Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Terrestrial Time

Terrestrial Time (TT) is a uniform astronomical time scale defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) for precise calculations in geocentric ephemerides and solar system dynamics.^[1] It represents an idealized dynamical time, with its unit of duration fixed at 86,400 SI seconds as realized on the Earth's geoid (mean sea level).^[2] TT serves as the independent variable for predicting or recording the apparent positions of celestial bodies relative to Earth's center, ensuring consistency in relativistic models of planetary motion.^[1] Introduced in the late 20th century to supersede the variable Ephemeris Time (ET), which was based on Earth's orbital motion but affected by irregularities in rotation, TT was formally established through IAU resolutions.^[3] The 1991 IAU Resolution A4 and associated IUGG Resolution 2 defined TT within a relativistic framework, linking it to Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG) via the scaling relation TT = TCG - L_G (JD_{TCG} - 2443144.5) \times 86400, where L_G = 6.969290134 \times 10^{-10} accounts for Earth's gravitational potential.^[4] This was refined in the 2000 IAU Resolution B1 to enhance precision in time-scale transformations.^[4] TT maintains a fixed offset from International Atomic Time (TAI), defined as TT = TAI + 32.184 seconds, providing a stable atomic realization independent of Earth's rotation.^[1] The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) computes annual realizations, such as TT(BIPM), using weighted averages of TAI frequency calibrations from global primary and secondary atomic standards to achieve high long-term stability.^[5] Unlike civil time scales like Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which incorporate leap seconds for synchronization with Earth's rotation, TT remains continuous and uniform, making it essential for applications in astrometry, space navigation, and fundamental astronomical research.^[2]

Definition

Current Definition

Terrestrial Time (TT) is defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in its 1991 Resolution A4 as a uniform time scale, realized by the SI second on the geoid, that provides the independent variable for calculations of apparent geocentric positions of solar system bodies, particularly for ephemerides of the Sun and Moon.^[1] This definition establishes TT as the standard dynamical time coordinate in the geocentric reference system, ensuring continuity with earlier ephemeris time scales while accounting for the need for a stable, atomic-based reference free from irregularities in Earth's rotation.^[1] The reference epoch for TT is J2000.0, corresponding to January 1, 2000, at 12:00 TT (Julian Date 2451545.0 TT), measured from the geocentric coordinate origin.^[1] TT is expressed in units of the SI second, defined on the rotating geoid (approximately mean sea level), which aligns its rate closely with the proper time experienced by observers on Earth's surface.^[1]^[6] TT maintains a fixed offset from International Atomic Time (TAI) to preserve alignment with historical ephemeris time: TT = TAI + 32.184 seconds.^[1]^[7] This constant difference, set by the 1991 IAU resolution, ensures that TT seamlessly extends prior dynamical time scales used in astronomical computations.^[7]

Purpose and Scope

Terrestrial Time (TT) serves as the primary independent time variable for high-precision solar system ephemerides, providing a uniform scale for calculating planetary and lunar positions as observed from Earth.^[1] It replaced the older Ephemeris Time (ET) to ensure consistency in orbital mechanics, where ET's reliance on Earth's orbital motion introduced irregularities unsuitable for modern computations.^[8] TT maintains a constant rate aligned with the SI second, enabling accurate parameterization of celestial motions without dependence on dynamical irregularities.^[8] The scope of TT encompasses geocentric astronomical observations, where it functions as a continuous and uniform coordinate time scale unaffected by Earth's irregular rotation or leap seconds.^[1] This makes it essential for applications such as astronomical almanacs, satellite orbit determination, and space mission trajectory planning, where precise timing relative to the geocenter is required.^[8] For instance, TT is employed in the U.S. Naval Observatory's Astronomical Almanac for tabulating positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets from Earth's surface.^[1] TT serves as the dynamical coordinate time scale in the geocentric celestial reference system (GCRS), with a rate matching proper time on the geoid and optimized for relativistic models of geocentric observations.^[8] It relates to International Atomic Time (TAI) via a fixed offset of 32.184 seconds (TT = TAI + 32.184 s), ensuring scalability to atomic standards while prioritizing astronomical utility.^[8] In practice, TT integrates with barycentric ephemerides, such as NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory DE430 and DE440 models, where it supports geocentric conversions and parameterizes Earth-relative planetary positions alongside Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB).^[9] This role facilitates high-accuracy predictions for missions like interplanetary navigation and lunar laser ranging.^[8]

Historical Development

Pre-IAU Formulations

In the 19th century, astronomers increasingly recognized the irregularities in Earth's rotation, which complicated the use of mean solar time for precise astronomical calculations. Simon Newcomb's investigations into fluctuations in the Moon's mean motion highlighted how tidal friction between Earth and the Moon caused a secular deceleration in Earth's rotation rate, leading to long-term variations in the length of the day.^[10] These findings, detailed in Newcomb's analyses of lunar observations, underscored the need for a more uniform time standard independent of rotational irregularities.^[11] To address these issues, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) introduced Ephemeris Time (ET) at its 1952 General Assembly as a dynamical time scale derived from the observed positions of celestial bodies, particularly the Sun and Moon. ET was explicitly defined such that Newcomb's 1895 Tables of the Sun would match solar observations when referenced to this scale, providing a uniform measure based on Earth's orbital motion rather than its rotation.^[12] This definition aimed to eliminate short-term fluctuations in Universal Time while maintaining continuity with traditional ephemerides. Despite its advantages, ET had significant limitations stemming from its reliance on extensive astronomical observations to determine the time scale, which delayed its availability and introduced uncertainties. Secular errors accumulated due to the outdated assumptions in Newcomb's solar system models, such as incomplete accounting for planetary perturbations, leading to discrepancies of up to several seconds over decades.^[13] In the 1960s, refinements improved ET's accuracy through radar ranging measurements to planets like Venus and Mercury, which provided direct distance data to calibrate ephemerides and reduce model errors to the millisecond level.^[14] By the 1970s, the limitations of ET prompted proposals for a new dynamical time scale based on atomic clocks to achieve greater uniformity and real-time availability. Astronomers suggested replacing ET with an atomic realization scaled to match ephemeris requirements.^[15] These transitional ideas, discussed in IAU commissions, laid the groundwork for integrating atomic precision into dynamical time without disrupting solar system computations.^[16] The International Astronomical Union (IAU) first addressed the need for a uniform atomic time scale in dynamical astronomy through Resolution No. 1 adopted at its XVI General Assembly in Grenoble in 1976. This resolution recommended replacing the irregular Ephemeris Time (ET) with a new atomic-based scale, later named Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT), intended to provide a stable reference for geocentric ephemerides. To maintain continuity with prior ephemerides, the resolution specified an initial offset such that TDT = UTC + ΔAT + 32.184 s, where ΔAT accounts for leap seconds in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).^[12] At the XVII General Assembly in Montreal in 1979, the IAU further refined the framework by adopting names and distinctions for related scales in Resolution No. 5 from Commissions 4, 19, and 30. This distinguished TDT, defined for apparent geocentric ephemerides, from Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB), the scale for equations of motion relative to the solar system's barycenter, ensuring TDB differed from TDT only by periodic terms arising from Earth's orbital motion. A significant evolution occurred at the XXI General Assembly in Buenos Aires in 1991 with Resolution A4, Recommendation IV, which renamed TDT to Terrestrial Time (TT) and formalized it as the coordinate time scale for apparent geocentric celestial ephemerides of the Sun, Moon, and planets. TT was explicitly defined to exclude leap seconds, running uniformly at the rate of International Atomic Time (TAI) with the same offset from TAI as TDT, thereby serving as the independent variable in geocentric relativistic models without discontinuities.^[17] Subsequent refinements emphasized relativistic consistency. At the XXIV General Assembly in Manchester in 2000, Resolution B1.9 redefined TT in the context of the IAU 2000 resolutions on reference systems, specifying its exact rate relative to Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG) via the gravitational parameter LG = 6.969290134 × 10^{-10}, aligning TT with the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF) for high-precision astrometry and ephemerides.^[18] These resolutions collectively ensured seamless continuity from ET by retroactively applying TT to the J2000.0 epoch (Julian Date 2451545.0 TT), facilitating consistent use in planetary and stellar ephemerides without disrupting historical data.^[1]

Realizations

International Atomic Time (TAI)

International Atomic Time (TAI) is a continuous time scale that provides a high-precision atomic reference for global timekeeping, originating from 1 January 1958 at 0h UT1 and defined based on the best available realizations of the International System of Units (SI) second.^[7] The SI second is realized through the cesium-133 hyperfine transition frequency of exactly 9,192,631,770 cycles, establishing TAI as an ensemble average that ensures long-term stability independent of Earth's rotation.^[7] The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) computes TAI using data from approximately 450 atomic clocks contributed by around 80 national metrology institutes and observatories worldwide.^[19] This computation employs the ALGOS algorithm to first generate Échelle Atomique Libre (EAL), a free-running weighted average of clock readings that accounts for phase and frequency offsets to optimize stability.^[20] EAL is then steered to form TAI by applying periodic frequency calibrations derived from primary and secondary frequency standards, ensuring alignment with the SI second without introducing leap seconds.^[20] As of 2025, TAI achieves a fractional frequency stability on the order of a few parts in 10^{-16} over monthly intervals, reflecting the ensemble performance of cesium fountain and optical clocks contributing to its realization.^[19] The BIPM publishes preliminary values of TAI in its monthly Circular T, providing rapid updates on clock differences relative to TAI for traceability purposes, with final adjustments incorporated in annual reports.^[21] TAI serves as the foundational atomic scale for Terrestrial Time (TT), related by a fixed offset of exactly 32.184 seconds such that TT - TAI = 32.184 s as of 1 January 1977, 0h TAI at the geocenter.^[7] While individual contributing clocks measure proper time at their locations, TAI incorporates no additional relativistic corrections beyond those applied to transform proper times to the coordinate time frame, maintaining its role as a uniform atomic reference.^[7]

BIPM Realization (TT(BIPM))

The BIPM realization of Terrestrial Time, denoted TT(BIPM), serves as the official post-processed scale for TT, ensuring enhanced long-term stability and accuracy beyond the real-time International Atomic Time (TAI). It is computed annually by the BIPM Time Department as TT(BIPM) = TAI + 32.184 s, where the fixed offset originates from the epoch of 1977 January 1 at 0h TAI, aligning with the IAU definition of TT as a uniform coordinate time scale on the geocentric celestial reference system. This realization incorporates data from primary frequency standards (PFS) and secondary frequency standards (SFS) contributed by international laboratories, forming a weighted average of TAI frequency evaluations to minimize drifts from clock irregularities. The process relies on retrospective adjustments, allowing for the inclusion of finalized calibration data unavailable during TAI's monthly computations.^[22]^[5]^[5] The algorithm for TT(BIPM) employs a least-squares optimization to determine optimal weights, or "filters," for each PFS and SFS in the frequency steering of TAI, addressing irregularities such as phase noise and frequency offsets in contributing atomic clocks. Relativistic corrections, particularly gravitational redshift effects due to the clocks' positions in Earth's gravitational potential, are applied to the hyperfine transition frequencies of the standards in accordance with CIPM recommendations, ensuring the scale unit matches the SI second on the geoid. These corrections, typically on the order of 10^{-16} to 10^{-17} in fractional frequency, are derived from geopotential models and laboratory height measurements, preventing systematic biases in the ensemble average. Type A (statistical) and Type B (systematic) uncertainties are quantified for each evaluation, guiding the weighting to favor more stable standards and yielding a realization with superior long-term stability compared to TAI.^[22]^[23]^[24] TT(BIPM) results are published annually in January, labeled as TT(BIPMYY) where YY denotes the final two digits of the data year (e.g., TT(BIPM2024) based on data through December 2024), and disseminated via the BIPM FTP server alongside files detailing offsets like TT(BIPMYY) - TAI and individual standard contributions. As of 2025, these computations draw from over 20 PFS and SFS across approximately 15-20 institutions worldwide, including major metrology labs like NIST, PTB, and SYRTE, with the offset uncertainty relative to TAI maintained below 100 ns through refined ensemble averaging. The scale's evolution began in 1992 with the inaugural TT(BIPM92), initially using cesium fountain standards; enhancements in the 2020s have integrated quantum optical lattice clocks, such as those based on ytterbium and strontium transitions, achieving fractional frequency accuracies exceeding 10^{-18} and further reducing long-term instability to parts in 10^{17}. These advancements, starting with initial optical clock calibrations incorporated into TAI from 2019, have been pivotal in maintaining TT(BIPM)'s role as the reference for high-precision astronomical and relativistic applications.^[22]^[5]^[24]

Pulsar Timing Methods

Pulsar timing arrays (PTAs) employ networks of millisecond pulsars as extraterrestrial clocks to provide an independent realization of Terrestrial Time (TT). These pulsars rotate with periods typically between 1 and 10 milliseconds and exhibit remarkable long-term rotational stability, rivaling that of atomic clocks over timescales of years, with fractional frequency stabilities as low as 10^{-15}. A prominent example is PSR J0437−4715, one of the nearest and brightest millisecond pulsars, whose timing stability has been extensively characterized and integrated into global arrays for precise timekeeping applications.^[25] The core method relies on observing the arrival times of radio pulses from these pulsars and comparing them to model predictions parameterized by TT. Timing residuals—differences between observed and predicted arrival times—are analyzed to refine pulsar ephemerides and detect any discrepancies in the reference timescale. The International Pulsar Timing Array (IPTA) coordinates this effort by combining datasets from major collaborations, including the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav), the European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA), and the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (PPTA), thereby pooling observations from dozens of millisecond pulsars to achieve enhanced statistical power and reduced noise.^[26] To realize TT via pulsars, denoted as TT(PT), timing models are fitted to the arrival time data, yielding offsets relative to TT that account for interstellar dispersion, orbital motions, and relativistic effects. This process constructs a pulsar-based timescale with precision reaching approximately 10 ns for well-timed individual pulsars, enabling the detection of subtle variations in terrestrial standards. Recent analyses confirm that TT(PT) maintains one-year accuracy competitive with atomic realizations, particularly when using long data spans from stable pulsars like J0437−4715 (over 13 years) and J1713+0747 (over 14 years).^[27]^[28] Advancements from 2023 to 2025, highlighted by the joint detection of a stochastic nanohertz gravitational wave background across PTA collaborations, have further refined these models by incorporating gravitational perturbations, thereby improving the fidelity of TT(PT) offsets. This independent astrophysical approach offers key advantages, such as freedom from Earth-bound systematic errors in atomic ensembles and opportunities to test general relativity through pulse timing anomalies. As of 2025, TT(PT) aligns with the BIPM realization TT(BIPM) at the nanosecond level, underscoring its viability as a complementary standard.^[29]^[28]

Alternative Standards

Optical lattice clocks represent an emerging experimental approach to realizing Terrestrial Time (TT), leveraging transitions in neutral atoms such as strontium-87 or ytterbium-171 to achieve unprecedented accuracy levels beyond those of traditional microwave standards.^[30] These clocks operate at optical frequencies around 429 THz for strontium and 518 THz for ytterbium, enabling stabilities and accuracies on the order of 10^{-18}, which surpasses the performance of cesium-based realizations.^[31] In 2025, advancements by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) have demonstrated strontium lattice clocks with systematic uncertainties below 1 \times 10^{-18} and record coherence times exceeding 118 seconds, positioning them as potential future references for TT through direct comparisons with International Atomic Time (TAI). For instance, a strontium clock has been evaluated for blackbody radiation shifts, achieving frequency uncertainties of 0.17 Hz, and contributes to international networks for redefining the SI second, which underpins TT.^[30]^[32] Historical alternatives to TT realization draw from dynamical methods, such as lunar laser ranging (LLR), which verifies TT by measuring Earth-Moon distances to refine planetary ephemerides and align with legacy Ephemeris Time (ET) data. LLR involves sending laser pulses to retroreflectors on the Moon and timing their return, providing millimeter-level precision that tests gravitational models and time scales indirectly tied to TT.^[33] This technique has historically supported the transition from ET to TT by ensuring consistency in solar system dynamics, with data from Apollo-era reflectors enabling monthly checks against atomic standards.^[34] Other supplementary methods include derivations of TT from Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite clocks, which incorporate relativistic corrections for velocity and gravitational effects to align with terrestrial time scales. GPS receivers compute TT by transforming GPS time—offset from TAI by a fixed 19 seconds—via UTC leap second adjustments and applying post-fit corrections, achieving sub-nanosecond accuracy for navigation and timing applications.^[35] Additionally, software realizations in astronomy libraries like ERFA (Essential Routines for Fundamental Astronomy), derived from the IAU's Standards of Fundamental Astronomy (SOFA), implement TT through algorithmic transformations for ephemeris computations, ensuring consistent coordinate time in geocentric frames without physical hardware.^[36] These alternatives serve as supplementary tools rather than official realizations, offering verification or practical implementations but with inherent limitations in precision and continuity compared to primary standards. For example, LLR provides valuable dynamical checks on a monthly basis but attains only centimeter-level ranging accuracy, translating to time uncertainties larger than those from atomic ensembles.^[37] Optical clocks, while promising, remain experimental and require further international coordination for routine TT contribution, as demonstrated by initial time scale generations showing nanosecond-level drifts over months.^[38]

Relativistic Relationships

Coordinate Time Scales

In relativistic frameworks for astronomy, coordinate time scales establish a uniform temporal measure within defined reference systems, differing from proper time, which accounts for gravitational and velocity effects experienced by physical clocks at specific locations. Terrestrial Time (TT) functions as the geocentric coordinate time, providing a regular progression at the Earth's center and excluding perturbations from the local gravitational field at the surface.^[39] This idealization allows TT to serve as a stable reference for Earth-centered observations, realized practically through atomic standards but conceptualized as unaffected by local dynamics.^[40] The hierarchy of these scales positions TT in relation to broader solar system references, particularly Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), the coordinate time defined at the solar system's barycenter within the Barycentric Celestial Reference System (BCRS). TCB accounts for relativistic effects across the entire system, while Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) represents a rescaled variant of TCB, engineered to match TT's secular rate for use in dynamical ephemerides and orbital calculations.^[39] This structure ensures consistency between geocentric and barycentric computations in celestial mechanics. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) 2000 resolutions formalize TT within the Geocentric Celestial Reference System (GCRS), where the system's metric incorporates the IAU 1976 precession model to describe the space-time geometry around Earth.^[41] In this context, TT maintains a fixed linear relation to Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), the pure coordinate time of the GCRS, differing only by a constant rate to align with surface-based measurements. TT distinguishes itself from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by remaining continuous and free of leap second insertions, which UTC employs to synchronize with Earth's irregular rotation.^[40] Moreover, unlike proper time intervals recorded by clocks at particular sites—subject to position-dependent relativistic corrections—TT embodies an idealized, frame-specific uniformity essential for precise astronomical timing.^[39]

Transformation Formulas

The transformation from Terrestrial Time (TT) to International Atomic Time (TAI) involves a fixed, non-relativistic offset of 32.184 seconds, defined to ensure continuity with prior ephemeris time scales. This relation is expressed as

\text{TT} = \text{TAI} + 32.184~\text{s},

where the offset originates from the alignment of atomic and dynamical time at the epoch of January 1, 1972.^[42]^[40] The conversion between TT and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) accounts for leap seconds to synchronize with solar time and the irregular Earth's rotation via the UT1-UTC difference. The formula is

\text{TT} = \text{UTC} + \Delta\text{UT1} + \text{leap seconds} + 32.184~\text{s},

where leap seconds equal TAI - UTC (published by the IERS), and \DeltaUT1 (also from IERS Bulletins) corrects for polar motion and tidal effects on rotation, typically ranging from -0.9 to +0.9 seconds.^[42]^[43] Relativistic transformations to Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) incorporate periodic variations from Earth's heliocentric motion, primarily gravitational redshift and orbital dynamics. The Fairhead-Bretagnon approximation captures the dominant annual term as

\text{TDB} = \text{TT} + 1.657 \times 10^{-3} \sin\left( \frac{2\pi (t - T_0)}{1~\text{year}} \right) + \text{higher-order terms},

where t is in Julian centuries from J2000.0 (T_0 = 2451545.0), and the full series (791 coefficients) achieves nanosecond accuracy for ephemeris computations.^[44] The relation to Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB) follows post-Newtonian IAU conventions, featuring a linear scaling due to the gravitational potential difference between Earth and the solar system barycenter, plus periodic corrections. It is given by

\text{TCB} = \text{TT} + L_B ( \text{JD}_\text{TT} - 2443144.5003725 ) \times 86400 + \text{periodic terms},

where L_B = 1.550519768 \times 10^{-8} is the defining constant from the barycentric metric, and the periodic terms arise from the Earth's velocity and position in the BCRS (Barycentric Celestial Reference System). The full derivation integrates the geodesic equation in the post-Newtonian field of the Sun-dominated system.^[40] A key component in the geocentric-to-barycentric transformation, particularly for TDB periodic effects, is the logarithmic term correcting for time dilation along the Earth's elliptical orbit in the Sun's field:

\Delta t = \frac{G M_\odot}{[c](/page/Speed_of_light)^3} \ln \left( \frac{1 + e \cos E}{1 - e} \right),

where G M_\odot is the solar mass parameter ($1.327 \times 10^{20}~\text{m}^3~\text{s}^{-2}), c is the speed of light, e \approx 0.0167 is Earth's orbital eccentricity, and E is the eccentric anomaly. This term, part of the Shapiro-like delay, contributes up to about 20 microseconds to the annual variation.^[44]^[40]

Applications in Relativity

In the Global Positioning System (GPS), Terrestrial Time (TT) serves as the standard time scale for computing satellite orbital ephemerides, ensuring precise predictions of satellite positions relative to Earth. GPS satellite clocks run faster than ground-based clocks due to relativistic effects, with a net correction of approximately +38 microseconds per day applied by receivers to synchronize with TT-derived ground time scales. This adjustment accounts for gravitational time dilation from Earth's weaker field at orbital altitude and special relativistic effects from satellite velocity, enabling sub-meter positioning accuracy essential for navigation. For deep space missions, the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) relies on TT to generate trajectory predictions and ephemerides through tools like the Metric Prediction Generator (MPG) and JPL Horizons system. These predictions align spacecraft timing with Earth-based operations, as seen in the Perseverance rover mission, where TT coordinates Mars ephemerides for rover navigation and communication scheduling. By providing a uniform geocentric reference, TT facilitates relativistic corrections for light travel times and planetary positions, supporting autonomous operations on Mars surfaces.^[45]^[46] Pulsar timing in binary systems offers a direct test of general relativity, where TT-based measurements of pulse arrival times reveal relativistic delays. In the Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar (PSR B1913+16), long-term timing observations track orbital decay from gravitational wave emission, with the observed period derivative matching general relativity predictions to within 0.2%. These TT-referenced times of arrival (TOAs), corrected to the solar system barycenter, quantify post-Keplerian parameters like periastron advance and Shapiro delay, confirming energy loss mechanisms predicted by Einstein's theory.^[47]^[48] As of 2025, mission planning for the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) incorporates TT to tie spacecraft clocks to the Geocentric Celestial Reference System (GCRS), enabling precise synchronization for gravitational wave detection in the millihertz band. This frame alignment supports time-delay interferometry, mitigating laser noise and relativistic propagation effects across the constellation.^[49]

References

[1]
Terrestrial Time (TT) - Astronomical Applications Department
Terrestrial Time (TT) is a time scale established by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to serve as the independent argument for apparent geocentric ...
[2]
Definitions of Systems of Time - CNMOC
Terrestrial Time (TT), (or Terrestrial Dynamical Time, TDT), with unit of duration 86400 SI seconds on the geoid, is the independent argument of apparent ...Missing: IAU | Show results with:IAU
[3]
Earth Revolution Time - Navipedia - GSSC
Feb 23, 2012 · In 1976, in Grenoble, the IAU resolved that Ephemeris Time would be replaced by two relativistic timescales intended to constitute dynamical ...
[4]
IAU resolutions on reference systems and time scales in practice
Resolution B1.9 (Re–definition of Terrestrial Time TT). Actually, this resolution introduces LG just as a defin- ing constant (LG = 6.969290134 10. −10) and ...<|separator|>
[5]
TT(BIPM)
TT(BIPM) is a realization of Terrestrial Time as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is computed annually by the BIPM.
[6]
Resolution 2 of the 26th CGPM (2018) - BIPM
Resolution A4 (1991) of the IAU further defined, in Recommendation IV, Terrestrial Time (TT) as another time coordinate in the Geocentric Reference System, ...
[7]
[PDF] Glossary - IERS Conventions Centre
Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) time scale for apparent geocentric ephemerides defined by a 1979. IAU resolution and in 1991 was replaced by Terrestrial Time ( ...
[8]
IERS Technical Notes - IERS Conventions (2010)
### Summary of GCRS Metric and Relation to IAU 1976 Precession Model for Terrestrial Time
[9]
[PDF] The JPL Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides DE440 and DE441
Feb 8, 2021 · Compared to the previous general-purpose ephemerides DE430, seven years of new data have been added to compute DE440 and DE441, with improved.
[10]
Fluctuations in the Moon's mean motion - Astrophysics Data System
Simon Newcomb, LXIX. 3, Fluctuations in the' Moon's Mean Motion. By Simon ... friction would be through a tidal couple acting between the Earth and Moon.Missing: irregularities | Show results with:irregularities<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
A novel approach to delta-T from 1620 to 2010 - Oxford Academic
As ut is slightly irregular in its rate, astronomers introduced et. et is the independent variable of time in Simon Newcomb's Tables of the Sun, which ...
[12]
Time Scales - UC Observatories
... IAU adopt a time scale based on orbital motions as described by Newcomb's tables. Ephemeris Time in 1952: The IAU 8th General Assembly in 1952 resolved that ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[13]
Ephemeris Time (Chapter 6) - Time: From Earth Rotation to Atomic ...
Oct 1, 2018 · André Danjon and Gerald Clemence proposed a timescale based on the orbital motion of the Earth that was adopted in 1952, and called Ephemeris Time (ET).
[14]
Development of Radar and Optical Tracking of Near-Earth Asteroids ...
Subsequent radar observations in the 1960s permitted the refinement of ephemerides to a sufficient accuracy to guide interplanetary spacecraft. Detections ...
[15]
[PDF] Evolution of Timescales from Astronomy to Physical Metrology - DTIC
Jul 20, 2011 · Barycentric Ephemeris Time (Teph) is a coordinate time related to TCB by an offset and a scale factor. Ephemerides based upon the coordinate ...
[16]
https://www.agi.com/getmedia/8014b59b-f601-4016-9ca2-207d535e28d5/The-Mean-Solar-Time-Origin-of-Universal-Time-and-UTC.pdf?ext=.pdf
[17]
[PDF] The IAU Resolutions on Astronomical Reference Systems, Time ...
Oct 20, 2005 · The series of resolutions passed by the International Astronomical Union at its General Assemblies in 1997 and 2000 are the most significant ...
[18]
[PDF] a new realization of terrestrial time - BIPM
... Resolution A4 of the International Astronomical Union, adopted at its XXIst General Assembly (1991) as a coordinate time of a geocentric reference system.
[19]
Resolutions of the 24th International Astronomical Union General ...
LG was defined by the IAU Resolution A4 (1991) in its Recommendation 4 as equal to UG/c2 where UG is the geopotential at the geoid. LG is now used as a defining ...
[20]
https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/59466374/6_establishment_TAR20.pdf/5b18b648-0d5a-ee02-643d-a60ed6c148fc
[21]
[PDF] 9 Establishment of International Atomic Time and Coordinated ...
A formal definition of TAI and UTC can be found in Resolution 2 of the 26th meeting of the CGPM (2018). https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/30876792/CGPM26 ...
[22]
Long term stability of atomic time scales - NASA ADS
We review the stability and accuracy achieved by the reference atomic time scales TAI and TT(BIPM). We show that they presently are in the low 10 -16 in ...
[23]
Circular T - BIPM
BIPM Circular T is a monthly publication providing traceability to UTC, with values of differences [UTC – UTC(k)] every five days.Missing: preliminary | Show results with:preliminary
[24]
[PDF] TT(BIPM) on ftp
Jan 24, 2013 · TT(BIPM) is a realization of Terrestrial Time as defined by Recommendation IV of. Resolution A4 of the International Astronomical Union, adopted ...
[25]
[PDF] TT(BIPM) and Primary frequency standards
A rough statistical estimate would put TT(BIPM) accuracy in the low. 10-16, but time transfer and instability of EAL limit this. ... TT allows to estimate ...
[26]
[PDF] BIPM Annual Report on Time Activities 2016
the gravitational redshift corrections of CSF1 and CSF2 have been changed by about +2 × 10−17. While the uncertainties of the new gravitational redshift ...
[27]
Timing stability of millisecond pulsars and prospects for gravitational ...
The rotational stability of MSPs is generally three to four orders of magnitude better than that of normal pulsars, and on time-scales of several years it has ...
[28]
A pulsar-based time-scale from the International Pulsar Timing Array
This meant that any discrepancies found between the pulsar-based time-scale and a terrestrial time-scale could arise from errors in the observatory time-scale.Missing: IAU adjustments integration
[29]
PINT: A Modern Software Package for Pulsar Timing - IOPscience
Apr 14, 2021 · Over the past few decades, the measurement precision of some pulsar timing experiments has advanced from ∼10 μs to ∼10 ns, revealing many subtle ...
[30]
Study on the One-year Accuracy of Pulsar Time-scale
Determining accurate pulsar timing model parameters is essential for establishing TT(PT), a realization of Terrestrial Time (TT) based on a pulsar timescale (PT) ...
[31]
Charting the Nanohertz Gravitational Wave Sky with Pulsar Timing ...
Sep 12, 2024 · In the summer of 2023, the pulsar timing arrays (PTAs) announced a compelling evidence for the existence of a nanohertz stochastic gravitational ...
[32]
4.32 Optical Lattice Clocks - PTB.de
In an optical lattice clock, strontium (or similar) atoms are confined to the interference pattern of two laser beams. In this so-called 'optical lattice' the ...
[33]
Yb Optical Lattice Clock | NIST
Jul 15, 2014 · NIST Yb lattice clocks push the frontiers of atomic timekeeping, and have set world records in the most critical figure-of-merits for optical clocks.<|separator|>
[34]
The JPL Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides DE440 and DE441
Feb 8, 2021 · The planetary and lunar ephemerides called DE440 and DE441 have been generated by fitting numerically integrated orbits to ground-based and space-based ...
[35]
https://tf.nist.gov/general/pdf/2444.pdf
[36]
[PDF] The global positioning system, relativity, and extraterrestrial navigation
Jan 5, 2010 · Relativistic effects are important for GPS performance and time comparisons. GPS uses these effects to model algorithms and synchronize atomic ...Missing: derived | Show results with:derived
[37]
SOFA Time Scale and Calendar Tools
The unit is tropical years (about. 365.2422 days), the time scale is ephemeris time (Section 3.2) and the Besselian year begins when the ecliptic longitude of ...
[38]
Tests of Gravity Using Lunar Laser Ranging | Living Reviews in ...
Nov 2, 2010 · Lunar laser ranging (LLR) is performed by measuring the round-trip light travel time between a ground transmitter and the retroreflector. Early ...Missing: TT | Show results with:TT
[39]
Months-long real-time generation of a time scale based on ... - Nature
Mar 9, 2018 · The resultant time scale was as stable as International Atomic Time (TAI) with its accuracy at the 10−16 level. We also compared the time scale ...
[40]
None
Summary of each segment:
[41]
Improvement of the IAU 2000 precession model
The IAU 2000 precession consists of the IAU 1976 ecliptic precession (Lieske et al. ... J2000 mean equatorial system or the GCRS. The precession expressions for X ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[42]
[PDF] 5 Transformation between the International Terrestrial Refer
Jul 13, 2011 · Concerning the time coordinates, IAU 1991 Resolution A4 defined TCB and TCG of the BCRS and GCRS respectively, as well as another time ...
[43]
Transformations between Time Systems - Navipedia - GSSC
Most time transformations use a constant offset. For example, GPS time (GPST) differs from TAI by 19 seconds, and TAI differs from UTC by accumulated leap ...
[44]
[PDF] 10 General relativistic models for space-time coordinates and ...
Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) and Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT; Ka- plan, 1981). As a consequence, the spatial coordinates in the barycentric frame.Missing: clarification | Show results with:clarification
[45]
None
### Summary of Terrestrial Time (TT) in Deep Space Network (DSN) Context
[46]
Horizons Manual - JPL Solar System Dynamics
The JPL Horizons on-line ephemeris system provides access to solar system data and customizable production of accurate ephemerides for observers.
[47]
https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2003-5
[48]
https://doi.org/10.1086/167917
[49]
https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/LISA/LISA_factsheet