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Turned v

The turned v, also known as the Latin small letter turned V, the wedge, or caret and denoted by the symbol ʌ, is a rotated variant of the lowercase Latin letter v used primarily in phonetic transcription. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it represents the open-mid back unrounded vowel, a vowel sound produced with the tongue raised to an open-mid height toward the back of the vocal tract and the lips spread in an unrounded position.^[1] This symbol plays a central role in transcribing the phonology of various languages, most notably English, where ʌ denotes the short strut vowel /ʌ/ in stressed syllables of words such as cup, but, love, and month. The strut vowel is characteristically backed and raised compared to the central schwa /ə/, which occurs in unstressed positions, and it contrasts with other short vowels like the near-open front unrounded vowel /æ/ in trap or the low back /ɑ/ in lot.^[2]^[3] The sound occurs in many Indo-European languages and beyond, including as an allophone or phoneme in dialects of German, Dutch, and Persian, though its exact realization varies by accent— for instance, more centralized in some American English varieties.^[1] The turned v was incorporated into the IPA during its early development in the late 19th century by the International Phonetic Association (founded 1886), as a standardized glyph to capture mid-back vowel qualities not adequately represented by Roman letters alone. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (1999) formally defines ʌ as the cardinal vowel number 14 on the IPA vowel chart, emphasizing its articulatory precision for cross-linguistic comparison. In digital encoding, ʌ is assigned Unicode U+028C within the IPA Extensions block (introduced in Unicode 1.1, 1993), facilitating its use in linguistic software, fonts like Doulos SIL, and educational materials.^[4] While the lowercase ʌ dominates phonetic applications, the uppercase turned V (Ʌ, Unicode U+0245 in Latin Extended-B) appears sparingly in non-IPA contexts, such as orthographies for some African languages (e.g., Dan, Temne) or mathematical notation for logical operators. Its design evolution reflects the IPA's commitment to intuitive, non-ambiguous symbols derived from existing scripts, ensuring accessibility for phoneticians worldwide.

Overview

Description

The turned v (ʌ) is a typographic symbol derived from the Latin alphabet, consisting of a lowercase "v" rotated 180 degrees, resulting in an inverted form with pointed ends facing upward.^[5] This visual design distinguishes it from the standard upright "v," which is used for consonantal representations in various scripts. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the turned v serves as a dedicated, diacritic-free symbol for the open-mid back unrounded vowel sound.^[5] Its official IPA designation is "turned v," reflecting its rotated orientation relative to the consonant symbol "v," thereby avoiding confusion in phonetic transcription.^[5]

Primary Usage

The turned v, denoted as ʌ in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), serves as the standard symbol for transcribing the open-mid back unrounded vowel sound, commonly found in words like "strut" or "cup" in many English dialects. This symbol enables precise representation of phonetic qualities across languages, distinguishing it from similar vowels like the schwa (ə) by its stressed, more open articulation. In linguistics, the turned v is integral for phonological analysis, transcription of speech patterns, and comparative studies of vowel systems in various languages. It appears routinely in language teaching materials to illustrate pronunciation contrasts, helping learners differentiate vowel sounds in target languages through phonetic exercises and audio aids.^[6] Dictionaries employing IPA notation use it to provide accurate pronunciation guides, often alongside audio pronunciations for words containing this vowel.^[6] In speech therapy, phonetic transcription with the turned v is a core tool for assessing and treating disorders involving vowel production, allowing therapists to document deviations and track progress in articulation.^[7] Since its adoption in the late 19th century following the founding of the International Phonetic Association in 1886, the turned v has become ubiquitous in academic phonetic notation worldwide.

Phonetic Details

Articulation and Classification

The turned v symbol ⟨ʌ⟩ represents the open-mid back unrounded vowel in the International Phonetic Alphabet, corresponding to cardinal vowel number 14.^[1] This classification places it midway between close-mid and open vowels in height, with a retracted tongue position and no lip rounding.^[4] In the IPA vowel trapezium, ⟨ʌ⟩ occupies the back region at open-mid height, though its realizations can vary toward central positions across languages and dialects.^[4] The sound is articulated by elevating the tongue to an open-mid height while retracting it toward the back of the oral cavity, maintaining unrounded lips and vibrating vocal cords for voicing; airflow passes freely without obstruction.^[4] This configuration produces a resonant quality distinct from neighboring rounded or fronted vowels. Auditorily, ⟨ʌ⟩ is often realized with a central quality in many languages' stressed contexts, frequently shifting toward greater centralization in unstressed environments due to reduction processes. In English, its duration is characteristically short, contributing to its lax and neutral perceptual character.^[8]

Dialectal Variations

In General American English, the turned v symbol [ʌ] represents a clear mid-central unrounded vowel, as heard in the "strut" lexical set, such as in the word "strut" itself.^[9] This realization maintains a distinct quality from surrounding vowels like schwa [ə] and remains relatively stable across much of the dialect. In contrast, Received Pronunciation (RP) typically features a raised and centralized variant approaching [ɐ], particularly in stressed syllables of words like "cup," reflecting a historical shift from a more back [ʌ] toward a near-open central position.^[10] Australian English dialects often realize [ʌ] as a more open [ɐ], especially in broad varieties, which can bring it closer to the schwa in casual speech, though a full merger with [ə] is rare and limited to specific regional idiolects.^[11] In some urban Australian accents, this openness contributes to a perceptual blending in unstressed contexts, but the phonemic contrast persists in careful pronunciation. Canadian English exhibits occasional fronting of [ʌ] toward [ɐ̟] or even [ə̟], particularly among younger speakers in urban areas like Toronto, as part of broader lax vowel adjustments in the Canadian Vowel Shift.^[12] Beyond English, the [ʌ] sound appears in various non-English languages with similar mid-central qualities, though realizations vary. For example, in Turkish, [ʌ] is a phoneme, as in "kul" [kuɫ] "slave," realized as an open-mid back unrounded vowel. In some dialects of German, a similar sound occurs as an allophone. Phonological processes further diversify [ʌ]'s realization across dialects, notably through vowel shifts. In the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, prevalent in Inland North American English (e.g., Chicago, Detroit), [ʌ] often lowers toward [ɑ] or backs slightly, sometimes acquiring a diphthongal quality like [ʌə] in pre-nasal contexts, as part of a chain affecting lax vowels.^[13] This shift, documented in acoustic studies, illustrates how regional patterns can alter the vowel's height and backness without eliminating its phonemic role.

Historical Development

Origins in Typography

The turned v symbol emerged in 19th-century typography as printers modified the Latin minuscule "v" to create an upside-down orientation for use in experimental phonetic alphabets, allowing representation of distinct speech sounds without requiring entirely new type matrices.^[14] These adaptations relied on existing Roman and Italic types, often involving hand-drawn designs or adjustments to metal type matrices to achieve inverted forms suitable for printing phonetic notations.^[15] Prior to its adoption in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the turned v appeared in phonetic systems developed by reformers such as Alexander John Ellis, who adapted it within his early transcription methods for denoting English vowels, particularly the open-mid back unrounded sound as in "but."^[16] Ellis formalized this usage in his Palaeotype system, introduced in 1867, where the symbol served to transcribe dialectal variations in English pronunciation using readily available typographic resources.^[15] The design of the turned v evolved from initial hand-drawn sketches in phonetic manuscripts to matrix-based printing techniques by the mid-19th century. This evolution facilitated its integration into systematic phonetic notation, emphasizing practicality for philological studies of English dialects.^[17]

Integration into IPA

The turned v symbol (ʌ) was first proposed for inclusion in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) as part of the revisions published in the February 1899 issue of Le Maître Phonétique, where it represented an open-mid back unrounded vowel.^[18] This addition built on the foundational principles established by the International Phonetic Association in 1888, shortly after the organization's establishment in 1886, to create a universal system for phonetic notation.^[4] During the standardization process, the turned v was selected for its phonetic distinctiveness in denoting central and back vowel articulations, alongside practical considerations for mechanical typesetting, as rotating the existing Latin letter "v" facilitated production without requiring specialized metal type.^[4] The iterative development involved proposals vetted through the Association's journal and council meetings, prioritizing symbols that were simple, recognizable, and adaptable across languages while minimizing diacritics and non-Roman elements.^[4] The symbol has remained a core component of the IPA vowel chart through all subsequent revisions, including those formalized at the 1989 Kiel Convention and the 2020 update, with subtle glyph refinements in digital-era fonts to improve legibility and uniformity in electronic rendering.^[18]^[19]

Technical Encoding

Unicode Representation

The turned v, representing the open-mid back unrounded vowel in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is encoded in Unicode as U+028C (LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V).^[20] This code point resides within the IPA Extensions block, which encompasses the range U+0250 to U+02AF and is dedicated to characters used in phonetic notation.^[21] The character was introduced in Unicode version 1.1, released in 1993, to support early digital representation of IPA symbols. In HTML and web contexts, U+028C can be referenced using the decimal entity ʌ or the hexadecimal entity ʌ, ensuring consistent rendering across compliant browsers and editors.^[22] These entities produce the glyph ʌ without requiring special font loading, though proper display depends on the system's support for the IPA Extensions block. U+028C is designed as a standalone lowercase letter (category Ll), distinct from modifier forms such as the modifier letter small turned v at U+1DBA in the Phonetic Extensions Supplement block. This separation prevents unintended decomposition or fallback rendering—such as substitution with the caret symbol (^) or other similar glyphs—in phonetic transcriptions, maintaining accurate visual and semantic integrity in linguistic applications.^[20]

Input Methods and Fonts

The turned v symbol (U+028C) can be input using various methods across operating systems and applications, facilitating its use in phonetic transcription. On Windows, users can employ the Alt code method by holding the Alt key and typing 652 on the numeric keypad, which inserts the character in supported applications like Microsoft Word.^[22] In Linux environments, the Unicode input method is commonly used: press Ctrl+Shift+U, followed by 028c, and then Enter or space to produce the symbol. For macOS, the keyboard viewer or character palette allows selection of U+028C, or third-party IPA keyboards can be installed for direct access. In LaTeX documents, particularly with the tipa package for phonetic notation, the command \textturnv renders the turned v within text mode. Font support for the turned v is widespread in modern systems, ensuring consistent display in digital typography. Core system fonts such as Times New Roman and Arial Unicode MS include the glyph, providing baseline rendering for general use in word processors and web content.^[23] Specialized phonetic fonts like Doulos SIL, developed by SIL International, offer enhanced precision for linguistic applications, with optimized kerning and diacritic positioning to distinguish the turned v from similar symbols like the Greek lambda. Early digital environments faced occasional rendering inconsistencies for IPA symbols like the turned v, particularly in web browsers before 2010, where fallback to substitute glyphs or boxes occurred due to incomplete Unicode font coverage.^[24] These issues have been largely resolved in contemporary CSS implementations through font-family stacks that prioritize IPA-supporting fonts, ensuring reliable cross-browser display.^[25]

Similar IPA Vowels

The turned v, denoted as [ʌ] in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel and occupies the open-mid position in the back unrounded column of the IPA vowel chart, which is the second row from the close vowels at the top. This placement situates it below the close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] and above the open back unrounded vowel [ɑ], emphasizing its intermediate tongue height in the back region of the oral cavity.^[26] In contrast, its front counterpart is the open-mid front unrounded vowel [ɛ], highlighting the chart's symmetrical organization by tongue advancement. [ʌ] differs from the schwa [ə], a mid central unrounded vowel located in the central column at mid height, by its more retracted tongue position and fuller articulation; while [ə] typically occurs as a reduced vowel in unstressed syllables, [ʌ] functions as a stressed full vowel with greater openness and backness.^[2]^[27] It also contrasts with the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] through the absence of lip rounding, producing an unrounded quality that avoids the protrusion associated with rounded back vowels.^[28] Compared to the open back unrounded vowel [ɑ], often used as an alternative transcription for the strut vowel in some dialects, [ʌ] features a higher tongue position, distinguishing it as open-mid rather than fully open.^[28] Misuse of [ʌ] in phonetic transcription, such as substituting it with the more open [ɑ] or central , can lead to misperceptions of vowel height, particularly in lax vowels where subtle differences in openness affect the interpretation of stressed syllables like those in "strut" or "cup."^[29] This confusion is common among learners due to the proximity of these symbols on the IPA chart and overlapping realizations in certain accents.^[2]

Variants in Other Scripts

The turned v possesses an uppercase counterpart in the form of the Latin capital letter turned V (Ʌ, Unicode U+0245), which functions as the majuscule equivalent to the lowercase ʌ (U+028C) within extended Latin alphabets. This uppercase form remains rare in practical applications, primarily appearing in phonetic notations or specialized typographic contexts where capitalization of IPA-derived symbols is required. In various orthographies beyond standard IPA usage, the lowercase turned v (ʌ) is adapted for representing the open-mid back unrounded vowel, particularly in African languages employing extended Latin scripts. For instance, in the Temne language of Sierra Leone, ʌ denotes a vowel sound akin to the "u" in English "cut," integrated into the language's phonetic alphabet alongside other modified letters like ɛ and ɔ. Historically, an earlier variant ȧ was used for this purpose in Temne before standardization to ʌ.^[30] Similarly, some orthographies of Ibibio in Nigeria incorporate ʌ to capture specific mid vowels, reflecting influences from missionary and linguistic standardization efforts in West African writing systems.^[31] While the turned v remains rooted in Latin extensions, its form has occasionally inspired analogous symbols in non-Latin phonetic traditions, though direct borrowings are uncommon. The turned alpha (ɒ, U+0252), used for the open back rounded vowel, represents another turned form in IPA vowel notation.^[21]

References

[1]
[PDF] KIEL/LSUNI International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2020)
The 2020 IPA includes pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, vowels, and symbols for voiced/voiceless, rounded vowels, and voiced implosives.
[2]
What's the difference between Schwa (/ə/) and Wedge (/ʌ/)?
However, there's a longstanding tradition that the English vowel in “cut” or “strut” should be transcribed using a /ʌ/ symbol in the IPA. Further detail on ...
[3]
[PDF] Handbook_of_the_IPA.pdf
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association is a comprehensive guide to the ... Turned V. Open-mid back unrounded vowel. 314. 028C. E26A. Page 183 ...
[4]
[PDF] UNITIPA Symbol list of the International Phonetic Alphabet (revised ...
Name: OPEN-MID BACK UNROUNDED VOWEL. IPA name: Turned V. IPA number: 314. Unicode name: LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V. Unicode range: IPA Extensions. Hex value ...
[5]
Phonetics in advanced learner's dictionaries
Mar 21, 2014 · All the book's entries included transcriptions of their headwords with the set of IPA symbols employed in the Daniel Jones EPD (English ...Missing: applications | Show results with:applications
[6]
'I think that's what I heard? I'm not sure': Speech and language ... - NIH
Jun 17, 2022 · Phonetic transcription using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA,) is an essential component in the training of all Speech and Language ...
[7]
Why is ʌ an open-mid back unrounded vowel?
Apr 4, 2022 · The [ʌ] symbol within the IPA system proper represents cardinal vowel 14, which is by definition an open-mid back unrounded vowel.
[8]
Vowel /ʌ, ə, ɜ/ phonemes (short central vowels) - English Wiki
Feb 12, 2017 · The vowels /ʌ, ə, ɜ/ are short vowels that are central or centralized in position in many or most varieties of English.Missing: auditory qualities quality<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
ʌ/ – the UH Vowel - Pronunciation Studio
Dec 3, 2019 · /ʌ/ is a short vowel sound pronounced with the jaw mid to open, the tongue central or slightly back, and the lips relaxed: · Homophones with /ʌ/.
[10]
4.5: English Accents - Social Sci LibreTexts
Apr 10, 2021 · In this section we'll look at various English accents and how they differ from one another. The point, aside from learning some important aspects of the ...
[11]
Variation and change in the trap and strut vowels of RP: a real time ...
The present study examines evidence for change in real time within the short vowel subsystem of the RP accent of English over the course of the twentieth ...
[12]
The Vowels of Australian English | Phonetics
The Vowels of Australian English ; ʌ, ɐ, hut ; ɒ, ɔ, hot ; ɔ, oː, horde ; ʊ, ʊ, hood ; u, ʉː, hoot.
[13]
Producing and perceiving the Canadian Vowel Shift: Evidence from ...
Mar 29, 2017 · Second, we found some degree of /ʌ/ fronting, although this was much less pronounced than any changes among the front vowels. This corroborates ...
[14]
The Dutch vowel inventory - Taalportaal - the digital language portal
Front-central vowels of Dutch are /y, ø, a, ɪ, ʏ/ and the initial element of the diphthong /œy/. Back-central vowels of Dutch are the diphthong /ɑu/ and for ...
[15]
Persian Online – Grammar & Resources » Vowels - LAITS Sites
æy, off-glide on /a/, as in “cat” ; ey, off-glide on /e/, as in “forte” ; ow, off-glide on /o/, as in “roller” ; ūe, off-glide on /oo/ (= /ū/), as in “poor” ...
[16]
Back unrounded vowels [ɯ, ɤ, ʌ] – @linguisticmaps on Tumblr
Present only in southern Africa in khoisan languages, Tuu, Xaa, Dahalo, Sandawe, and adotped by Zulu, Xhosa, Venda, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana, northern Sotho.
[17]
[PDF] The Northern Cities Shift in Real Time - University of Pennsylvania
Neither /e/ nor /ʌ/ appear to exhibit any backing; instead, her /ʌ/ is lowered near /ah/, a position which seems to be particular to this speaker, as it is not ...
[18]
History of Phonetics The mid-1800s to mid-1900s - Psychology Dept
May 3, 2023 · This is a graduate-level seminar on the history of phonetics. The focus is on the period between the mid 1800s to mid 1900s.
[19]
https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart
[20]
[PDF] “Mr. A. J. Ellis - the pioneer of scientific phonetics in England” (Sweet ...
Jul 18, 2013 · Eustace in 1969. Eustace (1969). Eustace (1969) is an attempt to provide IPA equivalents to Ellis's palaeotype symbols. Although it is ...Missing: turned | Show results with:turned
[21]
The History of Gothic Book Hands - Medieval Writing
Jul 24, 2010 · Gothic book hand is a family of scripts evolving from Caroline minuscule, with angular letter forms, and laterally compressed to save parchment.
[22]
The Phoneticians | The Victorians and English Dialect
Jul 18, 2024 · It surveys the evolution of nineteenth-century phonetic study, and then focuses on the key figure of Alexander John Ellis (1814–90), exploring ...Missing: typography | Show results with:typography
[23]
IPA historical charts - International Phonetic Association
This document presents all versions and revisions of the International Phonetic Alphabet charts published throughout the Maître Phonétique and supplements ...Missing: linguistics | Show results with:linguistics
[24]
Full IPA Chart | International Phonetic Association
The IPA chart is a reproduction of the International Phonetic Alphabet. It is available as PDF or PNG files, with the IPA Kiel font being recommended.IPA: pulmonic consonants · Vowels · IPA Fonts · Non-pulmonic consonants
[25]
[PDF] IPA Extensions - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
→ 1D7E ᵾ latin small capital letter u with stroke. 028A ʊ LATIN SMALL ... 028C ʌ LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V. = caret, wedge. • lower-mid back unrounded ...Missing: compatibility notes
[26]
IPA Extensions - Unicode
01B2 Ʋ latin capital letter v with hook. 028C, ʌ, Latin Small Letter Turned V. = caret, wedge. •, lower-mid back unrounded vowel. •, uppercase is 0245 Ʌ. → ...
[27]
Unicode Character 'LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V' (U+028C)
Unicode Data. Name, LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V. Block, IPA Extensions. Category, Letter, Lowercase [Ll]. Combine, 0. BIDI, Left-to-Right [L]. Mirror, N.
[28]
LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED V (U+028C) Font Support
This is a list of fonts that support Unicode Character 'LATIN SMALL ... Times New Roman · view · Times New Roman Bold · view · Times New Roman Bold Italic ...
[29]
LINGUIST List 11.917: 19-Apr-2000 IPA on the Internet
Apr 21, 2000 · Dear colleagues, in response to my query about rendering IPA symbols on web pages I have received the following most helpful replies (my Gawd, ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[30]
IPA Transcription with SIL Fonts - Computers and Writing Systems
With Unicode-encoded fonts, the user can produce both normal text and IPA transcription with a single font. In addition, Unicode provides cross-platform ...
[31]
[PDF] Sounds of Language: Phonetics and Phonology
Fewer languages have high- and/or mid-back unrounded vowels. But Vietnamese (Mon-Khmer, Vietnam) has three unrounded back vowels, [ ɯ ], [ ɤ ] and [ ʌ ], which ...
[32]
Introduction to Vowels - Tools for Clear Speech
The tongue should be mostly relaxed. /ə/ and /ʌ/ are virtually the same sound. /ə/ is often called “schwa” and occurs in syllables when they are unstressed, and ...
[33]
[PDF] Vowels of American English - UCI Open
/ʌ/, /ə/, and /ɑ/—are unrounded. ... It is a sound that, for most speakers of American English, is very similar to /ʌ/: a mid-central, lax, unrounded vowel.Missing: IPA | Show results with:IPA
[34]
Difference between /ʌ/ and /ə/ in English IPA
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[35]
Temne language and alphabet - Omniglot
Oct 21, 2023 · Temne alphabet. Themne alphabet. Notes. Tildes are used to indicate the nasalization of vowels, e.g. ã. Ʌ ʌ used to be written Ȧ ȧ. Download an ...Missing: orthography | Show results with:orthography
[36]
Temne | Journal of the International Phonetic Association
Jul 8, 2010 · In the orthography the graphemes generally correspond to their IPA counterparts with the following exceptions: 〈〉 is used for /ʌ/, 〈y〉 is ...