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Thermal paste

Thermal paste, also known as thermal grease, is a type of thermal interface material (TIM) consisting of a viscous compound designed to enhance thermal conductivity between two solid surfaces, such as a heat-generating electronic component and a heat sink, by filling microscopic air gaps and reducing thermal contact resistance.^[1] This material is essential in electronics cooling, as air has poor thermal conductivity (approximately 0.026 W/m·K), and thermal paste can achieve conductivities ranging from 0.5 to 12 W/m·K or higher, depending on its formulation.^[2]^[3] By creating a thin bond line (typically ≤50 microns), it ensures efficient heat dissipation under constant pressure, preventing overheating in devices like processors.^[2] The composition of thermal paste generally includes a polymer base, such as silicone oil (e.g., dimethylsiloxane), combined with thermally conductive fillers like zinc oxide, aluminum oxide, boron nitride, or metal particles such as silver or copper nanopowder.^[1]^[4] These fillers, often comprising 60% or more of the mixture by volume, improve heat transfer while the base provides viscosity for easy application and adhesion to surfaces.^[4] The material works by conforming to surface irregularities, minimizing voids, and facilitating direct metal-to-metal contact where possible, though its effectiveness depends on proper application to avoid excessive thickness, which can increase thermal resistance.^[1] Thermal pastes are categorized into silicone-based and non-silicone variants, with the former being more common due to thermal stability and low outgassing, while non-silicone options offer better compatibility with certain metals to prevent corrosion; liquid metal TIMs (e.g., gallium-based) represent a separate high-conductivity category (up to 70 W/m·K) for advanced applications.^[2]^[3] High-performance formulations, such as those incorporating hybrid fillers like copper nanopowder and graphene, can reach thermal conductivities up to 7.5 W/m·K (as of 2020), surpassing many commercial products at the time.^[1] Advancements since then include refined nanoparticle integration to optimize filler distribution and achieve lower bond-line thicknesses (e.g., 25 μm), enhancing reliability in high-power applications.^[1]^[4] Primarily applied in consumer electronics like CPUs and GPUs, as well as power electronics modules in inverters and aerospace systems, thermal paste is dispensed or screen-printed to form a uniform layer under pressures of 0.17–0.34 MPa.^[4] Its use is critical for maintaining operational temperatures below 105°C in glycol-water cooled systems, with thermal resistance values as low as 13–15 mm²·K/W in optimized setups.^[4] Despite advantages like reworkability and high volume resistivity, challenges include pump-out over time, supply chain limitations for high-conductivity fillers, and the need for standardized testing methods like ASTM D5470.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Thermal paste, also known as thermal grease or thermal compound, is a viscous, paste-like material designed as a thermal interface material (TIM) to enhance heat transfer between heat-generating components—such as central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs)—and cooling devices like heat sinks.^[5] It functions by filling microscopic air gaps and surface irregularities at the interface, thereby improving thermal contact and minimizing voids that would otherwise hinder efficient heat dissipation. The primary purpose of thermal paste is to reduce thermal contact resistance in electronic systems, replacing air—a poor thermal conductor with a conductivity of approximately 0.026 W/m·K—with a higher-conductivity medium that promotes better heat flow and prevents component overheating.^[5]^[6] This is crucial for maintaining operational reliability and performance in high-power electronics, where excessive heat can degrade efficiency or cause failure. At its core, thermal paste facilitates heat transfer via conduction, adhering to Fourier's law, which describes the heat flux q as q = -[k](/page/K) \nabla T, where [k](/page/K) represents thermal conductivity and \nabla T the temperature gradient; by optimizing [k](/page/K) at the interface, the paste ensures more effective conduction across imperfect surfaces, such as those found in integrated circuits and metal heat sinks.^[5] Its necessity arises in scenarios where mating surfaces are not ideally flat or parallel, as these imperfections create air pockets that significantly increase thermal resistance.

Historical Development

Thermal greases emerged as the first generation of thermal interface materials (TIMs) and were the most widely used in electronic equipment before 1990.^[5] Early formulations often combined zinc oxide with silicone oil, providing moderate thermal conductivity while filling microscopic air gaps that impeded heat transfer.^[5] By the 1970s, thermal paste saw broader adoption in semiconductor cooling applications, with silicone-based formulas becoming prevalent to handle the increasing power densities of integrated circuits.^[5] This period marked a shift toward more reliable interface materials as electronics miniaturized. In the 1980s, the introduction of ceramic fillers, such as alumina and boron nitride, enabled non-conductive options that reduced the risk of electrical shorts while maintaining effective heat dissipation.^[5] The 1990s brought widespread use in personal computing, particularly with Intel CPUs, as rising clock speeds and heat outputs made thermal paste a standard for consumer PC assembly.^[5] Phase-change materials, originally developed in the 1980s, gained prominence in the 1990s as an innovation to mitigate pump-out issues—where traditional greases would migrate under thermal cycling—offering better long-term stability in high-performance systems.^[7] In the 2010s, liquid metal compounds, such as gallium-based alloys, gained traction among extreme overclockers for their superior thermal conductivity, though requiring careful application due to electrical conductivity.^[3] As of 2025, carbon-based and nano-enhanced thermal interface materials incorporating graphene and carbon nanotubes have emerged, providing higher performance for demanding applications in AI hardware and electric vehicles, driven by the need for efficient thermal management in compact, high-power designs.^[8]^[9]

Composition and Types

Key Ingredients

Thermal paste primarily consists of a base matrix that forms the viscous carrier for the material, typically comprising polymerizable liquids such as silicone oil, epoxy resins, or polyurethane, which provide the necessary viscosity and adhesion to ensure effective contact between heat-generating components and heat sinks.^[5] These base materials usually account for 10-30% by volume of the paste, allowing the formulation to remain spreadable while binding the other components.^[10] The core of thermal paste's heat transfer capability lies in its conductive fillers, which occupy 70-80% by volume and are selected for their high thermal conductivity. Common fillers include ceramics like aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), zinc oxide (ZnO), and boron nitride (BN), which dominate non-conductive formulations due to their electrical insulating properties alongside good thermal performance.^[11] For electrically conductive variants, metal particles such as silver are incorporated to achieve superior heat conduction, though this introduces risks of short-circuiting if misapplied.^[5] Premium pastes may employ advanced fillers like diamond powder to further enhance thermal efficiency in high-performance applications.^[11] To maintain the paste's integrity over time, various additives are integrated at low concentrations, including stabilizers that prevent filler separation from the base matrix, antioxidants to extend shelf life and operational longevity, and dispersants such as polyesters to ensure uniform mixing and even distribution of particles.^[10] These additives are crucial for rheological stability, particularly in highly filled compositions exceeding 70% solids by volume, where phase separation could otherwise compromise performance.^[10] Formulations vary significantly between non-conductive, ceramic-based pastes—relying on oxides and nitrides for safe use in electronics—and electrically conductive, metal-based ones, which prioritize maximum thermal conductivity but require careful handling to avoid electrical issues.^[5] This distinction allows thermal pastes to be tailored for specific applications, balancing heat dissipation with electrical safety.^[11]

Classification by Type

Thermal pastes are categorized based on their primary composition and filler materials, which influence key properties such as thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and application suitability. These classifications include silicone-based, ceramic/oxide-based, metal-based, liquid metal, and emerging carbon-enhanced variants, each offering trade-offs in performance, cost, and risk. Silicone-based thermal pastes are among the most common and widely used, featuring a non-curing silicone oil matrix often combined with basic fillers for stability. They typically exhibit thermal conductivities ranging from 1 to 4 W/m·K, providing affordable and reliable heat transfer for general-purpose applications in consumer electronics where high performance is not critical.^[12]^[13] Their non-electrically conductive nature and ease of application make them suitable for beginners and standard cooling setups. Ceramic/oxide-based thermal pastes incorporate non-conductive fillers such as aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) or zinc oxide (ZnO) dispersed in a silicone or similar carrier, ensuring electrical insulation while achieving moderate thermal conductivities around 1 to 5 W/m·K. These pastes are particularly suitable for standard CPU cooling in computing systems, as they balance cost-effectiveness with safety against short circuits in typical electronic environments.^[5]^[14] Metal-based thermal pastes use highly conductive particles like silver or aluminum embedded in a viscous carrier, delivering higher thermal conductivities of 4 to 8 W/m·K for improved heat dissipation in demanding scenarios. However, their electrical conductivity poses risks of short circuits if misapplied, limiting their use to experienced users in non-sensitive components.^[3]^[5] Liquid metal thermal pastes consist of eutectic alloys such as galinstan (a gallium-indium-tin mixture), which remain liquid at room temperature and offer exceptional thermal conductivities exceeding 13 W/m·K, enabling superior performance in extreme cooling needs like CPU delidding. Despite their efficacy, they are electrically conductive and corrosive to aluminum surfaces, requiring careful handling and compatibility checks to avoid damage.^[5]^[15] Emerging types of thermal pastes incorporate advanced nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes or graphene to enhance conductivity, achieving enhanced thermal conductivities up to 15 W/m·K in commercial carbon-enhanced formulations as of 2025, for high-power density devices in the 2020s. These carbon-enhanced pastes address limitations of traditional materials by improving heat transfer in compact, high-performance electronics, though challenges in dispersion and cost persist.^[5]^[11]^[3]

Properties

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity, denoted as k, quantifies a material's ability to conduct heat and is expressed in watts per meter-kelvin (W/m·K). In thermal pastes, which serve as thermal interface materials (TIMs), k represents the apparent thermal conductivity derived from steady-state heat flow measurements under controlled conditions. The industry-standard method for evaluation is ASTM D5470, which measures thermal impedance—the total resistance to heat flow including the material thickness—and calculates k by accounting for specimen thickness while isolating contact resistances at interfaces.^[16] Measured values for thermal pastes typically range from about 0.5 W/m·K for basic silicone formulations to around 7 W/m·K for advanced premium variants such as those with hybrid fillers, with most commercial products exhibiting 1-5 W/m·K based on independent testing. Manufacturer claims may report higher values up to 15 W/m·K or more for metal-oxide or silver-filled variants.^[3]^[17]^[1]^[18] Several key factors govern the thermal conductivity of thermal pastes, primarily centered on the filler components dispersed within a polymer matrix such as silicone or epoxy. Filler type and loading volume are paramount: metallic fillers like silver (with intrinsic k around 429 W/m·K) outperform ceramic options such as boron nitride or alumina (20–300 W/m·K), enabling higher overall k at loadings up to 60 vol.% through better heat percolation.^[19]^[20] Particle size and distribution further enhance performance by promoting interconnected networks that minimize thermal barriers; smaller particles improve packing density and matrix compatibility for uniform dispersion, while hybrid size distributions (e.g., micron-scale mixtures) facilitate efficient phonon transport and reduce voids.^[20] Optimal matrix-filler compatibility ensures low interfacial resistance, preventing agglomeration that could otherwise degrade heat transfer pathways.^[20] Compared to bulk metals like copper (k \approx 400 W/m·K), thermal pastes exhibit much lower conductivity but excel in thin-bondline applications where surface irregularities demand conformable interfaces.^[19] This disparity is acceptable because pastes operate in micrometer-thick layers, where the thermal resistance R at the interface is given by

R = \frac{d}{k A}

with d as bondline thickness, k as conductivity, and A as contact area; even a modest k of 5–10 W/m·K yields low R (e.g., <0.5 K·cm²/W) sufficient for electronics cooling.^[21] Testing distinguishes bulk k—an intrinsic material property measured under idealized conditions—from effective or in-situ k, which incorporates real assembly factors like pressure and contact imperfections. ASTM D5470 facilitates both by plotting impedance against varying thicknesses to extract bulk values after subtracting interfaces, with recent modifications to the tester enhancing precision for high-performance TIMs under realistic loads.^[22]^[23]

Rheological and Mechanical Properties

Thermal pastes typically exhibit non-Newtonian, shear-thinning behavior, where viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, allowing the material to flow easily under pressure during application while resisting flow at rest to prevent sagging or dripping.^[24] This pseudoplastic response is modeled using power-law equations such as \sigma = K \dot{\gamma}^n, where \sigma is shear stress, \dot{\gamma} is shear rate, K is the consistency index, and n < 1 indicates shear-thinning.^[24] Apparent viscosity is calculated as \eta_a = \sigma / \dot{\gamma}, with zero-shear viscosity \eta_0 representing the value at low shear rates.^[24] Viscosities for thermal pastes generally fall in the range of 100,000 to 350,000 centipoise (cP), balancing spreadability and stability; for instance, specific formulations show values around 170,000 cP to 350,000 cP.^[25] Thixotropy enhances this by enabling time-dependent viscosity reduction under constant shear, which reverses upon shear cessation, promoting even distribution without contamination or seepage in confined spaces.^[26] Yield stresses in highly filled pastes range from 20 to 40 kPa, marking the onset of flow and contributing to non-drip characteristics.^[10] Mechanically, thermal pastes provide adhesion to metal and ceramic surfaces through viscous contact, ensuring conformal filling of microscopic irregularities without curing in standard greases. Elasticity is incorporated to buffer coefficient of thermal expansion mismatches, with mild viscoelastic properties relieving interfacial stresses during temperature fluctuations. In curable variants, post-cure hardness may reach Shore A 30-50, providing semi-rigid support while retaining some compliance.^[25] Stability is critical for long-term performance, with formulations resisting oxidation through inert vehicles like silicone oils and maintaining integrity across thermal cycles from -50°C to 200°C.^[25] Phase separation is minimized by controlling filler dispersion and avoiding entrapped air during mixing, which can lead to void formation under cycling.^[10] Bleeding, or oil migration, is mitigated in thixotropic designs, preventing performance degradation in power-cycled environments up to 150°C.^[10] Rheological and mechanical properties are evaluated using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), which measures shear modulus under oscillatory loading to assess viscoelastic response and longevity.^[27] Storage modulus values, often in the range of 1-10 MPa, indicate elastic dominance, ensuring durability in vibrating applications like automotive electronics where shear stresses exceed 600 psi.^[27] DMA testing over -150°C to 200°C reveals transitions like glass transition temperatures around -110°C to 100°C, correlating with stability under thermal and mechanical loads.^[27]

Applications

In Computing and Electronics

Thermal paste is essential in computing and electronics for facilitating efficient heat transfer between integrated heat spreaders (IHS) of central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs) and their respective heatsinks or cooling solutions. In desktop computers, laptops, and servers, it is applied to manage thermal loads from processors with thermal design power (TDP) ratings typically ranging from 15 W in low-power consumer laptops to over 65 W in high-performance models and over 300 W in high-end server environments, preventing thermal throttling and ensuring stable performance under load.^[28]^[29] Beyond primary processors, thermal paste is used on secondary heat-generating components within electronic devices, such as power transistors and voltage regulator modules on graphics cards, as well as video random access memory (VRAM) chips to maintain optimal temperatures during intensive operations. It is also applied to LED drivers in display and lighting subsystems to enhance heat dissipation and prolong component lifespan. In overclocking scenarios, where clock speeds are elevated beyond stock specifications, high-quality thermal paste enables sustained performance boosts by reducing temperatures by 5-7°C compared to degraded or inferior alternatives, allowing for higher stable frequencies without excessive throttling.^[30]^[31]^[32] Specific applications highlight its impact, such as delidding Intel and AMD CPUs to apply liquid metal variants of thermal paste directly to the die, which can yield temperature reductions of 10-20°C under load—for instance, delidding an AMD Ryzen APU resulted in a 14°C drop over ambient compared to stock paste. In smartphones, thermal paste or gel is employed between the system-on-chip (SoC) and heat dissipation structures like vapor chambers to mitigate heat buildup during demanding tasks, supporting compact designs with high power densities. Non-conductive types, such as silicone-based pastes, are particularly suited for these electronics applications to avoid short-circuit risks.^[33]^[34] By 2025, thermal paste has become integral to emerging technologies like AI accelerators and 5G-enabled devices, where it addresses challenges in compact, high-density heat dissipation amid rising power demands—for example, in NVIDIA's Blackwell AI GPUs with TDPs up to 600 W as of mid-2025—the global thermal interface materials market, including conductive pastes, is projected to grow at around 10% CAGR from 2026 to 2036, driven by 5G infrastructure and AI hardware proliferation.^[35]^[36]

Industrial and Other Uses

Thermal paste plays a crucial role in automotive applications, particularly in electric vehicle (EV) battery packs where it facilitates efficient heat transfer between battery cells and cooling systems to maintain optimal operating temperatures and prevent thermal runaway. In power electronics modules, such as inverters and converters, specialized formulations handle high thermal loads, with operating ranges extending up to 200°C to ensure reliability under demanding conditions.^[37]^[38] In the aerospace sector, high-reliability thermal pastes are essential for avionics and satellite components, where they fill microscopic gaps between heat-generating electronics and heat sinks to enhance conductivity in vacuum or low-pressure environments. These materials must withstand extreme temperature fluctuations from -55°C to 125°C, supporting mission-critical performance in aircraft and spacecraft systems.^[39]^[40] For medical devices, thermal paste formulations prioritize biocompatibility and non-toxicity to meet stringent regulatory standards, enabling safe integration in sensitive equipment like MRI machines and laser systems where precise thermal management prevents overheating without risking patient exposure to harmful substances.^[41]^[42] Beyond these sectors, thermal paste is widely used in power supplies to improve heat dissipation from transistors and capacitors, extending component lifespan in high-power environments. In LED lighting arrays, it ensures uniform heat spreading across modules, reducing junction temperatures and maintaining luminous efficacy over time. Renewable energy inverters, such as those in solar and wind systems, rely on thermal paste to manage heat in power conversion stages, optimizing efficiency and reliability. Phase-change variants of thermal paste, which transition to a more conformable state at operating temperatures, are particularly suited for automotive LED applications like headlights, providing low thermal resistance without pump-out issues during vibration.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]

Application and Maintenance

Application Methods

Proper application of thermal paste is essential to ensure optimal thermal contact between heat-generating components and their cooling solutions, minimizing air gaps and maximizing heat transfer efficiency. The process begins with thorough surface preparation of both the heat source, such as a CPU integrated heat spreader (IHS), and the cooler base. Surfaces must be cleaned to remove any residual old paste, oxides, dust, or contaminants using high-purity isopropyl alcohol (at least 90%) and a lint-free microfiber cloth or coffee filter to avoid scratching or leaving fibers.^[47]^[48] After cleaning, allow the surfaces to dry completely and inspect for flatness; any irregularities greater than a few micrometers can compromise performance, so lapping or polishing may be required for high-precision applications.^[43] Common techniques for applying thermal paste vary by component size and application context. For CPUs and GPUs in computing, the pea-sized dot method is widely recommended: place a small amount, approximately 3-4 mm in diameter (about 0.2 g total), in the center of the IHS, allowing the mounting pressure of the cooler to spread it evenly without introducing air bubbles. For modern sockets like LGA1700 or AM5, manufacturers recommend specific patterns such as a central dot plus additional corner dots to ensure coverage over offset dies.^[47]^[48]^[49] For larger surfaces, such as in power electronics or industrial heatsinks, direct spreading with a plastic spatula, card, or automated dispenser ensures uniform coverage; patterns like a central dot or lines are used to achieve a thin bond line thickness of 10-50 µm.^[43] Over-application should be avoided to prevent excess squeeze-out, which can lead to uneven distribution or contamination; instead, aim for just enough to fill microscopic gaps under pressure.^[48] Tools for application include manual syringes or spatulas for precise dispensing, stencils with apertures (e.g., 0.075-0.15 mm thick stainless steel) for uniform deposition in manufacturing, and non-conductive plastic spreaders to avoid metallic contamination.^[43] Most non-curing thermal pastes remain viscous but form an interface within seconds to minutes once pressure is applied, though some adhesive variants may require hours to fully cure.^[47] Best practices emphasize controlled application quantities, with approximately 0.2 g sufficient for standard desktop CPUs to achieve even coverage. Uniform mounting pressure, generally 20-50 psi provided by the cooler's retention mechanism (e.g., screws tightened in a cross-pattern), ensures even spreading and optimal interface contact; excessive pressure beyond 60 lbf total force offers diminishing returns and risks component damage.^[47]^[50] Post-application verification can involve thermal imaging to confirm even heat distribution or temporary disassembly to inspect coverage, particularly in critical systems.^[48] For specialized types like liquid metal, additional precautions such as non-conductive barriers are advised, as detailed in type classifications.^[43]

Replacement and Removal

Thermal paste replacement is typically recommended every 1-3 years for systems under regular use, or sooner in high-performance environments such as overclocked processors or gaming rigs subjected to sustained loads, to maintain optimal heat transfer efficiency.^[51] Manufacturers like Intel suggest reapplication every few years or whenever the CPU cooler is removed, as the paste can dry out or pump out over time, leading to diminished performance.^[47] A key indicator of degradation is a temperature increase exceeding 10°C under similar workloads compared to baseline measurements, signaling the need for inspection and replacement.^[52] To remove old thermal paste, first power off the system and disconnect all power sources to avoid electrical hazards. Gently detach the heatsink or cooler, taking care not to damage pins or surfaces. Use 90% or higher isopropyl alcohol applied to a lint-free microfiber cloth or cotton swabs to wipe away the residue from both the CPU integrated heat spreader (IHS) and the cooler base; this solvent effectively dissolves the paste without leaving contaminants.^[47]^[53] For stubborn remnants, a soft fiber brush can aid in gentle scrubbing, but avoid abrasive materials like metal scrapers that could scratch delicate surfaces. In professional settings, ultrasonic cleaners may be employed for thorough removal, though this is unnecessary for most end-users. Allow surfaces to air-dry completely before reassembly to ensure no alcohol residue interferes with new paste adhesion. During the removal process, wear nitrile gloves to minimize skin contact with the paste or solvents, as some formulations may cause irritation upon prolonged exposure.^[53] Work in a well-ventilated area to disperse isopropyl alcohol fumes, which can be mildly irritating if inhaled in confined spaces; detailed handling hazards are covered in the Potential Hazards section.^[54] Reapplication cycles should include regular inspections in high-heat setups like gaming PCs, where thermal cycling accelerates wear—monitor temperatures quarterly using software tools to catch early degradation. Precision tools such as fiber brushes facilitate clean preparation for fresh paste, ensuring consistent contact and longevity of up to several years post-replacement.^[51] After reapplying, verify temperatures under load to confirm improvements, typically a 5-15°C drop if the old paste was compromised.^[52]

Performance Challenges

Degradation and Failure Modes

Thermal paste degradation primarily manifests through the pump-out effect, where repeated thermal cycling induces shear and peeling stresses due to coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatches between the heat-generating component and the heat sink, causing the paste to extrude from the interface edges. This reduces the effective contact area and elevates thermal resistance, particularly in non-thixotropic formulations with lower viscosity that flow more readily under stress. Studies on silicone oil-based pastes have shown void formation and interface expansion leading to pump-out during cyclic loading, with less viscous materials exhibiting greater susceptibility compared to higher-viscosity, non-silicone alternatives.^[55]^[56]^[57] Another key failure mode involves dry-out and phase separation, driven by the evaporation of volatile base fluids or the settling of filler particles within the paste matrix over prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. These processes disrupt the paste's microstructure, forming voids and dendrites that diminish its gap-filling capability and increase thermal resistance; for instance, accelerated thermal cycling between 20°C and 100°C can produce void fractions up to 15% in certain greases after just four days, correlating with relative resistance increases of around 16% in susceptible materials. Such degradation is exacerbated in thinner bond lines or under static high-temperature conditions, where filler separation from the polymer carrier becomes prominent, and recent studies indicate that combined temperature-humidity environments further accelerate void formation in high-performance electronics.^[56]^[55]^[57]^[58] Contamination at the interface, such as dust ingress or surface oxidation, further compromises performance by introducing air pockets or additional barriers that heighten thermal impedance. In electrically conductive metal-based pastes, migration or improper application can lead to short circuits across nearby components, posing risks of hardware failure. External factors like vibration accelerate these modes by mimicking mechanical cycling, promoting faster extrusion and separation akin to power-induced stresses.^[57]^[59] Overall, these degradation mechanisms can elevate interface temperatures significantly; for example, initial thermal deltas of approximately 5°C under standard loads may rise to 20°C or more post-degradation due to compounded resistance increases, underscoring the need for material selection that resists such failures.^[55]^[57]

Improvements and Alternatives

Recent advancements in thermal paste formulations have focused on incorporating nano-fillers such as graphene to improve thermal conductivity while maintaining compatibility with existing application methods. Graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene oxide, when dispersed at low loadings of 1-2 wt%, have enabled polymer-based thermal greases to achieve conductivities up to 3-6 W/m·K, an increase from conventional pastes, as demonstrated in epoxy-graphene nanocomposites as of the early 2020s.^[60] These enhancements leverage graphene's intrinsic high thermal conductivity (over 3000 W/m·K) to form efficient percolation networks, reducing phonon scattering at the filler-matrix interface. Further progress includes graphite-based fillers yielding conductivities of around 20 W/m·K in flexible thermal pads, suitable for high-power electronics.^[61] Self-healing polymers represent another key improvement, addressing longevity issues by enabling autonomous repair of micro-cracks and delaminations under thermal cycling. In self-healing polydimethylsiloxane (SH-PDMS) matrices embedded with silicon carbide-welded boron nitride networks, the material recovers 97% of its mechanical strength post-damage through dynamic hydrogen bonding, while maintaining an out-of-plane thermal conductivity of 2.14 W/m·K at 23 wt% filler loading.^[62] This approach extends service life in demanding applications like flexible electronics, where traditional pastes degrade over time, and has been advanced in phase-change composites with dynamic crosslinking for repeated healing cycles without performance loss.^[63] Phase-change materials (PCMs) offer a targeted solution to pump-out, where traditional pastes migrate under thermal stress, by remaining solid at room temperature and liquefying only above operating thresholds (typically 45°C) to conform to surface irregularities. Paraffin-based PCM pads, such as those in the Honeywell PTM series, solidify below activation temperature to prevent flow while melting to fill micron-level gaps, achieving thermal conductivities of 8.5 W/m·K and demonstrating no bleed-out after up to 1000 cycles.^[64] These materials' reversible phase transition—expanding slightly upon melting and contracting upon cooling—ensures consistent interface contact, making them ideal for vertical or vibration-prone installations like laptop GPUs.^[65] Alternatives to conventional thermal paste include thermal pads, which provide reusable, non-curing interfaces with conductivities typically ranging from 1 to 5 W/m·K, avoiding the mess and reapplication needs of greases. Silicone-based pads like Laird Tflex HR400 offer 1.8 W/m·K conductivity, high compressibility for gap filling, and repositionability without residue, suitable for prototyping or frequent maintenance.^[66] Direct-die cooling eliminates the integrated heat spreader, applying coolant or paste directly to the chip die for improved heat transfer in custom loops, though it requires precise machining to avoid damage.^[67] Vapor chambers serve as advanced heat spreaders, distributing heat uniformly over larger areas with effective conductivities exceeding 1000 W/m·K in-plane, often integrated into laptop bases as a paste-free option for thin profiles.^[68] For extreme performance, liquid metal alloys like gallium-indium provide conductivities over 70 W/m·K but necessitate corrosion inhibitors, such as nickel coatings on copper substrates, to prevent intermetallic formation and substrate degradation.^[69] Encapsulating liquid metal in polydimethylsiloxane composites further mitigates corrosion while retaining high thermal performance.^[70] As of 2025, future trends emphasize printable thermal pastes compatible with additive manufacturing, enabling direct integration into 3D-printed heatsinks for customized, topology-optimized cooling solutions. Techniques like electrochemical deposition allow pixel-precise printing of copper structures onto processors, potentially bypassing traditional paste application altogether and improving contact efficiency by 30%.^[71] Eco-friendly formulations incorporating renewable materials are gaining traction to reduce environmental impact while achieving conductivities up to several W/m·K.^[72] Recent developments include liquid-infused nanostructured composites offering high thermal performance and stability over 1000 cycles from -55°C to 125°C, particularly for AI data center cooling, and pastes like ID-Cooling Frost X45 demonstrating top performance in 2025 benchmarks.^[73]^[74]^[3]

Health and Safety

Potential Hazards

Thermal pastes, particularly non-conductive varieties containing zinc oxide as a filler, pose inhalation risks when aerosolized or heated, potentially causing metal fume fever characterized by flu-like symptoms including chills, fever, cough, and shortness of breath due to lung irritation.^[75] Chronic occupational exposure to zinc oxide fumes in manufacturing settings has been associated with persistent respiratory issues such as asthma and reduced lung function.^[76] Zinc oxide also exhibits aquatic toxicity, classified as very toxic to aquatic life with long-lasting effects under environmental hazard assessments.^[77] Liquid metal thermal pastes, such as those based on galinstan (a gallium-indium-tin alloy), can cause severe skin and eye burns upon contact due to their corrosive nature, with immediate medical attention required for exposure.^[78] These materials may also trigger allergic skin reactions in sensitive individuals.^[79] Electrically conductive thermal pastes, including silver-filled or liquid metal types, carry the risk of short-circuiting electronic components if misapplied or if they migrate beyond the intended heat transfer area, potentially damaging circuits.^[80] Solvents commonly used for thermal paste removal, such as isopropyl alcohol, are highly flammable and can ignite easily, posing fire hazards during cleaning processes. The base components of many thermal pastes can cause mild to moderate skin and eye irritation upon direct contact, as rated in material safety data sheets, with symptoms including redness, dryness, or discomfort.^[81] Under the European Union's RoHS Directive, restrictions on lead content in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) apply to thermal interface materials, with exemptions potentially expiring or renewing in 2025 for certain alloys and stabilizers, necessitating lead-free formulations in compliant pastes.^[82] Manufacturers must adhere to updated Annex III guidelines to ensure pastes used in EEE do not exceed 0.1% lead by weight unless exempted.^[83]

Handling and Disposal Guidelines

When handling thermal paste, users should wear nitrile or other chemically resistant gloves to minimize skin contact, and perform application in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling any vapors or particulates.^[84]^[85] Eye protection, such as safety glasses, is recommended, particularly for liquid metal variants which can cause irritation or corrosion upon contact.^[79] If skin contact occurs, wash the affected area immediately with soap and water, and seek medical attention if irritation persists.^[86] Thermal paste should be stored in a cool, dry location below 25°C, away from direct sunlight and heat sources, to prevent premature curing or separation of components.^[84] Tightly seal containers after use and keep them out of reach of children. Ingestion should be strictly avoided; common fillers like zinc oxide have an oral LD50 greater than 5000 mg/kg in rats, indicating low acute toxicity, but may still cause gastrointestinal discomfort.^[86]^[87] For disposal, treat used thermal paste as potentially hazardous waste in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations, such as those outlined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for materials containing heavy metals or fillers toxic to aquatic life.^[88] Avoid releasing it into drains or waterways due to the presence of metals like zinc or silver, which can contaminate environments; instead, collect residues in sealed containers for proper recycling or incineration where feasible.^[89] Non-toxic ceramic-based pastes may be recyclable through specialized electronics waste programs, while metal-laden types require treatment as hazardous. Always consult the manufacturer's Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for product-specific protocols.^[90]

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[10]
(PDF) Improved Electrical and Thermal Conductivities of Graphene ...
Oct 13, 2025 · In this work, we provide graphene−carbon nanotube composite films with improved electrical and thermal conductivities. The composite films were ...
[11]
(PDF) Mixing, rheology, and stability of highly filled thermal pastes
Aug 9, 2025 · This paper describes two different mixing processes for highly filled thermal pastes, the associated changes in their rheological behavior, and paste ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[12]
A review of carbon-based thermal interface materials: Mechanism ...
Nov 1, 2021 · In this paper, carbon-based TIMs are reviewed, as well as the thermal conducting mechanisms and techniques to measure thermal properties for materials.
[13]
HTSP Silicone Heat Transfer Compound Plus - Electrolube
Superior thermal conductivity even at high temperatures 3.0 W/m.K · Excellent non-creep characteristics · Wide operating temperature range -50°C to +200°C · Low ...
[14]
HY-510-25g Thermal Conductivity: >1.93 W/mk CPU ... - Amazon.com
30-day returnsHY-510-25g Thermal Conductivity: >1.93W/m-k CPU Thermal heatsink Paste Silicone Grease Compound Non-Conductive for pc CPU gpu PS4 25Gram. Amazon's Choice
[15]
Thermal characterization of Al 2 O 3 and ZnO reinforced silicone ...
Adding Al2O3 or ZnO to silicone rubber increases thermal conductivity and stability, while decreasing the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).<|separator|>
[16]
Best Thermal Paste for CPUs 2025: 90 Pastes Tested, Ranked
Aug 20, 2025 · Most pastes are made of ceramic or metallic materials suspended within a proprietary binder, allowing for easy application and spread and simple ...
[17]
Low Viscosity Metal LVM Series - Thermal Management
Our liquid metal thermal paste is made of 100% metal content, no toxic content, and able to fill any air gap with excellent thermal conductivity of 40-70 W/mK.
[18]
D5470 Standard Test Method for Thermal Transmission Properties ...
Dec 16, 2024 · ASTM D5470 measures thermal impedance and apparent thermal conductivity of thermally conductive electrical insulation materials, from liquids ...Missing: shear | Show results with:shear
[19]
Best thermal paste database and charts - igor´sLAB
Nov 18, 2024 · Our database is based on real laboratory values that we have elaborately determined according to industry standards.Thermal Grizzly Duronaut · Dow Chemical DOWSIL TC... · Halnziye HY-P17Missing: shear | Show results with:shear
[20]
Top 10 Thermally Conductive Materials - Thermtest
Silver – 429 W/m•K. Silver is a relatively inexpensive and abundant thermal conductor. Silver is a component of numerous appliances and is one of the most ...
[21]
Influence of Different Filler Systems on the Thermal Conductivity and ...
Oct 17, 2024 · According to [7], the matrix material, the filler size, the size distribution and the geometry are factors influencing thermal conductivity.Missing: paste | Show results with:paste
[22]
Thermal Compound Guide - ekwb.com
Jun 10, 2016 · For example, the thermal conductivity of a high-grade thermal paste is 8.5 W/mK, and the heat conductivity of copper is 385 W/mK, or for ...
[23]
Measure thermal pastes and pads: ASTM D5470-17 and ... - igor´sLAB
Sep 10, 2024 · The ASTM D5470-17 method with six temperature sensors makes it possible to precisely determine the effective thermal resistance of a TIM by ...
[24]
Quantification and mitigation of uncertainties in thermal conductivity measurements using a modified ASTM D5470 thermal resistance tester
- **Use of ASTM D5470**: The article discusses a modified ASTM D5470 thermal resistance tester for measuring thermal conductivity in thermal interface materials (TIMs), focusing on quantifying and mitigating uncertainties.
[25]
[PDF] CHARACTERIZATION OF RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF ...
The properties important in choosing a thermal interface material are [4]: thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, electrical conductivity, phase change ...
[26]
[PDF] Thermal Interface Materials For Electronics Cooling - Parker Hannifin
Available in several forms, these materials are designed for use where the highest possible thermal, dielectric and mechanical properties are required.
[27]
None
### Summary of Rheological Properties of Thixotropic Thermal Pastes
[28]
[PDF] Thermal Interface Materials Selection and Application Guidelines
Feb 1, 2015 · Heat strap can be also made with a more thermally conductive material, such as Annealed Pyrolytic Graphite (APG). The heat strap does not ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[29]
Best Budget CPUs of 2025, Benchmarked and Ranked
30-day returnsOct 5, 2025 · The Ryzen 5 5600 has a 3.7 GHz base and 4.6 GHz boost clock. The chip also has a 65W TDP rating, so it runs cool and quiet. Existing AMD owners ...
[30]
Best CPUs in 2025: Server and Desktop for Gaming & Content ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Review of the best CPUs of 2025: server AMD EPYC, Intel Xeon 6, ARM NVIDIA Grace, and desktop chips for gaming and content.
[31]
What is Thermal Paste & What is it Used For? | Arrow.com
Dec 13, 2019 · Thermal paste is a thermally conductive compound that is applied between the heat source(s) and sink to eliminate air gaps.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[32]
Is Thermal paste on Vram Modules a good idea? - TechPowerUp
Jan 25, 2014 · It's a good idea to put some thermal paste on top of the padding on the vram modules and other padded parts as well as the GPU its self.
[33]
Why Thermal Paste is the Best Upgrade for a Gaming PC
Thermal paste prevents overheating, is 200x better at heat transfer than air, and can drop CPU temperature by 5-7℃, improving performance.
[34]
AMD R3 2200G Delid & Liquid Metal Thermals | GamersNexus
Feb 14, 2018 · The delidded variant, using Conductonaut, operates at 32.6 degrees over ambient, versus 47 degrees over ambient for the default AMD thermal ...
[35]
Thermal Gel for Mobile Devices: Enhancing Smartphone Performance
Feb 27, 2025 · These gels are ideal for mobile device thermal interfaces, including: SoC (System on Chip) cooling; Graphics processor interfaces; Battery ...
[36]
Thermal Interface Materials Market Report 2026-2036
Aug 19, 2025 · The transition to 5G technology has intensified thermal challenges, necessitating advanced materials like liquid metals, phase change materials, ...
[37]
Thermal Products for Electric Vehicle (EV) Applications
Thermal management is required between every cell within the module and ultimately the battery pack.
[38]
What is Thermal Paste? — Definition, Principles, and Applications
Mar 10, 2025 · Thermal paste, also known as thermal grease or heat sink compound, is a high-performance thermal conductive material in a paste-like form.
[39]
7.0 Thermal Control - NASA
Feb 5, 2025 · Thermal interface materials can also be a grease or paste. Thinner sheets of materials are commonly used between heat dissipating ...
[40]
Thermal Pad Selection: Balancing Conductivity, Stress Tolerance ...
Thermal pads must operate reliably in -55°C to 125°C extremes, withstand high-intensity vibrations (transportation/impact/random vibration), and resist ...
[41]
Advanced Thermal Interface Materials for Electronics: Selecting the ...
Aug 1, 2025 · Advanced thermal interface materials for medical devices: selection guide for biocompatible TIMs that save lives & pass FDA review.Missing: MRI laser
[42]
Medical Cooling Application | CNC Skiving Machine Producer
Advantage: Liquid cooling outperforms air by 2–3x in heat dissipation, critical for 24/7 surgical lasers or MRI magnets generating >5 kW. 4. Thermal Interface ...Medical Cooling Application · Cooling Systems For Medical... · Effective Thermal Management...<|separator|>
[43]
Thermal Paste Surface Application in Power Electronics Manufacturing
May 17, 2023 · The paper focuses on thermal paste surface application methods specific to power electronics, which have extreme power dissipation requirements that demand ...
[44]
Thermal Management For LED Lighting Manufacturers - Electrolube
Mar 4, 2018 · Thermal management materials can also be used to encapsulate associated electronic circuits such as LED drivers, again reducing operating ...
[45]
Wide application of thermal grease in energy storage inverters
Jul 25, 2025 · Thermal grease, as an efficient thermal conductive material, plays an irreplaceable role in addressing the heat dissipation challenges of energy ...
[46]
Thermal management system of LED headlights based on the active ...
This study presents an advanced electronic thermal management system (ETMS) designed for high-power LED (HP-LED) headlights, addressing critical automotive ...
[47]
How to Apply Thermal Paste and How It Works - Intel
Here's all the info you need when it comes to thermal paste: What it's for, and how to apply it to make sure your processor is properly cooled.Missing: practices | Show results with:practices
[48]
Thermal Paste Application Techniques
**Summary of Thermal Paste Application Techniques (Puget Systems)**
[49]
Analyzing - Heatsink Mounting Pressure vs Performance
Feb 14, 2008 · One of the critical determinants of thermal grease performance is heatsink mounting pressure. Here we analyze data to explore this.
[50]
How to Properly Apply Thermal Paste to CPU? - T-Global Technology
Dec 18, 2024 · For high-performance setups, including overclocked CPUs or systems under persistent high loads, reapplication every two years may be advisable.
[51]
4 signs your thermal paste is past its prime - XDA Developers
Aug 7, 2025 · From subtle temperature increases to high fan speeds and full-on thermal throttling, each can indicate that the thermal compound is no longer ...
[52]
Step-by-Step Guide: How to Remove Thermal Paste Safely - antec-inc
Dec 6, 2024 · Cleaning the CPU demands precision. Use isopropyl alcohol (at least 90% concentration) and a lint-free cloth or cotton swabs. Apply a small ...<|separator|>
[53]
Need help removing thermal greese | Tom's Hardware Forum
Dec 19, 2007 · ... safe way to remove the thermal paste ... gloves, and use them in well-ventilated areas, you will be fine. I've worked with chemicals far ...
[54]
Thermomechanical Degradation of Thermal Interface Materials
May 21, 2020 · ... paste degradation is not necessarily TIM pump-out. Possible ... thermal breakdown modes such as TIM dry-out. In terms of the ...
[55]
[PDF] Influence of Thermal Cycling on Degradation ... - Purdue e-Pubs
The present work focuses on isolating the impact of thermal cycling on thermal grease degradation during the degradation process. We subject the thermal greases ...
[56]
Reliability Testing Of Thermal Greases - Electronics Cooling
Nov 1, 2007 · ... degrade significantly, resulting in a higher thermal resistances across the grease interface. The degradation mechanisms of greases are ...
[57]
Is heat sink compound (thermal paste) electrically conductive?
Heat sink compound, commonly known as thermal paste, is electrically non-conductive. Its primary purpose is to enhance thermal conductivity between a ...
[58]
Graphene thermal conductivity - introduction and latest news
Jul 4, 2024 · The measured thermal conductivity of graphene is in the range 3000 - 5000 W/mK at room temperature, an exceptional figure compared with the ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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[60]
Silicon Carbide-Welded Boron Nitride Networks for Self-Healing ...
Oct 24, 2025 · Polymers have emerged as promising materials for flexible TIMs, owing to their superior mechanical properties, inherent electrical insulation, ...
[61]
Self-healing, adaptive and shape memory polymer-based thermal ...
Sep 15, 2024 · A thermal interface phase change material (TIPCM) is designed to realize a 3D support skeleton with a dynamic crosslinking network.
[62]
Phase Change Materials | Thermal Interface Materials - Caplinq
We offer silicone free, thermally conductive Phase Change Materials in both pad and paste formats. These products are designed to minimize thermal resistance ...
[63]
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[64]
Custom Cut Thermal Pads, Thermal Gap Fillers | Thin, Thick, Super ...
These thermal gap fillers feature high-recovery for allowing repositioning, or reusing of thermal gap fillers. TFlex HR600– 3 W/m-K. TFlex HR400- 1.8 W/m-K.
[65]
Can you use Thermal Paste instead of Liquid Metal when delidding ...
Jun 12, 2021 · Liquid metal degrades faster than regular thermal paste, so you will often need to delid the CPU to replace it.Missing: pads vapor chambers corrosion inhibitors
[66]
Vapor Chamber | Heatpipe Alternative - Celsia, Inc.
A vapor chamber is a heatpipe alternative that boosts heat sink performance by 5-10°C, using direct contact with the heat source and a 60:1 aspect ratio.
[67]
Corrosion inhibition of Ga-based thermal interface materials with Ni ...
Oct 15, 2024 · The results show that Ga reacts with Cu substrate and forms CuGa 2 bulk. Moreover, Ni coating can inhibit the corrosion of Ga and Cu.
[68]
Softly Encapsulated Liquid Metal Grease as High-Performance ...
May 8, 2025 · In this study, we present an LM-PDMS system for the preparation of high thermal conductivity and corrosion-resistant composite thermal interface ...
[69]
Firm pioneers 3D printing copper coolers directly onto processors ...
Aug 30, 2025 · Fabric8Labs has created a new 3D printing method that allows for printing copper cooling plates onto chips with extreme precision and ...Missing: heatsinks | Show results with:heatsinks<|separator|>
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Bio-Based Composites with Encapsulated Phase Change Materials ...
Materials such as lignin, nanocellulose, and biochar, as well as hybrid formulations with graphene and aerogels, show promise in improving thermal conductivity, ...
[71]
thermal paste trends - graphene, eco-friendly & liquid metal - Accio
Sep 29, 2025 · Key trends include rising adoption of advanced materials (e.g., graphene, carbon nanotubes), eco-friendly formulations, and innovations in ...
[72]
1988 OSHA PEL Project - Zinc Oxide Fume | NIOSH - CDC
When heated, zinc oxide produces a white fume. The most prevalent toxic effect of zinc oxide fume is a condition known as “metal fume fever,” whose symptoms ...
[73]
Immune response to zinc oxide inhalation in metal fume fever, and ...
Dec 14, 2023 · Chronic asthma may develop as a long-term consequence of exposure, particularly for welders and metal workers who are most at risk.
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[PDF] Liquid Metal - Chip Quik -
H312. Harmful in contact with skin. H315. Causes skin irritation. H317. May cause an allergic skin reaction. H319. Causes serious eye irritation. H332. Harmful ...Missing: galinstan burns
[77]
Liquid Metal and Liquid Metal Paste | TIMs - Indium Corporation
Liquid metals are electrically conductive and must be contained to prevent leakage or shorts in electronics. Indium Corporation's patented multi-barrier system ...
[78]
None
### Summary of Skin/Eye Irritation Ratings and Flammability of Solvents from SDS for 8617A Thermal Paste
[79]
Substances restricted under REACH - ECHA - European Union
The list of substances restricted under REACH will be available in our new chemicals database, ECHA CHEM, since 16 September 2025.Missing: thermal paste
[80]
[PDF] Arctic Silver 5
Jun 7, 2024 · See Section 13 for disposal information. · Handling: · Precautions for safe handling. Store in cool, dry place in tightly closed receptacles.
[81]
[PDF] NOCTUA NT-H1 SDS (EN)
Protective equipment: if there is danger of eye contact or prolonged skin contact, use chemically resistant gloves, long-sleeved clothing and safety glasses ...
[82]
[PDF] Safety Data Sheet - StarTech.com
Sep 15, 2023 · 11.1 Possible Health Effects: Eyes: Direct contact may cause mild irritation. Rinse cautiously with water. Skin: No significant irritation ...
[83]
[PDF] SAFETY DATA SHEET - Shin-Etsu MicroSi
Skin Contact: May cause skin irritation. Eye Contact: May cause eye irritation. Symptoms may include discomfort or pain, excess blinking and tear production ...
[84]
[PDF] Safety Data Sheet - MG Chemicals
Apr 11, 2023 · Because zinc oxide is inextricably bound to the adhesive mixture, it does not present an airborne hazard under normal use. Ensure adequate ...
[85]
https://cdn-reichelt.de/documents/datenblatt/NOCTUA_NT_H1_SDS_EN.pdf
[86]
[PDF] Thermal Paste - Chip Quik -
Zinc Oxide. Workers. Skin Contact. Long-term systemic effects. 83 mg/kg bw/day ... Harmful organic fumes and toxic oxide fumes may form at elevated temperatures.
[87]
EU RoHS Exemption Renewals Adopted - GreenSoft Technology
Sep 19, 2025 · This means any renewal requests for exemptions which expire June 30, 2027 must be submitted by December 30, 2025.Missing: paste | Show results with:paste
[88]
RoHS Directive implementation - Environment
Information about the implementation of the RoHS Directive, including the exemption procedure, timeframe and assessment studies.