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Turquerie

Turquerie was a Western European cultural and artistic movement from the 16th to the 18th centuries that involved the imitation and adaptation of Ottoman Turkish aesthetics, motifs, and elements in art, fashion, architecture, music, and decorative arts, often presenting an exoticized vision of Oriental luxury rather than accurate representations.^[1]^[2] Emerging amid diplomatic relations and trade between Europe and the Ottoman Empire, particularly after the 1525 Franco-Ottoman alliance and the post-1683 Siege of Vienna shift from military threat to cultural fascination, Turquerie reflected Europe's growing curiosity about the "Orient" through fantastical depictions of harems, sultans, and Turkish customs.^[2]^[3] The movement peaked in 18th-century France under Louis XV and Louis XVI, fueled by ambassadorial visits such as those of Mehmed Çelebi Efendi in 1721 and Mehmed Said Efendi in 1742, which introduced luxury goods like textiles, coffee, and decorative items that inspired European elites.^[2] In fashion, it manifested in loose trousers (pantaloons), embroidered robes, turbans, and fezzes adopted by nobility and the bourgeoisie, symbolizing comfort and exotic allure, while influencing fabrics like damasks and silks with crescent moon and floral patterns.^[1]^[3] Architecturally and in interiors, Turquerie created dedicated "Turkish rooms" (chambres turques), such as the Cabinet Turc at Versailles (1781) with gilded sofas and latticed screens, and Marie Antoinette's Boudoir Turc at Fontainebleau, featuring painted panels and arabesque designs that blended Ottoman influences with Rococo elegance.^[2] In the visual arts, painters like Jean-Baptiste Vanmour and Carle Van Loo produced portraits and scenes of Ottoman life, including costume albums and tapestries from the Gobelins manufactory depicting ambassadorial arrivals, which circulated widely among courts.^[3] Decorative arts embraced porcelain from Sèvres with Turkish figures and motifs, as well as furniture like low divans and latticed cabinets, emphasizing asymmetry and intricate arabesques drawn from perceived Eastern opulence.^[2] Music adopted the alla turca style, incorporating janissary band rhythms with cymbals and triangles, as seen in Mozart's opera Die Entführung aus dem Seraglio (1782), which romanticized Turkish exoticism on European stages.^[1]^[3] Literature and theater, from Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670) with its Turkish ceremony to Racine's Bajazet (1672), further popularized these themes, blending satire with admiration.^[3] Turquerie spread across Europe via trade hubs like Venice and coffeehouses in Paris and London, evolving from earlier 17th-century influences in England and the Habsburg Empire to a pan-European phenomenon by the mid-18th century.^[3] It declined after the French Revolution of 1789, as revolutionary ideals favored neoclassicism over aristocratic excess, though its legacy persisted in 19th-century Orientalism, marking a transition from playful emulation to more imperial gazes on the East.^[2]

Origins and Historical Context

Early European Encounters with Ottoman Culture

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 disrupted traditional Byzantine trade networks but intensified commercial ties between Venice and the Ottomans, as Venetian merchants quickly negotiated privileges to maintain access to eastern goods through ports like Galata.^[4] These routes facilitated the flow of spices, silks, and luxury items, with Venice serving as a primary gateway for Ottoman products into Europe despite periodic naval conflicts.^[5] Diplomatic relations further deepened this exchange; in 1536, King Francis I of France and Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent formalized the Capitulations treaty, establishing a strategic alliance against the Habsburgs that included mutual ambassadorial visits and the exchange of gifts bearing Turkish motifs, such as embroidered textiles and ornate weaponry.^[6] These interactions introduced European courts to Ottoman aesthetics, with French envoys like Jean de La Forest bringing back artifacts that sparked initial interest in Turkish decorative elements.^[7] Through Venetian trade hubs, Ottoman artifacts began influencing European decorative tastes in the 16th century, including intricately knotted carpets from Anatolian workshops, vibrant Iznik ceramics with floral and tulip motifs, and finely inlaid metalwork such as ewers and basins.^[8] These items arrived via merchant galleys alongside raw materials like cotton and spices, often as diplomatic gifts or luxury commodities sought by wealthy patrons.^[9] For instance, Iznik tiles, prized for their cobalt-blue glazes and arabesque patterns, were adapted into Venetian maiolica production, while Ottoman carpets appeared in Renaissance paintings as symbols of opulence, blending Eastern weaving techniques with European interior design.^[10] Metalwork, featuring damascening and pierced designs, similarly inspired goldsmiths in Italy, marking the start of a cross-cultural dialogue in applied arts.^[11] Travelogues and engravings from the mid-16th century played a crucial role in disseminating visual knowledge of Ottoman life to European audiences, fostering fascination with Turkish customs. French physician Pierre Belon, during his travels through the Ottoman Empire from 1546 to 1549, documented daily life, architecture like the mosques of Istanbul, and traditional dress in his illustrated work Les Observations de plusieurs singularitez, which included woodcuts of Turkish attire and urban scenes that circulated widely in print.^[12] Similarly, French geographer Nicolas de Nicolay's publication Les quatre premiers livres des navigations et peregrinations orientales (1568) featured over 60 engravings based on his 1550s journeys, depicting Ottoman costumes, court architecture, and social practices with detailed accuracy, influencing artists and costume designers across Europe.^[13] These texts, translated into multiple languages, provided Europeans with accessible images of the "exotic" East, bridging geographical distances through visual narrative.^[14] The late 17th century saw the introduction of Ottoman coffee culture as another conduit for Turquerie, with Europe's first coffee houses adopting Turkish serving styles and decor. In London, Pasqua Rosée, an Ottoman immigrant, opened the city's inaugural coffee house in 1652 near the Royal Exchange, where coffee was prepared in the Turkish manner using ibriks and served amid simple furnishings evoking Levantine kahvehane aesthetics.^[15] Vienna followed shortly after the 1683 siege, with the first documented coffee house opened in 1685 by Armenian trader and spy Johannes Diodato, who incorporated low tables, divans, and Eastern-inspired interiors to replicate the relaxed atmosphere of Istanbul's coffee houses; legend credits Polish interpreter Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki with popularizing coffee using beans left by the Ottomans.^[16] These venues not only popularized the beverage but also introduced motifs like arabesque patterns in upholstery and tilework, serving as social hubs that embedded Ottoman elements into everyday European life.^[17]

Rise and Peak in the 18th Century

The rise of Turquerie in the 18th century was profoundly shaped by shifting European perceptions of the Ottoman Empire following the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which transitioned views from military threat to romanticized exoticism and cultural sophistication.^[18]^[3] This change was amplified by diplomatic treaties, such as the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, and increased travel accounts, like those of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu during her 1717–1718 Ottoman stay, which portrayed Ottoman life as a model of refined leisure.^[14]^[3] By the mid-18th century, under Louis XV's reign in France, Turquerie reached its peak as a fashionable movement intertwined with Rococo aesthetics and Enlightenment curiosity about global cultures.^[2] Socio-economic factors, including the expansion of trade routes through the Levant Company and Marseille's Chambre de Commerce, made Ottoman-inspired goods like textiles, coffee, and porcelain more accessible, fueling middle-class consumerism and the desire for affordable luxuries such as printed cotton fabrics with Turkish motifs.^[3]^[2] This commercialization, alongside technological advances in printing and dyeing, democratized exoticism beyond elite circles, symbolizing cosmopolitanism in burgeoning public spaces.^[3] Influential patrons like Madame de Pompadour exemplified this trend; in the 1750s, she commissioned a Turkish-style boudoir at her Château de Bellevue, featuring Ottoman textiles and harem-inspired portraits by Carle Van Loo, which popularized Turquerie at court.^[19]^[14] From France, the style spread to England via the Levant Company's imports, to Germany through events like the 1719 Dresden janissary procession, and to Russia amid broader European diplomatic exchanges, integrating Turkish elements into landscape designs such as temporary tents in English gardens at sites like Stourhead and Painshill.^[3]^[20]^[21] Turquerie motifs appeared prominently in public venues like London coffee houses, established by Ottoman migrants from 1652 onward, where establishments offered sherbets, tobacco, and bath facilities mimicking Ottoman hammams to evoke leisurely Oriental sociability.^[3] In private salons, these elements signified cultural refinement, with Europeans adopting déshabillé attire and sofa arrangements inspired by Ottoman customs for intimate gatherings.^[3] By the late 18th century, however, Turquerie's prominence waned as Neoclassicism gained favor, redirecting aesthetic interests toward ancient Greek and Roman models amid political upheavals like the French Revolution.^[14] This decline marked Turquerie's absorption into broader 19th-century Orientalism, though its 18th-century legacy endured as a testament to cross-cultural fascination.^[14]

Architectural and Decorative Arts

Architecture and Garden Structures

Turquerie in architecture and garden structures manifested through European adaptations of Ottoman elements, such as onion domes, slender minarets, intricate arabesques, and lattice screens inspired by mashrabiya, often scaled down and stylized to create exotic silhouettes within landscape settings.^[22] These designs emphasized asymmetry and playful exoticism, contrasting with the symmetry of classical European architecture, to evoke a sense of Oriental fantasy in gardens during the 18th-century peak of the style.^[23] Prominent examples include the Mosque at Kew Gardens in London, designed by William Chambers around 1761, which featured two minarets, stucco palm trees, and a tent-like interior to mimic Turkish Islamic architecture as a leisure pavilion.^[24] In France, the Turkish tent on the "Island of Happiness" at Désert de Retz, created in the 1770s by François Racine de Monville, served as a whimsical folly with fabric-like walls and Ottoman-inspired motifs amid the garden's eclectic landscape.^[22] Similarly, the reconstructed Turkish Tent at Painshill Park in Surrey, England, dating to the 1760s and attributed to Charles Hamilton, utilized a conical roof and striped canvas to cap a viewing platform overlooking the gardens.^[25] Materials and techniques varied by structure type: temporary tents employed painted canvas stretched over wooden frames for portability and vivid coloration, while permanent follies used stucco for molded decorative elements like domes and arabesques, occasionally incorporating imported Turkish tiles for authentic detailing on facades or interiors.^[20] These approaches allowed for quick assembly in gardens and blended European craftsmanship with perceived Ottoman aesthetics, often prioritizing visual impact over structural durability.^[26] Functionally, these structures functioned as summerhouses for shaded retreats, smoking rooms for leisurely gatherings, or diplomatic spaces to host exotic entertainments, merging practical leisure with cultural display to immerse visitors in an imagined Ottoman ambiance.^[22] Regional variations highlighted stylistic differences: in English landscape gardens, such as Kew and Painshill, Turquerie follies adopted a whimsical, naturalistic integration to enhance picturesque vistas, whereas in French châteaux like Désert de Retz, they formed more formal, theatrical accents within structured terrains.

Furniture, Ceramics, and Interior Decor

Turquerie influenced European furniture design in the 18th century by incorporating Ottoman-inspired elements such as low, comfortable seating and intricate motifs, evoking the luxury of Eastern interiors. Low divans, often upholstered in silk or velvet with scalloped edges and silver-plated crescents, became popular for their association with Ottoman lounging spaces, as seen in the Cabinet Turc of the Count of Artois at Versailles, constructed in 1781 with gilded chairs featuring gold fringes and floral patterns.^[2] Poufs, round footstools padded for comfort, complemented these divans and were integrated into boudoirs to mimic harem seating arrangements, enhancing the sense of oriental repose in private European spaces.^[2] Ceramics and porcelain production adapted Turquerie through vibrant colors and figural scenes drawn from Ottoman aesthetics, particularly the blue-and-white palettes of Iznik wares. The Sèvres porcelain manufactory, under royal patronage, created Turkish-patterned vases in the 1750s and beyond, featuring tulip and cypress motifs alongside depictions of odalisques and janissaries; a notable example from their 1773 exhibition at Versailles portrayed a Turkish couple in conversation, later acquired by Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.^[2] Similarly, the Meissen porcelain factory in Germany produced figural groups in the mid-18th century, such as women in Turkish dress holding baskets or musicians in fezzes, modeled after exotic costumes to adorn dining tables and symbolize cultural fascination.^[27] These pieces employed gilding and underglaze techniques to imitate the metallic sheen and floral intricacy of Ottoman metalwork and tiles, making luxury accessible beyond court circles.^[28] Interior decor embraced Turquerie to transform rooms into immersive fantasy spaces, using portable elements like screens and hangings to suggest harem mystery without permanent alterations. Wallpapers in the 1780s incorporated arabesque patterns, printed via woodblock for mass production and hung in Parisian salons to evoke Eastern opulence. Fabric panels and screens featured lacquered surfaces with faux bois imitating Turkish woods, gilded accents on crescents and palms, as in the boudoir turc at Fontainebleau created for Marie Antoinette around 1777, where boiseries depicted turbans and blackamoors alongside console tables with Nubian figures.^[29] These elements, often placed in garden pavilions or private withdrawing rooms, symbolized exotic allure and social sophistication, blending European craftsmanship with imagined Ottoman splendor.^[30]

Visual Arts and Fashion

Paintings and Portraits

Turquerie manifested prominently in 18th-century European portraiture through conventions where sitters, often aristocrats, were depicted in Ottoman-inspired attire such as fezzes, kaftans, and turbans to evoke exoticism and sophistication.^[14] Swiss artist Jean-Étienne Liotard, who resided in Istanbul from 1738 to 1742 and adopted Turkish dress himself, popularized this style with precise pastel and oil portraits of European women in flowing Turkish robes and veils, such as his Portrait of Maria Adelaide of France in Turkish-style clothes (1753).^[31] Similarly, British painter Joshua Reynolds contributed to the trend in the 1760s and 1770s, portraying sitters like Mrs. Baldwin in Eastern dress (1782) and the Reverend and Mrs. Lloyd in Turquerie costumes in 1757, using the attire to blend regal poise with oriental allure.^[32]^[33] Genre paintings within Turquerie extended this fascination to imagined scenes of Ottoman daily life, including harems and bazaars, which allowed artists to romanticize Eastern opulence. Flemish painter Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, based in Istanbul from 1699 until his death in 1737, provided some of the earliest and most authentic representations through his series of over 100 works commissioned by French diplomats, such as "The Grand Vizier's Procession" and interior scenes of Turkish women at embroidery, capturing bustling markets and ceremonial processions with documentary detail.^[34]^[35] Later, French Rococo artist François Boucher infused these motifs with fantasy in the mid-18th century, such as his "Reclining Odalisque" (c. 1752), which depicted languid female figures in a harem-inspired setting, emphasizing sensuality over realism.^[34] Artistic techniques in these works featured vibrant colors, intricate textile patterns inspired by imported Ottoman miniature albums and engravings like Vanmour's Recueil de cent estampes (1714), and exotic poses that conveyed leisurely fantasy rather than historical accuracy.^[14] These elements drew from actual Ottoman visual traditions disseminated via diplomatic gifts, adapting them into European compositions with soft lighting and dynamic groupings to heighten the escapist appeal.^[36] Socially, Turquerie portraits served as status symbols for the European aristocracy, enabling self-fashioning through oriental escapism that signaled wealth, cosmopolitanism, and detachment from mundane realities during the Enlightenment era.^[14] In America, this extended to colonial elites, as evidenced by John Singleton Copley's 1771 portrait of Margaret Kemble Gage in Turkish dress, where the sitter's elaborate kaftan and turban underscored her social prominence amid pre-Revolutionary tensions.^[37] Gender dynamics in Turquerie paintings predominantly featured female subjects in odalisque poses—reclining or attended by servants—which reflected European male fantasies of secluded, luxurious harems and reinforced ideals of feminine allure and submissiveness.^[36] Works like Liotard's "A Lady in Turkish Dress and Her Servant" (ca. 1750) and Boucher's harem scenes exemplified this, portraying women as passive objects of desire within an imagined Ottoman seraglio, often excluding authentic cultural contexts.^[38]^[34]

Textiles, Patterns, and Clothing

Turquerie textiles prominently featured Ottoman-inspired motifs such as stylized tulips, carnations, arabesques, and paisley patterns, which were adapted onto printed cottons and silks to evoke an exotic Eastern aesthetic in European design.^[39]^[14] These floral and curvilinear elements, rooted in Ottoman textile traditions, symbolized luxury and otherworldliness, appearing in block-printed fabrics that blended Eastern intricacy with Western production methods.^[40] In the 1760s, the Jouy-en-Josas factory near Versailles pioneered the production of "à la Turque" printed cottons using copperplate and block-printing techniques, creating yardage with these motifs for curtains, upholstery, and garments that catered to the growing European fascination with Ottoman styles.^[2] This innovation allowed for scalable replication of intricate designs previously limited to handwoven imports, making Turquerie patterns more accessible while maintaining their ornamental appeal.^[41] Clothing under Turquerie influence adapted loose Ottoman silhouettes, including women's banyans—kaftan-like robes often in flowing silk or cotton—and men's Turkish vests, which featured embroidered edges and layered construction for a sense of opulent informality.^[14] Fashion plates in the Galerie des Modes et du Costume Français from the 1770s and 1780s illustrated these garments, showing banyans draped over chemises for domestic wear and vests paired with breeches for masquerade attire, highlighting their role in blending fantasy with everyday elegance.^[2] The production of Turquerie textiles was shaped by trade networks carrying Indian chintz through Ottoman ports to Europe, where Lyon silk weavers reinterpreted these vibrant prints into velvet upholstery and apparel adorned with Turkish-style fringes and tassels.^[39] Lyon's guild system facilitated this adaptation, employing thousands of artisans to weave and dye silks with metallic threads and floral repeats, exporting them across Europe as symbols of refined taste.^[2] Socially, Turquerie clothing and textiles were embraced at masquerades and in private home settings, where they connoted leisure and cosmopolitan leisure among the aristocracy and emerging bourgeoisie.^[14] In England, practical cotton gowns with printed motifs suited middle-class domestic life, contrasting with the more lavish French silk extravagances worn in salons and theaters to project cultural sophistication.^[2] By the late 18th century, the style evolved from costly elite imports—such as hand-embroidered Ottoman velvets—to mass-produced ready-mades in European factories, democratizing access and sustaining Turquerie's influence into the early 19th century.^[2] This shift reflected broader commercialization of exotic goods, allowing middle-class consumers to incorporate Turquerie elements into wardrobes and interiors without direct reliance on Eastern trade.^[14]

Performing Arts and Literature

Music and Opera

Turquerie profoundly shaped Western music during the 18th century, particularly through the adoption of elements inspired by Ottoman Janissary (mehter) bands, which emphasized loud percussion and wind instruments to evoke exoticism and military vigor. Composers incorporated these into the "alla turca" style, characterized by rapid tempos, abrupt major-minor shifts, monophonic melodies with ornamental runs, and irregular rhythms to mimic the percussive intensity of Ottoman military music.^[3] This style often featured added orchestral percussion such as bass drums, cymbals, and triangles, drawn directly from Janissary ensembles that European audiences encountered during diplomatic visits and wars.^[42] The Turkish crescent, a jingling pole-mounted instrument with bells, further enhanced this sonic spectacle and became a staple in European military and concert bands by the late 18th century. In opera, Turquerie manifested through plots set in Ottoman harems or seraglios, accompanied by alla turca marches and choruses to heighten dramatic exoticism. Christoph Willibald Gluck's La rencontre imprévue (1764), premiered in Vienna, exemplifies this with its comedic tale of European pilgrims in an Ottoman court, featuring Turkish-style ensembles in ceremonial scenes to underscore cultural contrasts.^[43] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782) advanced the genre, incorporating Turkish marches with Janissary percussion in the overture and choruses, portraying Ottoman characters through stylized exotic sounds while critiquing despotism.^[44] Gioachino Rossini's L'italiana in Algeri (1813) continued this tradition in the early 19th century, using rapid, percussive ensembles and pseudo-Ottoman melodies in its Algerian setting to blend humor with oriental allure.^[45] Beyond opera, alla turca elements permeated symphonic and incidental music, often in finales to evoke triumphant spectacle. Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 100, "Military" (1794), integrates Turkish percussion in the second movement's battle depiction and reprises it in the Presto finale, capturing the era's fascination with Ottoman martial pomp.^[46] Ludwig van Beethoven employed similar devices in his incidental music for The Ruins of Athens (1811), notably the Marcia alla turca, which deploys cymbals, triangle, and bass drum for a lively, exotic interlude amid the score's classical framework. These works were performed in court entertainments and public concerts across Europe, where the clangor of added instruments created an aura of oriental grandeur, appealing to audiences amid ongoing Habsburg-Ottoman tensions.^[44] The style's dissemination accelerated post-Napoleonic Wars through European military bands, which adopted Janissary-inspired formations—complete with Turkish crescents and heavy percussion—for parades and ceremonies, influencing civilian orchestras and perpetuating Turquerie into the 19th century.^[47] This integration not only enriched Western orchestration but also symbolized a blend of admiration and exoticization of Ottoman culture.^[42]

Theater, Dance, and Literary Works

Turquerie permeated European theater in the 18th century through elaborate staging and costumes that evoked Ottoman aesthetics, often featuring minarets, crescents, turbans, and scimitars to heighten exotic appeal. Earlier works like Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670) showcased Turkish ceremonies with actors in kaftans and fezzes, blending satire with visual splendor derived from authentic Ottoman attire descriptions.^[3] These stagings, common in French theaters between 1672 and 1739 across at least 13 Turkish-themed tragedies, transformed the stage into a canvas for cultural appropriation, where European audiences encountered stylized depictions of sultans and harems.^[3] In dance, Turquerie inspired ballets that mimicked Ottoman movements, particularly at the Paris Opéra, where choreographers integrated exotic gestures to convey otherness. Court dances of the period, such as those in Jean-Philippe Rameau's Les Indes galantes (1735), included alla turca sequences with performers in flowing robes executing hypnotic rotations and percussive steps, drawing from observed Ottoman customs to symbolize captivity and liberation narratives.^[3] These ballets emphasized physicality over narrative depth, using Turquerie to exoticize European choreography and appeal to aristocratic tastes for novelty. Literary works embraced Turquerie by weaving Turkish and Persian motifs into satires and travelogues, often blending authentic observations with imaginative excess. Montesquieu's Lettres persanes (1721) employed fictional Persian travelers in Europe—and by extension, Turkish cultural parallels—to mock French society, portraying Ottoman despotism as a lens for political critique while romanticizing Eastern harems and sultans.^[3] Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's Turkish Embassy Letters (1716–1718, published 1763) offered grounded insights into Ottoman life, describing luxurious baths, veiling practices, and courtly etiquette from her time in Constantinople, influencing subsequent European fascination with Turkish domesticity.^[48] Antoine Galland's French translation of The Arabian Nights (1704–1717) adapted Middle Eastern tales with Ottoman inflections, introducing themes of odalisques, viziers, and magical harems that captivated readers and fueled Turquerie narratives across novels and plays.^[3] These theatrical, dance, and literary manifestations of Turquerie served a dual cultural role, merging escapist fantasy with subtle European self-critique, as seen in portrayals of tyrannical sultans mirroring absolutist monarchies or harem intrigues exposing gender norms.^[3] By the mid-18th century, such works had normalized Ottoman imagery in popular imagination, paving the way for broader Orientalist trends without delving into musical specifics.^[3]

Legacy and Modern Interpretations

Influence on Later Orientalism

As the Ottoman Empire experienced territorial losses and internal challenges in the 19th century, European perceptions of the "Orient" shifted from the playful exoticism of 18th-century Turquerie toward more imperialistic and domineering representations, reflecting growing colonial ambitions and the empire's perceived vulnerability. This evolution subsumed Turquerie motifs into the broader framework of Orientalism, where Turkish-inspired elements became tools for asserting Western superiority rather than mere aesthetic fascination. Turquerie's influence is evident in the works of 19th-century French Romantic painters, who adapted its harem and exotic themes into more sensual and narrative-driven Orientalist scenes. Eugène Delacroix's Algerian paintings from the 1830s, such as Women of Algiers in Their Apartment (1834), drew on Turquerie conventions of opulent interiors and veiled figures to evoke an imagined Eastern sensuality, informed by his 1832 travels to North Africa amid French colonial expansion. Similarly, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres' odalisque series, including The Turkish Bath (1862), perpetuated Turquerie's idealized harem fantasies but infused them with a static, voyeuristic gaze that aligned with emerging colonial ideologies of the East as passive and eroticized. In the Victorian era, Turquerie elements integrated into eclectic architectural styles, blending with other Oriental influences to symbolize imperial grandeur. Such structures contributed to Victorian eclecticism, where Turkish arabesques and latticework appeared in interiors and public buildings as markers of exotic luxury tied to colonial trade. 20th-century scholarship has reframed Turquerie as an early instance of global cultural exchange, highlighting its role in cross-cultural dialogues beyond mere imitation. Studies from the 1990s onward, including analyses in art history bibliographies, emphasize how Turquerie facilitated the adaptation of Ottoman aesthetics into European contexts, fostering hybrid forms that anticipated modern globalization in the arts. Critiques of Turquerie gained prominence through Edward Said's Orientalism (1978), which retrospectively positioned it as a proto-colonial fantasy that constructed the East as an otherworldly domain to justify Western dominance. Said's framework reveals how Turquerie's seemingly innocuous motifs—such as turbans and divans—laid groundwork for 19th-century Orientalist discourses that exoticized and subordinated Ottoman culture amid imperial rivalries.^[49] Enduring motifs from Turquerie, particularly arabesques, persisted into later movements like Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1910), where sinuous, vegetal patterns inspired by Ottoman designs influenced decorative arts and architecture. These flowing lines, adapted from Turkish tilework and textiles, symbolized organic elegance in works by artists such as Hector Guimard, bridging Turquerie's legacy into modern design sensibilities.^[50]

Contemporary Revivals and Collections

In the 21st century, Turquerie has experienced renewed interest through museum exhibitions that highlight Ottoman influences in European art and design, often reframing historical appropriations in light of contemporary cultural dialogues. The Pera Museum in Istanbul has featured ongoing explorations of Turquerie, including a 2019 exhibition and blog series that examined its role as an aesthetic movement inspired by Ottoman motifs in European fashion, architecture, and furnishings.^[14] Similarly, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London maintains extensive Ottoman collections, including Iznik tiles from 16th-century Turkish bathhouses, which inform displays and educational programs on Islamic art opened in the Jameel Gallery in 2006 and expanded in the 2010s.^[51] The Metropolitan Museum of Art hosted the 2022 Turkish Centennial Lecture on Turquerie, focusing on 18th-century Ottoman-European exchanges and their lasting impact on global aesthetics.^[52] Contemporary fashion revivals draw on Turquerie elements like intricate patterns and flowing silhouettes to blend historical Ottoman styles with modern sensibilities. Designers such as Hussein Chalayan and Bora Aksu have incorporated Ottoman-inspired motifs, including geometric textiles and kaftan-like garments, in runway collections that evoke 18th-century European interpretations while emphasizing cultural heritage.^[53]^[54] For instance, Chalayan's work often reinterprets Ottoman tailoring in avant-garde contexts, as seen in awards recognizing his contributions to Turkish-influenced design at the 2012 Sackler Gallery gala. Aksu, known for fusing traditional Anatolian craftsmanship with contemporary cuts, presented collections at London Fashion Week featuring embroidered Ottoman patterns in the 2010s. Modern interior design adapts Turquerie through luxurious, motif-driven elements that nod to Ottoman opulence without direct replication. The Istanbul EDITION hotel, opened in 2011, integrates Byzantine and Ottoman influences in its interiors, including mosaic tiles, tufted leather ottomans, and U-shaped seating arrangements reminiscent of traditional Bosphorus villas, creating an immersive contemporary space.^[55] IKEA has offered oriental-inspired lines, such as boho-style terrace furnishings with rattan and natural materials evoking Middle Eastern aesthetics, available in collections like the 2020s summer setups that promote affordable adaptations of historical patterns.^[56] Cultural events and digital media further propagate Turquerie aesthetics, bridging historical fascination with current storytelling. The Metropolitan Museum's 2022 symposium-style lecture series on Turquerie addressed cross-cultural exchanges, attracting scholars to discuss decolonizing narratives around Ottoman representations in European art.^[52] In digital realms, artist Murat Palta's 2010s series reimagines scenes from films like Star Wars and The Godfather as Ottoman miniatures, blending modern pop culture with traditional Turkish illustration techniques to evoke Turquerie-style exoticism.^[57] Video games such as Assassin's Creed Revelations (2011) immerse players in 16th-century Ottoman Istanbul, using detailed recreations of architecture, attire, and motifs to simulate Turquerie-inspired historical fantasy.^[58] Scholarly works in the 2020s continue to unpack Turquerie through lenses of decolonization and gender, challenging earlier Eurocentric views. Nebahat Avcıoğlu's 2022 lecture at the Metropolitan Museum examined gender dynamics in 18th-century Turquerie representations, linking them to broader postcolonial critiques of Ottoman imagery in European visual culture.^[59] Her ongoing research, building on her 2011 book Turquerie and the Politics of Representation, highlights how these motifs reinforced power imbalances, informing contemporary efforts to reclaim Ottoman aesthetics from a decolonized perspective.^[60]

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[PDF] Turkish Coffee and English Politics in the Seventeenth century
Apr 9, 2005 · The first coffee house in London opened in 1652 as partnership between. Pasqua Rose, a recent immigrant from the Ottoman Empire and Christopher.Missing: decor | Show results with:decor
[16]
History of Viennese coffee house culture - Stadt Wien
The first coffee houses in England were opened in 1650 and 1652. And in Vienna the first coffee house opened only in 1683. Even if Vienna was not the ...
[17]
Viennese coffee house culture
The story of the Viennese coffeehouse began near the end of the 17th century and was closely tied to the Turkish siege of the city. Vienna's first coffeehouse ...
[18]
Turquerie: The Ottoman's powerful influence over European culture
May 19, 2020 · The 18th century is an era when music changed much in Europe. As a result of Turquerie, Ottoman music came under serious study in this regard, ...
[19]
The Turkish Boudoir - French Travel Boutique
The private residence she built in Bellevue in 1750 featured a Turkish bedroom, complete with paintings of Madame de Pompadour dressed as a Sultana.Missing: turquerie | Show results with:turquerie
[20]
'Turkish Tents': Tents as Garden Ornament in the Eighteenth Century
Sep 6, 2024 · In the late eighteenth century, Europeans considered tents the most characteristic of Oriental structures and erected them prolifically in their gardens.
[21]
Henry Hoare's Turkish Tent at Stourhead - OhioLINK
The Turkish tent stood at the entrance to Henry Hoare's garden at Stourhead from the 1760s to 1792. While Stourhead remains a masterpiece of Georgian ...Missing: English 18th
[22]
[PDF] The Levant in Europe - The Folly Fellowship
He built there a total of seventeen follies, including a pyramid, temple to Pan, Chinese temple and a house that resembles the cracked base of a Classical ...
[23]
When Europe flirted with Turkey - Cornucopia Magazine
Turquerie: An Eighteenth-Century European Fantasy By Haydn Williams ... European theatre, balls and masquerades, garden follies and the decorative arts.
[24]
In Search Of The Lost Mosque Of Kew Gardens - Londonist
Aug 7, 2017 · The mosque, finished in 1761 and base on examples of Turkish Islamic architecture. It was replete with two minarets and contained stucco palm trees.Missing: Tent Turquerie
[25]
The Turkish Tent at Painshill landscape garden in Cobham
The Turkish Tent marks the final spot on the historic route where 18th century guests would have finished and stopped to admire the view.
[26]
The Re-Creation of the Turkish Tent at Painshill - jstor
The colour scheme is to be white and blue with a gilt fin. Keene (and as recorded by Parnell). The reason why Hamilton chose a Turkish tent to end the tour of P.
[27]
Chair - Thomas Chippendale Senior - Explore the Collections - V&A
Mar 4, 2003 · When this chair was bequeathed to the Museum, curators believed that it had been made about 1760. It is based on a design by the cabinetmaker ...
[28]
Meissen figure of a woman in Turkish dress from a plat de ménage
This figure is from the Smithsonian's Hans Syz Collection of Meissen Porcelain. Dr. Syz (1894-1991) began his collection in the early years of World War II ...
[29]
Turkish Woman with Basket | RISD Museum
Dressed in pointed shoes, jewels, and feathers, porcelain figures were designed to delight guests at the dinner table. They exemplify turquerie, a European ...Missing: odalisques janissaries
[30]
None
### Summary of Turquerie Furniture, Ceramics, and Interior Decor at Marie-Antoinette's Court
[31]
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/438120
[32]
Jean Etienne Liotard - Woman in Turkish Dress, Seated on a Sofa
Having lived in Istanbul from 1738 to 1742, he fashioned himself the “Turkish painter,” adopting a beard and Turkish dress as he traveled between European ...
[33]
Mrs Baldwin in Eastern Dress | Compton Verney
Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) was one of Britain's foremost artists and at the height of his celebrity when he made this portrait. He was not commissioned to ...
[34]
Sir Joshua Reynolds | The Rev and Mrs Lloyd in Turquerie (1757)
Sir Joshua Reynolds · The Rev and Mrs Lloyd in Turquerie (1757). Oil on canvas. Painting. 76.2 x 63.5 cm. Provenance and Literature.
[35]
Turquerie: Evolution of Turkish theme in European art, style
Oct 7, 2016 · The Jardin Turc ("Turkish Garden"), once Paris's most popular gardens turned out to be a favorite background for paintings. Madame de Pompadur ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[36]
Jean Baptiste Vanmour - Rijksmuseum
Jean Baptiste Vanmour, c. 1720 - c. 1737. Lying-in Room of a Distinguished Turkish Woman · Turkish Woman at her Embroidery Frame. Jean Baptiste Vanmour, c. 1720 ...Missing: Ottoman | Show results with:Ottoman
[37]
Turquerie - an orientalist fantasy :: October 2014 :: Cassone
### Summary of Turquerie in Visual Arts
[38]
John Singleton Copley and Margaret Kemble Gage
The centerpiece of Turkish Fashion in 18th Century America is the masterful portrait which John Singleton Copley (1738-1815) produced in 1771 for Margaret ...
[39]
Liotard, A Lady in Turkish Dress - Nelson Atkins
Jean Etienne Liotard, A Lady in Turkish Dress and Her Servant, ca. 1750, oil on canvas, 28 1/2 x 22 1/2 in. (72.4 x 57.2 cm), Purchase: William Rockhill Nelson ...
[40]
Silks from Ottoman Turkey - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Nov 1, 2012 · 17th–18th century. Kaftan, Silk, metal wrapped thread ... motifs including carnations, roses, tulips, hyacinth, and cherry blossoms.
[41]
Turkish Ottoman Floral Motifs — Art of Islamic Illumination
Jan 31, 2020 · These motifs come from the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughal Islamic periods. None of them are Arab and their style should not be referred to as “Arab Style”
[42]
Printed fabrics in Jouy-en-Josas (1762-1843) - Musée protestant
In 1762, Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf established a cotton printing factory in Jouy-en-Josas (Yvelines) ; it was to become very well-known.Missing: Turquerie tulips carnations arabesques 1760s
[43]
Representations of Janissary music (Mehter) as musical exoticism in ...
Abstract This article examines one particular type of musical exoticism in Western music: representations of janissary music or mehter (Turkish military ...
[44]
Gluck and the Turkish Subject in Ballet and Dance on JSTOR
... Gluck's (1714-1787) opéra-comique La rencontre imprévue (1763), one of best-known examples of 'Turkish' spectacle on the Viennese stages is the pantomime ...
[45]
What does a Turkish Janissary band have to do with Mozart?
Nov 15, 2013 · This was the fevered political atmosphere into which Mozart gave us the Ottoman-inspired "Alla Turca." The ongoing skirmishes were about more ...
[46]
L'Italiana in Algeri - Stories - Rossini Opera Festival
L'Italiana in Algeri, dramma giocoso in two acts to a libretto by Angelo Anelli, was first performed at the Teatro San Benedetto, Venice, on 22th May 1813.
[47]
Symphony No. 100, "Military", Joseph Haydn - LA Phil
The Presto finale rushes by like an unstoppable perpetual motion machine. In a stroke of genius, Haydn brings back his Turkish percussion during the movement's ...Missing: turquerie | Show results with:turquerie
[48]
Mehter military band and Alla Turca style: Ottoman impact on ...
Aug 19, 2020 · The Ottomans' 'Mehter' military band, which spread fear to the enemy in times of war, became a source of inspiration for Europeans, deeply.
[49]
The Turkish Embassy Letters - Broadview Press
Free delivery over $65 30-day returnsMontagu accompanied her husband to Turkey and wrote an extraordinary series of letters that recorded her experiences as a traveller and her impressions of ...
[50]
[PDF] Ottoman Orientalism - University of Warwick
At the heart of Ottoman Orientalism was a notion of time. Ottoman reformers' acute awareness of the decline of their empire galvanized them into overhauling.
[51]
John Nash, Royal Pavilion, Brighton - Smarthistory
How can one describe such a piece of architecture? The style is a mixture of Moorish, Tartar, Gothic, and Chinese and all in stone and iron.Missing: Turquerie | Show results with:Turquerie
[52]
Orientalism and Architecture | ArchDaily
Nov 13, 2021 · The onion dome of the building, and its ornamented tilework in its façade, are clearly meant to mimic an “oriental” architectural style, with ...
[53]
https://asia-archive.si.edu/press-release/the-sackler-gallery-honors-contemporary-turkish-designers-at-the-gala-opening-of-style-and-status-imperial-costumes-from-ottoman-turkey/
[54]
Arabesque - Clark Art Institute
Dec 14, 2019 · Arabesque is a freely evolving line based on vegetal motifs, originating from the Arab world, and used in European art. It evolved from a ...
[55]
Tile | V&A Explore The Collections
Tile, fritware body, painted under the glaze in two shades of blue, Turkey (Iznik), 1530-40; from the Çinili Hamam (Tiled Bath-house) in the Zeyrek district ...Missing: recreation | Show results with:recreation
[56]
The Turkish Centennial Lecture—Turquerie: Ottoman–European ...
May 13, 2022 · As a category both visual and political, the “Turk” was constructed during the 18th century amidst increasing trade, diplomacy, and cultural ...<|separator|>
[57]
The Sackler Gallery Honors Contemporary Turkish Designers at the ...
... designers working today—Atil Kotoglu, Gonul Paksoy, Hussein Chalayan and Yildirim Mayruk—with awards that recognized their contributions to fashion. The ...
[58]
9 Turkish Fashion Designers You Should Know | Sxedio Modas 2025
Bora Aksu is a Turkish fashion designer known for his innovative designs that combine traditional craftsmanship with contemporary style. He studied fashion ...
[59]
Turkish Delight: The Istanbul Edition - W Magazine
May 23, 2011 · The 13-story hotel's aesthetic is decidedly understated, incorporating Byzantine and Ottoman motifs and materials, such as mosaic tile, hanging ...Missing: interior influences
[60]
A summer terrace with an oriental boho look - IKEA
Furniture. Deep and cosy lounge furniture with simple lines, made of natural materials such as wood or rattan, are the focal point of our oriental terrace.Colours & Materials · Furniture · Decoration And Accessories
[61]
Cult films as Ottoman art - CNN
Mar 19, 2014 · Turkish artist Murat Palta has recreated classic scenes from cult classic movies in the style of traditional Ottoman art.
[62]
Antagonist Images of the Turk in Early Modern European Games
“The Turk” is a multifaceted concept that emerged in the late Middle Ages in Europe, after the 1453 Ottoman victory at Constantinople, and has gained new ...
[63]
Ottoman–European Cultural Exchanges in the 18th Century - YouTube
May 13, 2022 · The Turkish Centennial Lecture—Turquerie: Ottoman–European Cultural Exchanges in the 18th Century. 9.2K views · Streamed 3 years ago #Museum ...Missing: spread Germany Russia
[64]
Turquerie and the Politics of Representation, 1728–1876 - Routledge
In stock Free deliveryIn investigating why and to what effect Europeans turned to the Turk for inspiration, Avcioglu provides a far-reaching cultural reinterpretation of art and ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s