them to their local goddess.^[17] These activities posed a persistent threat to Greek trade routes and colonial outposts, as the Tauri's coastal position allowed them to launch swift attacks from hidden harbors.^[13] Mythological narratives further intertwined Tauri practices with Greek lore, particularly through the legend of Iphigeneia. Herodotus reported that the Tauri identified their "Virgin goddess"—to whom they offered sacrifices of captives—as Iphigeneia, the daughter of Agamemnon, whom they believed had been transported to their land by Artemis. This connection, echoed in later Greek tragedies like Euripides' Iphigenia among the Taurians (ca. 414 BC), portrayed the Tauri as fierce guardians of a sacred cult site, blending Greek heroic myths with local rituals and reinforcing perceptions of the Tauri as both barbaric and divinely linked to Hellenic traditions. Such stories likely circulated among Greek colonists to explain and rationalize the dangers of Taurian encounters.^[17] Tauri-Greek relations in the 5th–4th centuries BC combined conflict with economic exchange, marked by raids on key colonies alongside trade in captives and commodities. The Tauri conducted incursions against Olbia and Panticapaeum, the major Greek centers in the northern Black Sea, where archaeological evidence reveals Kizil-Koba type ceramics from Tauri settlements in 5th-century BC layers at Olbia, indicating both raiding contact and material exchange. Similarly, a 5th-century BC gravestone at Panticapaeum commemorates a Tauri individual named Tichonus, suggesting occasional integration or alliance through trade. While raids disrupted Greek shipping—leading Bosporan king Eumelus (ca. 310–304 BC) to campaign against Tauri pirates, clearing the sea alongside other groups—the Tauri also supplied slaves captured from shipwrecks and raids to Greek markets, fostering a tense but interdependent relationship; Greek goods like glass beads appear in Tauri burials, evidencing reciprocal commerce. These interactions often culminated in the ritual sacrifice of Greek captives, a practice that heightened Greek fears but did not preclude ongoing trade.^[13]^[12]

Hellenistic and Roman Periods

During the Hellenistic period, the Tauri came under the influence of the Scythian king Scilurus in the 2nd century BC, forming alliances that integrated Tauro-Scythian forces against Greek colonial cities such as Chersonesos. Scilurus united Scythian and Tauri groups, capturing key sites like Fair Haven (Balaklava) and Cercinitis, and establishing fortified settlements including Neapolis near modern Simferopol to consolidate control over the western Crimea. These Tauro-Scythian coalitions, often involving Sarmatian allies, posed significant threats to Greek trade and autonomy, leading to conflicts that extended Scilurus's power until his death around 110 BC, after which his son Palacus continued the pressure on Chersonesos before suffering defeat by the Pontic general Diophantus.^[18] The Tauri had been progressively incorporated into the Bosporan Kingdom since the 5th century BC, with Hellenistic expansion under kings like Eumelus (c. 310–304 BC) further subduing their territories in the eastern Crimea and restraining their piracy along the Black Sea coast. This integration created a mixed Tauro-Scythian population within the kingdom, reflecting cultural and ethnic blending in the region. By the late 1st century BC, following the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom—including Tauri lands—transitioned to Roman client status under Pompey's reorganization, maintaining nominal independence while providing military support and grain exports to Rome; this arrangement persisted through the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, with Bosporan rulers like Aspurgus (r. 10/11–23 AD) asserting control over remaining Tauri groups.^[19]^[20] The Tauri and their subgroups endured into the late Roman period, with the historian Ammianus Marcellinus providing the last known references in the 4th century AD, describing them as divided into various kingdoms in the Tauric region near the Pontus Euxinus, where tribes including the Arichi, Sinchi, and Napaei were noted for their enduring presence amid the mountainous terrain.^[21]

Culture and Society

Religion and Rituals

The Tauri revered a virgin goddess, referred to as the Virgin (Parthenos) in ancient accounts, whom Greek sources equated with Artemis and more specifically with Iphigeneia, the daughter of Agamemnon in Greek mythology. This identification arose from the Tauri's own assertion that the deity they honored was Iphigeneia, linking their indigenous worship to Greek legends where Artemis saved Iphigeneia from sacrifice and transported her to Tauric lands to serve as priestess. The core of their religious practice centered on this goddess, whose cult emphasized protection against maritime dangers, reflecting the Tauri's coastal environment in the Crimean peninsula.^[17] Central to the rituals was the human sacrifice of shipwrecked individuals and captured foreigners, particularly Greeks, offered to appease the goddess and ward off sea perils. According to Herodotus, the victims were struck on the head with a club, decapitated and flayed by cutting around the head, with the bodies hung from beams and the severed heads carried in procession and fixed on poles. These acts were performed at a sacred site in Tauric territory, traditionally identified as Cape Fiolent (ancient Parthenium), where the temple stood overlooking the Black Sea. Herodotus portrays these practices as indigenous to the Tauri, tied directly to their seafaring vulnerabilities and distinct from broader Scythian customs. Greek dramatist Euripides, in his play Iphigenia in Tauris, depicts an additional element of hurling the bodies from rocky cliffs into the sea.^[17]^[22] In later periods, as the Tauri interacted more closely with neighboring Scythian groups under Hellenistic and Bosporan influences, elements of syncretism may have emerged, blending the virgin goddess with Scythian female deities associated with war and fertility, though the human sacrifice and cliff rituals remained distinctly Tauric and indigenous in character. Greek interpretations often framed these practices through mythological lenses, such as Iphigeneia's role, but the underlying beliefs appear rooted in local traditions predating significant external contact. The Tauri maintained a decentralized tribal structure composed of clans organized around kinship and economic units, with leadership typically provided by chieftains who coordinated raids and herding activities.^[13] This organization reflected influences from neighboring Scythian groups, particularly in the development of a warrior elite skilled in mounted combat and equipped with adopted Scythian weaponry such as iron swords and horse gear.^[13] By the 6th–5th centuries BCE, the Tauri had consolidated into two sub-ethnic groups differentiated by their adaptation to coastal and mountainous environments, fostering a flexible, clan-based society rather than a centralized polity.^[13] The Tauri's economy centered on pastoralism and raiding, supplemented by limited agriculture suited to their rugged terrain. Herding dominated, with primary livestock including sheep, goats, and cattle, alongside horses incorporated through Scythian cultural exchanges; transhumance practices involved seasonal movement of flocks between mountain pastures and coastal lowlands.^[13] Agriculture was confined to fertile valleys, where mattock-based farming produced wheat, barley, and legumes, yielding substantial grain harvests—Strabo noted returns of up to thirtyfold in productive areas.^[12] Piracy and plundering formed a critical component, with the Tauri launching sea-raids from the Black Sea coast to capture ships and captives, sustaining their communities through war and tribute, including grain and silver payments to overlords like Mithridates VI.^[23]^[12] Daily life among the Tauri revolved around nomadic mountain pastoralism, with families and clans residing in temporary, unfortified hill settlements of wattle-and-daub houses clustered for mutual defense against rivals.^[13] These communities emphasized mobility, using household pits for storage and relying on short-lived camps that allowed rapid relocation with herds; interactions with Greek colonists introduced limited trade in goods like beads, but the core rhythm remained tied to seasonal herding and opportunistic raiding.^[13]

Archaeology

Major Sites and Excavations

Chersonesos Taurica, located in the Sevastopol area of southwestern Crimea, represents a key site for understanding Tauri-Greek interactions as a major Greek colony founded in the 5th century BCE by Dorian settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the territory inhabited by the Tauri.^[24] Systematic excavations began in 1827 under the auspices of the Russian Academy of Sciences and have continued intermittently, uncovering approximately 10 of the site's 40 hectares, including city walls, residential blocks, and evidence of early cultural exchanges such as Kizil-Koba ceramics—characteristic of Tauri material culture—from the late 6th to mid-4th century BCE layers, suggesting possible pre-colonial Tauri presence or post-founding coexistence.^[25]^[13] These digs have revealed hybrid artifacts indicative of Tauri integration into the colonial economy and society, though the site's primary focus remains its Greek urban development spanning Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods.^[24] Cape Fiolent and nearby Balaklava, on the southern coast of Crimea, are associated with alleged Tauri sacrifice temples, particularly the legendary sanctuary of Artemis Tauropolos, where ancient sources describe ritual practices involving shipwrecked strangers.^[13] Archaeological surveys and excavations in the 20th century, conducted by Soviet and later Ukrainian teams, identified Kizil-Koba culture remains at sites like Cape Fiolent, including scattered ceramics from surface collections, pointing to Tauri ritual or settlement activity in the 6th–4th centuries BCE.^[13] At the Karan’-2 settlement near Balaklava, digs uncovered sunken-floor buildings (0.2–0.3 m deep) with Kizil-Koba pottery, dating to the same period and evidencing Tauri domestic structures amid the region's volcanic landscape.^[13] These efforts, often tied to broader Crimean heritage projects, have prioritized mapping potential temple loci but yielded limited monumental architecture due to erosion and later overlays. In 2018, Russian archaeologists discovered the Kiel-Dere 1 necropolis in southwestern Crimea near Sevastopol, a Late Scythian site (ca. 200 BCE–375 CE) with Tauri cultural overlaps, containing elite burials equipped with weapons such as swords and arrows, alongside horse remains and bronze ornaments.^[26] Initial surveys ahead of construction revealed over 100 unlooted graves, with ongoing excavations exposing stone cists and tumuli that reflect hybrid Scythian-Tauri mortuary practices in the transitional period.^[3] This find connects to the broader Kizil-Koba culture, the primary archaeological marker for Tauri identity, through shared ceramic and burial traditions observed in earlier foothill sites.^[13]

Artifacts and Material Culture

The material culture of the Tauri is intrinsically linked to the Kizil-Koba culture, spanning the 8th to 4th century BC, where archaeological evidence reveals sophisticated metallurgical practices through the production of iron arrowheads, handmade ceramics, and bronze tools such as axes and implements.^[13] These artifacts underscore the Tauri's proficiency in ironworking and bronze casting, marking a transition from Bronze Age traditions to early Iron Age technologies in the Crimean highlands.^[13] Weapons and jewelry from Tauri contexts highlight martial and equestrian elements with clear Scythian influences, including short swords (akinakes), bronze and iron arrowheads, and horse gear such as iron bits and cheek-pieces, often deposited as burial goods in kurgans.^[13] Accompanying these are bronze jewelry pieces like bracelets, neck-rings, temple pendants, and badges, alongside imported glass beads, which served both functional and ornamental purposes in funerary and daily life.^[13] Such items not only indicate interregional exchanges but also reflect the Tauri's adaptation of nomadic steppe technologies for warfare and mobility.^[13] Domestic artifacts provide insight into everyday Tauri practices, featuring pottery with geometric motifs created via incised and cordon decorations, alongside spindle whorls that evidence textile weaving.^[13] Faunal remains from settlements confirm reliance on animal husbandry, with prevalent species including sheep, goats, cows, and pigs, supporting a mixed pastoral economy.^[13] These elements collectively define a resilient, self-sufficient material culture adapted to the rugged terrain.^[13]

Assimilation and Legacy

Cultural Integration

By the late 3rd century BC, the Tauri began intermixing with Scythian populations in the Crimean foothills, leading to the emergence of a hybrid group known as the Tauro-Scythians. This process of cultural and ethnic blending was facilitated by the expansion of Scythian settlements and the overarching influence of the Bosporan Kingdom, which incorporated diverse groups under its rule. Archaeological evidence from Late Scythian sites indicates a fusion of Tauri indigenous traditions with Scythian nomadic elements, such as shared burial practices and material culture.^[13] From the 1st century AD, Roman influence prompted a degree of Romanization among the Tauri, particularly in coastal and administrative centers of Crimea. This included the adoption of Latin elements in coinage, such as imperial portraits and inscriptions on Bosporan issues, and the integration of Roman administrative practices in client kingdoms under Roman oversight. However, the mountainous interior regions maintained significant autonomy, preserving Tauri cultural distinctiveness amid these external pressures; Tacitus references Tauri involvement in regional conflicts around AD 49, highlighting their semi-independent status.^[13] In the 4th century AD, the Tauri experienced final subsumption by invading Alans and Goths, resulting in their disappearance as a distinct ethnicity. Crimean territories were divided among Gothic and Alan-dominated groups, where Tauri populations were absorbed through migration, conquest, and intermarriage, effectively dissolving their unique identity into broader Sarmatian and Germanic frameworks.^[13]

Historical Significance

The Tauri, an indigenous people inhabiting the mountainous southern coast of the Crimean Peninsula from at least the 5th century BCE, played a notable role in the dynamics of Black Sea trade networks through their interactions with Greek colonists. Ancient Greek sources describe the Tauri as engaging in piracy and raiding activities that both disrupted and integrated with the maritime commerce established by colonies such as Chersonesus and Theodosia, which exported grain, fish, and slaves while importing wine, olive oil, and ceramics from the Aegean. These interactions, often tense, contributed to the cultural and economic exchanges that sustained the broader Pontic trade routes linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.^[1]^[27] Greek historiography, particularly Herodotus' Histories (c. 440 BCE), provided vivid portrayals of the Tauri that shaped classical understandings of the region, depicting them as a fierce, plundering society worshiping a virgin goddess associated with human sacrifice of shipwrecked sailors and war captives. Herodotus situated the Tauri in the southeastern portion of the peninsula, distinguishing them from neighboring Scythians and emphasizing their role in the perilous navigation of the Black Sea, which influenced later accounts by Strabo and Plutarch. These narratives not only preserved the Tauri's reputation as formidable coastal dwellers but also informed Greek colonial strategies and mythological adaptations, such as Euripides' Iphigenia Among the Taurians.^[28] The Tauri's legacy endures in Crimean nomenclature, with the ancient Greek term "Taurica" or "Tauris" persisting through Roman, Byzantine, and Russian administrative usages, culminating in the Russian Empire's Taurida Governorate (established 1802 and dissolved in 1921), which encompassed Crimea and adjacent steppe regions to evoke classical heritage following the 1783 annexation. This naming convention reflected efforts to legitimize Russian control by linking it to antiquity, influencing toponyms like Taurida until the early 20th century.^[29]^[30] Scholarly knowledge of the Tauri remains fragmentary due to limited ancient textual sources beyond Herodotus and sporadic later references, leading to heavy reliance on archaeological evidence such as the Kizil-Koba culture's cist graves and pottery, which suggest a distinct mountain-dwelling society from the 7th to 3rd centuries BCE. Recent geopolitical tensions, including Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea, have restricted international access to sites like Chersonesus, complicating excavations and collaborative research on Taurian material culture.^[28]^[31]

References

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