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Transactivation domain

A transactivation domain (TAD), also known as an activation domain (AD), is a modular protein domain found in eukaryotic transcription factors that functions to activate gene transcription by recruiting coactivator complexes to promoter regions.^[1] The concept emerged from early studies in the 1980s on yeast transcription factors, such as GCN4 (1986) and GAL4 (1987), with the modular nature demonstrated by chimeras like GAL4-VP16 in 1988, showing sufficiency for activation when fused to a heterologous DNA-binding domain in classic reporter assays.^[1] These domains typically span 10 to 80 amino acids and play a central role in regulating gene expression in response to cellular signals, influencing processes such as development, differentiation, and stress responses by modulating the assembly and activity of the transcription initiation machinery.^[2] Structurally, TADs are predominantly intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) that lack a stable three-dimensional fold in isolation but can adopt transient secondary structures, such as alpha-helices, upon binding to target proteins.^[1] They are classified based on amino acid composition into categories including acidic (rich in aspartate and glutamate, e.g., in VP16 and p53), glutamine-rich (e.g., in Sp1), proline-rich (e.g., in AP-2), and serine/threonine-rich types, with acidic TADs often exhibiting the strongest activity due to key hydrophobic residues like tryptophan, phenylalanine, and leucine.^[2] This compositional diversity allows TADs to occur at various positions within transcription factors, sometimes overlapping with DNA-binding domains, and their boundaries are typically defined experimentally rather than by strict sequence conservation.^[1] Mechanistically, TADs promote transcription through dynamic, low-affinity interactions with coactivators such as the Mediator complex (particularly its Med15 subunit in yeast), histone acetyltransferases like CBP/p300, and components of the general transcription machinery including TFIID and TFIIB.^[3] For instance, in yeast, approximately 73% of identified TADs bind Mediator via "fuzzy" interactions that enable rapid association and dissociation, correlating with the strength of transcriptional activation and allowing for tunable gene expression bursts.^[3] In higher eukaryotes, TADs like those in nuclear receptors facilitate chromatin remodeling by recruiting coactivators that acetylate histones, thereby enhancing promoter accessibility and RNA polymerase II processivity.^[2] These interactions underscore the evolutionary conservation of TAD function despite sequence variability, making them critical targets for therapeutic modulation in diseases involving dysregulated transcription, such as cancer.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and modulating the rate of transcription initiation, either activating or repressing target genes.^[4] Activating transcription factors typically consist of distinct functional modules, including a DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a transactivation domain (TAD), also known as an activation domain (AD).^[4]^[5] The transactivation domain is a modular protein region within transcription factors that is responsible for activating gene transcription by recruiting components of the transcriptional machinery.^[4] In contrast to DBDs, which recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences to localize the transcription factor to promoter or enhancer regions, TADs do not interact directly with DNA but instead mediate the activation process through protein-protein interactions.^[4]^[5] TADs function by interacting with co-activators, such as the Mediator complex, or general transcription factors, including TFIID, to facilitate the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and promote the assembly of the pre-initiation complex at target genes.^[4]^[6] This recruitment enhances transcriptional initiation and elongation, thereby increasing gene expression levels.^[6] TADs are commonly intrinsically disordered regions, enabling their flexible interactions with multiple partners.^[4]

Historical Discovery

The transactivation domain (TAD) was first identified in the 1980s during studies of viral transcription factors, particularly the herpes simplex virus (HSV) virion protein 16 (VP16, also known as Vmw65). VP16 functions as a strong activator of HSV immediate-early genes by interacting with host cell factors at TAATGARAT motifs. Through deletion mutagenesis, researchers mapped the essential activation function to an acidic segment of approximately 78 amino acids in VP16's C-terminal region (residues 413-490), demonstrating that this domain was sufficient to stimulate transcription independently.^[7] Pivotal experiments in Mark Ptashne's laboratory further elucidated the modular nature of TADs. In 1988, the VP16 activation region was fused to the DNA-binding domain of the yeast transcription factor GAL4, creating a chimeric protein that robustly activated GAL4-responsive promoters in yeast cells.^[8] This work proved that the TAD operates autonomously, separate from DNA-binding specificity, and highlighted VP16's exceptional potency as an activator compared to endogenous yeast domains. In the 1990s, the understanding of TADs expanded beyond acidic examples like VP16 through systematic mutagenesis and emerging tools such as the yeast two-hybrid system, which facilitated identification of protein interaction partners. These approaches revealed diverse compositional classes, including glutamine-rich domains in transcription factors like Sp1 and proline-rich domains in CTF/NF1, indicating that activation is not limited to acidic residues but can arise from varied sequence motifs.^[9] Subsequent milestones included formal classification of TADs into acidic, glutamine-rich, and proline-rich categories based on amino acid composition in the early to mid-1990s.^[10] Post-2010 structural analyses using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy provided insights into their intrinsic disorder, showing that many TADs, including those from VP16 and other factors, adopt flexible, unstructured conformations in isolation but form transient helices upon binding coactivators, enabling versatile interactions.^[11]

Structural Characteristics

Intrinsic Disorder

Transactivation domains (TADs) are predominantly intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) that lack stable secondary or tertiary structures in isolation.^[12] This biophysical property has been extensively confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which reveals high flexibility and transient secondary elements in TADs such as the N-terminal domain of p53, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, which shows minimal ordered content in isolated TADs like that of FoxM1.^[13]^[14] Computational predictions further support this, with tools like IUPred assigning high disorder scores to TAD sequences based on estimated inter-residue interaction energies.^[12]^[15] Analyses of transcription factors indicate that 83–94% possess extended regions of intrinsic disorder, with this property being particularly pronounced in TADs, far exceeding rates in structured protein domains.^[12] Upon binding, these disordered TADs often undergo induced fit folding to engage targets like the Mediator complex or TFIID, as evidenced by structural studies of activator-Mediator interactions.^[16]^[17] The disorder in TADs confers conformational adaptability, allowing dynamic binding to diverse partners through fuzzy or ordered transitions.^[18] It also promotes phase separation into biomolecular condensates at promoters, facilitating localized enrichment of transcriptional machinery via multivalent, low-affinity interactions.^[18] Disorder predictors consistently score TADs high in hydrophilicity and low in hydrophobicity—traits reflected in charge-hydropathy plots—correlating strongly with their transcriptional activation potential.^[12] This sequence-driven disorder arises from amino acid biases favoring flexibility, as explored in the Amino Acid Composition section.

Amino Acid Composition

Transactivation domains (TADs) exhibit distinct biases in their amino acid composition, characterized by an overrepresentation of polar and charged residues such as aspartic acid (Asp, D), glutamic acid (Glu, E), glutamine (Gln, Q), serine (Ser, S), proline (Pro, P), glycine (Gly, G), and alanine (Ala, A), which promote intrinsic disorder and enhance solubility by minimizing hydrophobic interactions.^[19] These domains typically show low levels of hydrophobic residues like leucine (Leu, L), isoleucine (Ile, I), and valine (Val, V) in their core regions, contributing to their lack of stable secondary structure and flexibility in protein-protein interactions.^[19] Compositional analyses from large-scale catalogs, such as the 2022 compendium of human transcription factor effector domains encompassing 924 domains across 594 factors, reveal statistical enrichments in disorder-promoting residues without a strict consensus sequence, though acidic TADs display significantly higher negative charge content compared to repressive domains (p < 2.2 × 10⁻¹⁶).^[19] A notable pattern within many TADs is the 9-amino-acid transactivation domain (9aaTAD) motif, defined by a hydrophilic core rich in Asp/Glu residues flanked by hydrophobic amino acids such as phenylalanine (Phe, F), leucine (L), or isoleucine (I), as exemplified in the consensus [hydrophobic]-[charged/polar]-[hydrophobic] arrangement observed in factors like Gal4 (sequence: DDVYNYLFD). Experimental mutagenesis studies validate these compositional features, demonstrating that swapping or neutralizing charged residues, such as replacing Asp or Glu with neutral amino acids, substantially reduces transcriptional activation strength; removal of acidic residues in various TADs led to strong negative effects on transactivation activity. Similarly, altering hydrophobic flankers in 9aaTAD motifs impairs function, underscoring the interplay between charged and hydrophobic elements in maintaining efficacy.^[3] This composition-driven disorder facilitates dynamic interactions essential for TAD performance, as detailed in analyses of intrinsic disorder.^[19]

Classification and Types

Acidic Domains

Acidic transactivation domains (TADs) are regions within transcription factors characterized by an enrichment in negatively charged amino acid residues, particularly aspartic acid (Asp) and glutamic acid (Glu), typically comprising more than 25-30% of their sequence, along with interspersed hydrophobic patches that facilitate interactions with coactivators. These domains are often intrinsically disordered, enabling flexible binding to target proteins, and are prevalent in both viral and cellular transcription factors across eukaryotes. A key structural feature of many acidic TADs is the 9aaTAD motif, a nine-amino-acid consensus sequence defined as φ-X-φ-X-X-φ-X-X-X-[D/E]-φ-X-[D/E], where φ represents a hydrophobic residue (such as Phe, Leu, Ile, or Val) and X is any amino acid, with [D/E] indicating Asp or Glu. This motif, identified through sequence analysis of known activators, accurately predicts a substantial proportion of acidic TADs in diverse transcription factors, capturing their core pattern of alternating hydrophobic and charged elements essential for function.^[20] Prominent examples include the TAD of VP16, a potent viral activator from herpes simplex virus, which contains multiple 9aaTAD-like sequences and drives strong transcriptional activation in mammalian and yeast assays. Similarly, the N-terminal TAD of the tumor suppressor p53 features acidic regions with the 9aaTAD motif, enabling recruitment of coactivators like p300/CBP to regulate cell cycle genes.^[20] In yeast, the GAL4 transcription factor's minimal activation domain exemplifies an acidic TAD, relying on Asp/Glu-rich segments for high-efficiency activation of galactose-responsive genes. These domains exhibit high activation potential in reporter gene assays, often outperforming other TAD classes due to their charge-driven conformational adaptability, but their function is highly sensitive to charge neutralization—mutating Asp or Glu residues to neutral variants abolishes activity in most cases. Acidic TADs are commonly observed in metazoan transcription factors, underscoring their role in precise gene regulation.

Glutamine-rich Domains

Glutamine-rich transactivation domains (TADs) represent a distinct class of activation motifs in eukaryotic transcription factors, defined by their enrichment in glutamine (Q) residues, typically arranged in repetitive polyglutamine stretches that constitute a significant portion of the domain's sequence. These domains promote transcriptional activation through polar hydrogen-bonding interactions mediated by the neutral amide side chains of glutamine, distinguishing them from charge-dependent mechanisms in other TAD types. Unlike highly charged acidic domains, glutamine-rich TADs exhibit a balanced hydrophilicity that supports solubility and flexibility without inducing strong electrostatic repulsion or attraction. These domains generally display moderate intrinsic activation potential when acting alone, often achieving 2- to 5-fold stimulation of reporter gene expression, but they excel in synergistic contexts, enhancing transcription up to 50-fold or more when multiple binding sites or cooperating motifs are present. Their structural flexibility, while less pronounced than in fully disordered acidic TADs, enables dynamic conformational adaptations that facilitate stable, long-range contacts with coactivators and the basal transcription machinery. This adaptability is underscored by their ability to form higher-order multimers, which amplify activation signals at promoters with clustered response elements.^[21] A key example is the ubiquitously expressed zinc finger transcription factor Sp1, which relies on two N-terminal glutamine-rich domains (A and B) spanning approximately residues 80–600 to drive basal expression of housekeeping genes such as those involved in cell cycle regulation and metabolism. These domains recruit TATA-binding protein (TBP)-associated factors, enabling efficient pre-initiation complex assembly at TATA-less promoters typical of housekeeping genes. In the POU-homeodomain family, Oct-1 and Oct-2 utilize analogous N-terminal glutamine-rich regions (around residues 1–150 in Oct-2) for activation; in the lymphoid-specific Oct-2, this motif synergizes with adjacent proline-rich elements to potently stimulate immunoglobulin gene enhancers in B cells, contributing to immune cell differentiation.^[22]^[23]^[24] Mutational studies provide direct evidence of their functional importance: deletion of either glutamine-rich domain A or B in Sp1 abolishes synergistic activation on multimerized promoters, reducing fold stimulation from ~80-fold to near-basal levels, while preserving single-site activity. Point mutations disrupting hydrophobic residues within these glutamine-rich stretches, such as leucine-to-alanine substitutions in Sp1 domain B, similarly impair multimer formation and transcriptional synergy by 70–90%. Additionally, glutamine-rich TADs directly associate with TBP subunits, as demonstrated by in vitro binding assays showing species-specific interactions that correlate with activation efficiency across eukaryotes. These findings highlight the domains' role in bridging transcription factors to core machinery components.^[25]^[21]

Proline-rich Domains

Proline-rich transactivation domains (TADs) are defined as regions within transcription factors enriched in proline residues, typically comprising more than 10% proline, which often adopt polyproline II (PPII) helical conformations. These extended, left-handed structures introduce rigidity and kinks into the intrinsically disordered polypeptide chain, facilitating multivalent binding to multiple co-activators or adaptor proteins through short linear motifs.^[26]^[27] Such domains generally function as weak to moderate transcriptional activators, capable of stimulating gene expression in a promoter-proximal manner but with limited distal enhancer activity compared to acidic or glutamine-rich TADs. They are particularly enriched in signaling transcription factors, where nearby serine or threonine residues allow phosphorylation-dependent regulation of activity and interactions.^[16] Representative examples include the TAD of the developmental transcription factor AP-2α, which contains approximately 30% proline in its N-terminal region (amino acids 31–77) and drives activation of neural crest-specific genes during embryogenesis. Similarly, the C-terminal TAD of NF1/CTF (nuclear factor 1/CCAAC-binding transcription factor) features about 25% proline, enabling core enhancer interactions that support tissue-specific gene regulation.^[28]^[29] Experimental evidence demonstrates that mutations substituting prolines in these domains disrupt the PPII helical structure, leading to reduced recruitment of co-activators such as TBP (TATA-binding protein) and impaired transcriptional activation. Computational modeling of intrinsically disordered regions further reveals that high proline content enhances conformational sampling, allowing dynamic adaptation for protein-protein interactions essential to TAD function.^[30]

Other Types

Serine/threonine-rich transactivation domains are distinguished by a high content of serine and threonine residues, often comprising more than 15% of the amino acid sequence, which facilitates post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation for regulatory control. These domains enable signal-dependent activation in response to extracellular cues. In the STAT family of transcription factors, the C-terminal transactivation domain exemplifies this type, featuring serine/threonine enrichment that becomes functional upon phosphorylation by JAK kinases, thereby promoting gene expression in immune and inflammatory responses.^[31] Isoleucine-rich transactivation domains represent a rare variant, characterized by clusters of isoleucine residues that contribute to hydrophobic interactions and structural motifs like I-zipper formations, which enhance dimerization and cooperative activation. Such domains have been observed in select transcription factors, including the tissue-specific activator NTF-1 in Drosophila, where the isoleucine-rich motif drives promoter-specific transcription.^[32]^[33] Hybrid transactivation domains integrate compositional elements from multiple classes, such as acidic residues combined with serine/threonine motifs or glutamine/proline stretches, allowing multifaceted regulation. The transactivation domain of CREB illustrates this hybrid nature, incorporating acidic sequences alongside serine-rich regions that undergo phosphorylation at Ser133 by cAMP-dependent protein kinase A, thereby linking cAMP signaling to transcriptional output. These combinations enable context-specific modulation, blending constitutive and inducible activation properties.^[34]^[35] Emerging classifications of transactivation domains, driven by high-throughput screening approaches in the 2020s, emphasize functional properties over strict amino acid composition, identifying activity patterns through large-scale assays and machine learning predictions. For example, deep neural network models trained on screened peptide libraries have delineated sequence features predictive of activation strength, revealing diverse functional subclasses independent of traditional categories. These methods also highlight domains that interact with specific coactivator complexes, such as those engaging the Integrator for RNA processing-linked regulation, broadening the understanding of TAD diversity. As of 2025, systematic identification of plant activation domains using high-throughput methods and advanced machine learning has further expanded classifications to non-animal organisms.^[36]^[37]^[38]

Mechanisms of Action

Protein-Protein Interactions

Transactivation domains (TADs) mediate their function primarily through direct binding to key components of the basal transcriptional machinery and co-activators. A major target is the Mediator complex, a large multiprotein assembly that bridges transcription factors and RNA polymerase II; for instance, the acidic TAD of the viral protein VP16 binds specifically to the MED15 subunit (also known as Gal11) in yeast, recruiting Mediator to promoter regions via interactions with its activator-binding domains (ABDs).^[39] Similarly, glutamine-rich TADs, such as those in the transcription factor Sp1, engage TBP-associated factors (TAFs) within the TFIID complex, including TAF6 (formerly dTAFII110) and TAF9 (formerly TAFII55), to stabilize preinitiation complex assembly.^[40] Additionally, diverse TADs interact with co-activators like p300 and CBP, which possess intrinsic histone acetyltransferase activity; these bindings often occur via modular domains such as the KIX or TAZ2 regions, enabling chromatin modification.^[41] The binding modes of TADs to these targets are typically multivalent and low-affinity, facilitated by the intrinsic disorder of TADs, which allows flexible engagement of multiple short motifs with complementary pockets on partner proteins. Acidic TADs, rich in aspartate and glutamate residues, commonly form salt bridges and hydrophobic interactions with basic and amphipathic grooves on targets like the ABDs of MED15 or the KIX domain of p300/CBP, promoting transient associations that enable rapid on-off kinetics essential for dynamic regulation.^[3] These interactions exhibit dissociation constants (K_d) in the micromolar range, such as 9.3 μM for the p53 TAD binding to the KIX domain of CBP, reflecting their weak but specific nature that supports combinatorial assembly without stable locking.^[42] At enhancers, cooperativity arises when multiple TADs from distinct transcription factors bind simultaneously, enhancing overall affinity through avidity effects and stabilizing Mediator recruitment.^[43] Experimental elucidation of these interactions has relied on a suite of biophysical and structural methods. Yeast two-hybrid assays were instrumental in initial identification, such as mapping VP16 TAD contacts to MED15 ABDs.^[39] GST-pulldown and co-immunoprecipitation experiments further validated affinities and specificities, often quantifying binding in the μM range via surface plasmon resonance or isothermal titration calorimetry.^[3] High-resolution structures, including NMR of the VP16 TAD-MED25 complex (in mammals) revealing a hydrophobic furrow for binding, and cryo-EM reconstructions of Mediator assemblies (e.g., yeast Mediator bound to VP16 TAD at ~10 Å resolution), have illuminated conformational dynamics and multivalent interfaces.^[44]

Role in Transcriptional Activation

Transactivation domains (TADs) play a central role in transcriptional activation by recruiting coactivator complexes that enhance the assembly of the pre-initiation complex (PIC) at gene promoters. Through interactions with components such as TFIID and the Mediator complex, TADs stabilize PIC formation, facilitating the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and general transcription factors to initiate transcription more efficiently.^[45]^[46] This recruitment process is essential for overcoming barriers to transcription initiation in eukaryotic cells. Beyond PIC stabilization, TADs promote chromatin remodeling to create a more accessible environment for transcription. By recruiting histone acetyltransferases (HATs), such as CBP/p300, TADs induce histone acetylation, which neutralizes chromatin compaction and enhances promoter accessibility.^[46] In parallel, TADs enable enhancer-promoter looping through Mediator-mediated bridging, allowing distant regulatory elements to contact target promoters and amplify activation signals.^[46] The effectiveness of TADs in transcriptional activation is highly context-dependent, varying with cellular states such as chromatin openness and the presence of other regulatory factors. In open chromatin environments, TAD activity is enhanced, leading to stronger transcriptional responses, while integration with repressor domains allows for precise fine-tuning of gene expression levels.^[46] This bifunctionality ensures balanced regulation, preventing aberrant activation. Experimental evidence underscores these mechanisms, with in vitro transcription assays demonstrating that fusion of strong TADs to DNA-binding domains can increase transcriptional output by 10- to 100-fold compared to controls.^[46] Furthermore, studies on super-enhancers, which often feature multiple potent TADs, link their activity to the robust expression of cell identity genes, highlighting TADs' role in maintaining lineage-specific transcription programs.^[47]

Biological Significance

Examples in Transcription Factors

One prominent example of a viral transactivation domain (TAD) is found in VP16, a protein encoded by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). VP16 possesses an acidic TAD located in its carboxyl-terminal region (residues 413-490), which enables it to hijack host cellular machinery and potently activate the transcription of viral immediate-early genes during lytic infection.^[48]^[49] This domain recruits host coactivators, such as those in the Mediator complex, to drive high-level expression essential for viral replication.^[50] Another viral TAD is present in the Tax protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), which contains distinct activation domains that contribute to its transactivation function. Tax's TAD activates transcription of viral genes and host factors involved in T-cell proliferation, playing a critical role in HTLV-1-induced oncogenesis by dysregulating pathways like NF-κB.^[51]^[52] In cellular transcription factors, the tumor suppressor p53 features an acidic TAD in its amino-terminal region, enriched in negatively charged residues, which is crucial for activating genes involved in stress responses such as DNA damage repair and apoptosis.^[53] This domain's activity is inducible, responding to cellular stresses to coordinate protective transcriptional programs.^[54] The proto-oncoprotein c-Myc, a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor, contains a glutamine-rich TAD in its N-terminal region (residues 1-262), which promotes the expression of genes driving cell proliferation and growth.^[55] This domain interacts with coactivators to upregulate metabolic and biosynthetic targets essential for tumorigenesis.^[56] The RelA (p65) subunit of NF-κB includes serine/threonine-rich TADs in its C-terminal region, such as TA1 and TA2 (approximately residues 521-551 and beyond), which are vital for activating immune response genes during inflammation and infection.^[57]^[58] These domains facilitate rapid, signal-inducible transcription in innate and adaptive immunity.^[59] TAD types exhibit functional correlations across transcription factors; for instance, glutamine-rich domains, as in the constitutive activator Sp1, support basal transcription of housekeeping genes through stable interactions with general transcription machinery.^[60] In contrast, acidic TADs, like those in inducible factors such as p53, enable dynamic, stress-triggered activation by recruiting adaptors for context-specific responses.^[53]^[61] Seminal studies in the 1990s using GAL4-VP16 chimeric proteins demonstrated the modularity and potency of acidic TADs, revealing how VP16's domain could confer strong activation when fused to heterologous DNA-binding domains, influencing models of coactivator recruitment.^[62] Recent high-throughput CRISPR-based screens have identified TAD dependencies by systematically perturbing transcription factor domains, uncovering motifs critical for activity in contexts like oncogenesis and development.^[63]^[64]

Implications in Disease and Regulation

Mutations in transactivation domains (TADs) often result in loss-of-function effects that impair transcriptional activation, contributing to oncogenesis. For instance, in the tumor suppressor p53, while the majority of mutations occur in the DNA-binding domain, alterations in the N-terminal TAD can disrupt interactions with coactivators like p300/CBP, leading to reduced transactivation of target genes involved in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis; such TAD mutations are observed in various cancers, exacerbating the overall ~50% prevalence of p53 alterations across human malignancies.^[65]^[66] In contrast, gain-of-function mechanisms arise in fusion proteins, such as PML-RARα in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), where the fusion incorporates the RARα TAD but aberrantly recruits corepressors, blocking differentiation and promoting leukemogenesis in nearly all APL cases.^[67] These examples illustrate how TAD dysfunction can drive disease by either abolishing activation or enabling pathological repression. Therapeutic strategies targeting TADs focus on restoring function or disrupting aberrant interactions. Small-molecule inhibitors have been developed to interfere with TAD-coactivator interfaces, such as those blocking the androgen receptor TAD binding to coactivators in prostate cancer, which have advanced to clinical trials and shown promise in reducing tumor growth by preventing transcriptional activation of oncogenic genes.^[68] Similarly, compounds disrupting Myb TAD-p300 interactions suppress acute myeloid leukemia cell proliferation in preclinical models.^[69] For p53-related cancers, gene therapy approaches like the adenovirus-delivered wild-type p53 (Gendicine) restore TAD-mediated activation, achieving clinical efficacy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma by reinstating tumor suppressor activity without excessive toxicity.^[70] Beyond disease, TADs play crucial regulatory roles in normal physiology, particularly in developmental gene networks. In Hox transcription factors, which pattern the anterior-posterior axis during embryogenesis, TADs enable activation of downstream targets essential for organogenesis; for example, the activation domains of HOXB1, HOXB3, and HOXD9 interact with TBP-associated factors to drive tissue-specific expression in vertebrates.^[71] Core motifs within TADs, such as hydrophobic or charged residues, exhibit evolutionary conservation across species, maintaining functional affinity for coactivators like MDM2 despite sequence divergence, as seen in p53 TAD evolution from fish to mammals.^[72] This conservation underscores TADs' role in stable gene regulation over evolutionary timescales. As of 2025, key research gaps persist in TAD biology, including incomplete functional mapping in non-model organisms due to challenges in predicting disordered, low-conservation sequences and limited high-throughput assays for diverse species.^[16] Emerging AI-driven tools offer potential to address these by predicting TAD activity from sequence data, facilitating synthetic biology applications like engineering custom transcription factors for precise gene control in non-native hosts.^[73]

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Here we determine the solution structure of the MED25 VP16-binding domain (VBD) and define its binding site for the N-terminal portion of the VP16 ...Missing: cryo- EM 2018
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Transcriptional activators and activation mechanisms - PMC
Transcriptional activators are required to turn on the expression of genes in a eukaryotic cell. Activators bound to the enhancer can facilitate either the ...
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https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0702010104
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2765525/
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Transcriptional Activation Domain of the Herpesvirus Protein VP16 ...
The transcriptional activation domain of the herpesvirus protein VP16 resides in the carboxyl-terminal 78 amino acids (residues 413-490).Missing: transactivation | Show results with:transactivation
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The herpes simplex virus trans-activator VP16 recognizes the Oct-1 ...
This VP16-induced complex alters the regulatory activity of Oct-1, in part, by associating it with the potent VP16 acidic transcriptional activation domain.
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Structure and functions of powerful transactivators: VP16, MyoD and ...
VP16 has 490 amino acids with a core domain in its central region required for indirect DNA binding and a carboxy-terminal TAD located within its last 81 amino ...
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Mutational analysis of human T-cell leukemia virus type 2 Tax - PMC
A single mutation within the central proline-rich region of Tax-2 disrupted the transactivation of the NF-kappaB/Rel pathway. Surprisingly, this mutation, which ...
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HTLV Tax: A Fascinating Multifunctional Co-Regulator of ... - Frontiers
In this review, we illustrate the multiple oncogenic roles of Tax by summarizing a recent body of literature that refines our understanding of cellular ...
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The Transactivation Domains of the p53 Protein - PMC
In addition, p53 carries a proline-rich domain (PRD), another characteristic of transcriptional activation domains (TADs) such as in CTF/NF-1 (Mermod et al.
[49]
Interaction between p53 N terminus and core domain regulates ...
Apr 15, 2019 · The results suggest the N-terminal acidic transactivation region of p53 dynamically interacts with the DNA binding domain near residues that ...
[50]
The molecular role of Myc in growth and transformation: recent ...
Jun 1, 1998 · The amino-terminal domain is comprised of putative activation domains, including glutamine ... c-Myc transactivation domain. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15, ...
[51]
MYC on the Path to Cancer - Cell Press
The MYC oncogene contributes to the genesis of many human cancers. Recent insights into its expression and function have led to therapeutic opportunities.Myc On The Path To Cancer · Myc Target Genes, Stem Cells... · Metabolic And Myc Oncogene...
[52]
Transactivation Domain 2 (TA2) of p65 NF-κB
The p65 subunit of the inducible transcription factor NF-κB contains at least two strong transactivation domains (TADs) within its C terminus.
[53]
Mapping of a Serine-Rich Domain Essential for the Transcriptional ...
Abstract. The v-Rel oncoprotein belongs to the Rel/NF-κB family of transcription factors and induces aggressive lymphomas in chickens and transgenic mice.
[54]
NF-κB in immunobiology | Cell Research - Nature
Jan 18, 2011 · NF-κB was first discovered and characterized 25 years ago as a key regulator of inducible gene expression in the immune system.
[55]
Different activation domains of Sp1 govern formation of multimers ...
Here we have examined the properties of four distinct activator domains of the human transcription factor Sp1. In vivo transient cotransfection assays with Sp1 ...
[56]
The p65 domain from NF-κB is an efficient human activator in the ...
Eukaryotic activation domains are classified by their amino acid composition, which can be acidic, glutamine-rich, serine/threonine-rich or proline-rich. They ...
[57]
Article Selective inhibition of activated but not basal transcription by ...
GAL4-VP16 stimulated transcription from a promoter bearing GAL4 sites, and greatly inhibited transcription from a promoter bearing binding sites for the dA:dT ...Missing: transactivation | Show results with:transactivation
[58]
Abstract B56: A CRISPR/Cas9 domain screen identifies a small motif ...
Jul 15, 2020 · A CRISPR/Cas9 domain screen identifies a small motif in the PAX3-FOXO1 transactivation domain relevant for tumor maintenance in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma.<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
A high‐throughput method to identify trans‐activation domains ...
tADs occur at arbitrary positions within transcription factors, contain simple sequence signatures (e.g. glutamine rich) and can overlap structured domains. •.
[60]
Cancer-Associated Mutations Perturb the Disordered Ensemble and ...
As a critical integrator of cellular responses against genotoxic stress, p53 is the most frequently mutated protein associated with human cancers28–30.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[61]
Mutant p53 in cancer: from molecular mechanism to therapeutic ...
Nov 18, 2022 · However, the mutation frequency varies across different types of tumors, with mutation frequency of 89.02% in small cell lung cancer and 72.69% ...
[62]
Genome-wide functions of PML–RARα in acute promyelocytic ...
In APL, PML–RARα is thought to behave functionally as an altered RARα that has lost the potential to respond to fluctuations in physiological ATRA concentration ...
[63]
Small molecules targeting the disordered transactivation domain of ...
Oct 27, 2022 · There is no clear evidence to suggest that nanomolar affinity binding is required for IDP ligands to exhibit biological activity. This likely ...Introduction · Results · Discussion
[64]
Small-Molecule Disruption of the Myb/p300 Cooperation Targets ...
We demonstrate that murine and human primary acute myeloid leukemia cells are more sensitive to naphthoquinone-induced inhibition of clonogenic proliferation.
[65]
Twenty years of Gendicine® rAd-p53 cancer gene therapy
Studies have confirmed that a variety of small molecule compounds and peptide drugs can restore the wild-type activity of p53 mutants by altering their spatial ...
[66]
Definition of the Transcriptional Activation Domains of Three Human ...
These data indicate that the transcriptional activation domain of the HOXB1 protein in the context of the HOXB1-PBX1a complex resides between aa 38 and 90, a ...Protein Expression And... · The Hoxb3 C Terminus Is The... · Hox Proteins Contain...
[67]
Evolution of affinity between p53 transactivation domain and MDM2 ...
May 21, 2023 · The different evolutionary trajectories of p53TAD/MDM2 affinity during speciation demonstrate high plasticity of motif-mediated interactions and ...
[68]
Active learning enables discovery of transcriptional activators across ...
Sep 14, 2025 · Our work highlights the importance of expanding functional characterization beyond model organisms to include sequences from non-model species.