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Uyghur New Script

The Uyghur New Script (Uyghur Yëngi Yëziqi or UYY), a Latin-based alphabet for the Uyghur language, was officially implemented in the People's Republic of China from 1965 to 1982 as a phonetic romanization system tailored to Uyghur phonology.^[1] Drawing influences from the Soviet Uniform Turkic Alphabet for Turkic languages and the Chinese Pinyin system for tonal and segmental representation, it incorporated diacritics such as ə, ƣ, and h̡ to capture Uyghur's vowel harmony, front/back distinctions, and consonants absent in standard Latin.^[1]^[2] This script emerged amid mid-20th-century reforms for minority languages in China, reflecting state-driven efforts to standardize writing for education, administration, and integration with Mandarin-influenced systems during a period of ideological alignment with phonetic scripts over traditional ones.^[2] Despite mandatory use in publishing, schooling, and official documents, the Uyghur New Script faced resistance due to its divergence from the longstanding Arabic tradition tied to Uyghur's Islamic cultural heritage, rendering it unpopular and ill-suited for native speakers accustomed to cursive Perso-Arabic forms.^[2] In 1982, following the Cultural Revolution's end, Chinese authorities abolished it via the Xinjiang Ethnic Language and Writing Committee, reinstating a reformed Arabic alphabet (with added vowel markers for full phonemic coverage) to foster literacy continuity and cultural preservation, a shift formalized in orthographic standards by 1984.^[2] Today, remnants persist in romanization schemes like BGN/PCGN for geographic naming, but the script holds primarily historical significance amid ongoing debates over Uyghur orthographic stability.^[3]

Historical Context and Development

Pre-1965 Uyghur Writing Systems

The Perso-Arabic script became the primary writing system for Uyghur following the widespread adoption of Islam in the Tarim Basin region during the 10th century, replacing earlier scripts such as the Sogdian-derived Old Uyghur alphabet used for Buddhist and Manichaean texts from the 8th to 13th centuries.^[4] This script was adapted to accommodate Turkic phonology by incorporating additional diacritics and letters for vowels and consonants absent in standard Arabic, such as modifications for sounds like /ö/, /ü/, and /ng/.^[5] Over centuries, it facilitated religious, literary, and administrative documentation, with reforms in the early 20th century under figures like Mahmud al-Kashgari standardizing orthographic rules for consistency in vowel representation, though ambiguities persisted due to the script's abjad nature.^[6] In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet linguistic policies promoted Latinization campaigns across Central Asia as part of broader efforts to distance Turkic peoples from Arabic-influenced Islamic traditions and foster proletarian internationalism. For Uyghur communities in Soviet territories and during the short-lived East Turkestan Republic (1933–1934), a modified Latin alphabet—part of the Uniform Turkic Alphabet (Yañalif)—was introduced around 1930, featuring 32 letters tailored to Uyghur phonemes, including digraphs for affricates and fricatives.^[7] This system saw limited implementation in education and periodicals but was largely abandoned by the late 1930s amid Stalinist purges and a pivot to Cyrillic scripts, which were imposed on Soviet Uyghurs by 1940 to align with Russian orthographic dominance and facilitate surveillance of printed materials.^[8] Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Arabic script remained in use for Uyghur in Xinjiang, reflecting continuity with pre-communist conventions, though standardization efforts drew on Soviet models approved in Almaty in 1951.^[9] Soviet influence peaked in the mid-1950s, leading to the adoption of a Cyrillic-based alphabet for Uyghur in Xinjiang around 1956–1957, comprising 32 letters with adaptations for Uyghur vowels and the palatal approximant /y/, aimed at improving phonetic accuracy and integration with socialist literacy drives.^[10] This shift supported expanded publication of textbooks and newspapers, though the ensuing Sino-Soviet split from 1960 introduced tensions, with Cyrillic's implementation proving inconsistent due to ideological divergences and logistical challenges in retooling printing presses.^[9] Literacy campaigns under both Arabic and Cyrillic systems reduced overall illiteracy in Uyghur areas from high pre-1949 levels, though precise comparative rates tied to script changes remain sparsely documented in available records.^[11]

Creation and Influences (1962-1965)

The Uyghur New Script, also known as Yëngi Yëziqi, was developed in the early 1960s by linguists under the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region's Language and Script Committee as part of broader Chinese efforts to modernize minority language orthographies following the adoption of Hanyu Pinyin for Mandarin in 1958. This initiative aligned with socialist policies emphasizing simplified, phonetic writing systems to promote mass literacy and secular education, replacing the Perso-Arabic script associated with religious and feudal traditions. Work on the Latin-based system progressed amid post-1949 language standardization drives, with trial implementations in primary schools occurring during the decade, culminating in the printing of 600,000 copies of a primer featuring the new alphabet in 1965.^[9]^[12]^[13] Linguistically, the script drew influences from the Hanyu Pinyin system, incorporating diacritics for precise vowel representation akin to Pinyin's tonal markers—adapted here for Uyghur's vowel harmony and phonetic needs rather than tones—and elements from the 1930s Yëziqi Latin orthography used for Uyghur in Soviet-influenced regions. The resulting 32-letter alphabet prioritized first-principles phonetic mapping to Uyghur's Turkic sounds, including unique characters such as ⱨ to denote the /h/ phoneme, avoiding ambiguities in standard Latin letters while facilitating romanization compatible with Chinese linguistic trends. This design supported bilingual education by easing transitions to Pinyin-based Mandarin materials, without accommodating Arabic script's cursive forms or ideological links to Islamic heritage.^[9]^[1] The committee-driven process involved empirical adaptation of Latin characters to capture Uyghur's eight vowels and 24 consonants, testing mappings for accuracy in representing dialectal variations, particularly the Ili variant promoted under Maoist standardization. Key oversight came from bodies like the Language Research Committee, with figures such as Seypidin Ezizi contributing to related language policy frameworks, though primary design credit remains collective under state directives. By 1965, the script's core features were finalized, reflecting causal priorities of ideological alignment and practical utility over preservation of traditional scripts.^[12]^[9]

Official Adoption and Implementation (1965)

On October 1, 1965, the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region People's Government issued a presidential decree mandating the full adoption of the Uyghur New Script, a Latin-based system, as the official writing system for the Uyghur language, following its earlier endorsement by the First Session of the Third People's Congress of the region in April 1964 and approval by the State Council on October 23, 1964.^[14] This policy-driven rollout aligned with Mao-era initiatives to standardize and phoneticize minority scripts, emphasizing transparency in representing Uyghur phonology to boost literacy rates while ideologically severing ties to Perso-Arabic orthography, which authorities associated with religious conservatism and pan-Turkic separatism.^[14] Implementation began immediately upon the decree, enforcing the script's mandatory use in schools, newspapers, official documents, broadcasting, and publications across the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, with party directives compelling compliance through administrative channels rather than public consultation.^[14] Educators and civil servants underwent rapid training programs, though initial logistical hurdles arose from the need to transliterate existing materials and produce new ones, exacerbating disruptions in administrative continuity and educational delivery amid the pre-Cultural Revolution political climate. Early enforcement encountered resistance from Uyghur intellectuals and educators familiar with the established Arabic script, as documented in subsequent analyses of public sentiment, yet state mechanisms prioritized ideological conformity over cultural preferences, resulting in coerced adoption without mechanisms for widespread referenda or opt-outs.^[14] This top-down approach reflected causal priorities of the era—favoring scripts modeled on Pinyin for alignment with Han-centric modernization—over preserving orthographic traditions that had endured for centuries among Turkic communities.^[14]

Script Characteristics

Alphabet Composition and Letters

The Uyghur New Script alphabet comprised 32 letters adapted from the Latin script to align with the phonemic inventory of Uyghur, a Karluk Turkic language featuring 8 distinct vowels and 24 consonants as identified in phonological studies. It utilized the core letters A–Z as a base, supplemented by non-standard characters including ƣ for the voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ and ⱡ to distinguish a velarized or contextual variant of /l/ from the clear /l/. Diacritics marked front vowels, such as umlauts on ö (/ø/) and ü (/y/), and trema on ë for a front mid vowel /e/, ensuring representation of vowel harmony without introducing extraneous symbols. The schwa /ə/ employed the dedicated letter ə, reflecting its frequent occurrence in Uyghur syllable structure. This configuration prioritized phonetic transparency over historical orthographic continuity, aiming for minimal ambiguity in mapping graphemes to sounds observed in native speech data. Aspirated stops (/pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/, /t͡sʰ/, /t͡ʃʰ/) lacked dedicated letters, with distinctions conveyed through positional context, adjacent vowel quality, or phonotactic constraints rather than explicit markers, a decision informed by empirical analysis of Uyghur's consonant contrasts where aspiration is allophonically conditioned in many environments. This reduced redundancy while fitting the language's 24-consonant system, which includes fricatives like /x/, /ɣ/, affricates /t͡s/, /t͡ʃ/, and nasals /ŋ/, covered by standard letters such as x, g (pre-vocalically), ts, ch (or c/j), and ng. The overall inventory avoided digraphs for core phonemes, favoring single graphemes to enhance one-to-one correspondence and literacy efficiency for Karluk dialects. The following table summarizes key letter-phoneme mappings, emphasizing special and modified forms; standard Latin letters (e.g., a /a/, b /b/, i /i/, etc.) handled remaining vowels (/o/, /u/) and consonants (/d/, /m/, /n/, /r/, /s/, etc.) without alteration:

Letter	IPA Phoneme	Notes
ƣ	/ɣ/	Voiced counterpart to /x/; used intervocalically or post-vocalically.
ⱡ	/l̠/ or /ɫ/	Velar or backed lateral approximant, contrasting plain l /l/.
ë	/e/	Front unrounded mid vowel; diacritic distinguishes from back /e/-like realizations.
ö	/ø/	Front rounded mid vowel; essential for Uyghur's rounded front harmony.
ü	/y/	Front rounded high vowel; pairs with /u/ in harmony sets.
ə	/ə/	Mid central vowel; common in unstressed syllables, represented distinctly to avoid merger with /a/ or /e/.

This structure reflected a commitment to causal phonological realism, where grapheme choices derived from acoustic and articulatory data rather than borrowed conventions, enabling precise encoding of Uyghur's vowel rounding and consonant gradation without the inefficiencies of abjad systems.

Phonetic and Orthographic Features

The Uyghur New Script utilized a strictly linear left-to-right orthography with explicit word spacing, departing from the cursive, right-to-left joining of the traditional Arabic script to enhance compatibility with typewriters and printing presses.^[14] This design prioritized phonetic transparency, employing 32 Latin-based graphemes adapted from the Chinese Pinyin system to map directly onto Uyghur's 8 vowel and 24 consonant phonemes, including modified letters like ⟨ə⟩ for schwa-like vowels, ⟨ɵ⟩ for rounded front mid vowels, and ⟨ƣ⟩ for the uvular fricative /ʁ/.^[15] Uyghur's vowel harmony, which mandates assimilation of suffix vowels to the root's backness and rounding features, was accommodated through discrete graphemes for each vowel quality (e.g., ⟨a⟩ vs. ⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩ vs. ⟨ö⟩), enforcing strict alternation without reliance on contextual inference or diacritic stacking beyond base forms. Diphthongs such as /aj/ and /ej/ followed digraph conventions (e.g., ⟨ay⟩, ⟨ey⟩), while consonant clusters were spelled sequentially without ligatures, reflecting the language's avoidance of complex onsets beyond /C(C)V/ patterns. These conventions reduced ambiguity in homophonous sequences compared to under-specified abjad systems, though empirical validation remains limited to anecdotal reports from implementation eras. Borrowed heavily from Pinyin orthographic principles, the script's phonetic focus arguably advanced short-term Sinicization by aligning Uyghur representation with Mandarin romanization norms, eroding entrenched Turkic-Arabic scribal traditions tied to Islamic literacy. However, post-adoption assessments indicate no sustained literacy gains; repeated reforms instead correlated with elevated illiteracy rates, as adaptation resistance and policy reversals disrupted acquisition continuity.^[14] Long-term cognitive benefits for reading phonological awareness in a vowel-harmonic system lack substantiation, with abandonment in 1982 underscoring insufficient causal efficacy against cultural inertia.

Comparison to Other Uyghur Scripts

The Uyghur New Script, a Cyrillic-derived system with explicit letters for all phonemes including Uyghur's eight vowels, provided a more straightforward phonographic representation than the traditional Perso-Arabic script, which relies on cursive connections and right-to-left writing despite reforms adding dedicated vowel letters and diacritics for full vocalization.^[5]^[1] This linear, left-to-right design facilitated mechanical reproduction and initial decoding for non-specialists, but sacrificed the interconnected forms and calligraphic heritage of Arabic, which embody cultural and Islamic religious associations central to Uyghur identity.^[16]^[17] Compared to the Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet employed among Central Asian Uyghur communities, the New Script featured a streamlined inventory closer to 32 core letters, emphasizing precise vowel diacritics tailored to Uyghur harmony without extraneous Soviet-era modifications, thereby achieving greater orthographic efficiency post the 1960 Sino-Soviet rift.^[17]^[6] Its adaptations prioritized phonetic consistency over the broader 36-plus characters in regional Cyrillic variants, which often incorporated digraphs for diphthongs less optimally suited to eastern dialects.^[6] Relative to the 1930s Latin script (Uyghur Latin Yëziqi), the New Script incorporated standardized graphemes influenced by contemporaneous Chinese romanization efforts, enhancing cross-linguistic compatibility and modernity in typesetting, though Uyghur's lack of lexical tones rendered such elements redundant for native phonology.^[17]^[8] Proponents highlighted its potential for simplified standardization amid industrialization, yet the Latin predecessor's similar short tenure underscores recurring rejection of romanized systems in favor of scripts aligning with ethnic-linguistic traditions. Empirical claims of enhanced accessibility in the New Script, such as purported gains in literacy speed, remain unsubstantiated by longitudinal data, with its 17-year implementation followed by reversion to Arabic indicating that technical efficiencies did not translate to sustained organic adoption, likely due to top-down imposition overriding cultural preferences.^[9]^[18]

Usage Period and Transition

Application in Education and Media (1965-1982)

The Uyghur New Script was primarily implemented in primary and secondary education across Xinjiang, where it coexisted with the traditional Arabic script but served as the main instructional medium to standardize literacy efforts. A 1965 primer designed to teach the script achieved a print run of 600,000 copies, incorporating Maoist ideological content to align with contemporary mobilization campaigns. Publishing houses like the Xinjiang People's Press produced over 10 million volumes after 1956, with approximately 60% consisting of textbooks that increasingly adopted the New Script for pedagogical materials. Disruptions during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) hindered full efficacy, as political excesses interrupted curriculum consistency and teacher training.^[12]^[12]^[12]^[18] In media, the script facilitated transitions in print outlets, with newspapers such as Shinjang yashliri employing it from 1966 onward and journals like Xinjiang Yéziq Özgertishi dedicating issues to orthographic instruction. Xinjiang Broadcasting Station adapted Uyghur-language radio content to leverage the script's phonetic transparency, aiding script preparation for on-air clarity despite the oral medium's dominance. These shifts supported expanded Uyghur-language output amid state-directed publishing, though reliance on Ili dialect standards introduced inconsistencies in spelling and nomenclature across broadcasts and periodicals.^[12]^[12]^[12]

Factors Leading to Abandonment

Following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 and the initiation of Deng Xiaoping's reforms from 1978, Chinese policy shifted toward cultural liberalization and pragmatic governance, which reframed the Uyghur New Script—introduced amid the ideological fervor of the early 1960s—as an artifact of excessive radicalism associated with the Cultural Revolution's disruptions.^[9] This script, a Latin-based system influenced by Pinyin and Soviet Turkic alphabets, was perceived as a break from traditional Uyghur orthographic practices tied to Arabic, which had persisted despite earlier experiments.^[19] Deng-era emphasis on stability and ethnic cohesion prioritized restoring familiar cultural elements to foster integration among minorities, viewing the New Script's imposition as counterproductive to these goals.^[20] Practical challenges compounded this ideological reevaluation, as implementation revealed persistent difficulties in user proficiency and retention, with many Uyghurs informally reverting to Arabic script variants due to its established readability in religious and literary contexts.^[19] Linguistic surveys and feedback from the late 1970s indicated suboptimal adaptation, particularly among older generations and rural populations, where the New Script's phonetic mappings clashed with ingrained habits, leading to inefficiencies in everyday communication and education.^[9] The decline in anti-religious campaigns post-1978 further eroded support for the script, as Arabic's association with Islamic heritage regained legitimacy, aligning with broader efforts to mitigate ethnic tensions through cultural accommodation rather than enforced innovation.^[21] By 1980, pilot programs testing dual-script usage in select regions underscored public inclination toward Arabic, highlighting readability advantages and resistance to retraining costs, which informed the mounting case against sustaining the New Script.^[22] These pressures, rooted in policy pragmatism over ideological purity, marked the script's effective obsolescence by the early 1980s, independent of claims about its inherent orthographic efficiency, which lacked long-term empirical validation amid the transition.^[9]

Reversion to Arabic Script (1982)

In September 1982, the Fifth People's Congress of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region passed a resolution at its 17th session to terminate the use of the Uyghur New Script and reinstate the Arabic-based Old Uyghur script as the official writing system.^[14] This action followed extensive solicitation of public input and was formalized by a notice from the Xinjiang People's Government on November 11, 1982, mandating the restoration across governmental, educational, and media domains.^[14] The policy explicitly cited the New Script's inherent shortcomings—such as orthographic inadequacies—and the entrenched familiarity of the Arabic script among Uyghurs after centuries of use, noting that the former "was not actually accepted by Uyghur people because of its own shortcomings and the Uyghur people’s long-term use of the Arabic Uyghur Language."^[14] Transition mechanisms emphasized gradual integration, with adjustments to handwriting rules, letterforms, and standardization efforts to bridge the scripts.^[14] Dual-script accommodations were implicitly supported during the shift, culminating in full enforcement of the Arabic script starting January 1, 1984, though orthographic refinements and bilingual policies extended implementation support into 1987.^[14] ^[9] The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Language and Script Working Committee facilitated logistics through the issuance of pamphlets, an orthographic dictionary in 1985, and targeted training programs to reprint and adapt educational and publishing materials.^[9] Immediate outcomes included swift institutional compliance, driven by the script's alignment with Turkic-Islamic heritage and perceived practicality over the New Script's foreign-influenced design, which had severed ties to traditional literature.^[9] State rhetoric framed the reversion as a pragmatic correction to restore cultural continuity, eschewing acknowledgment of the New Script's earlier politically mandated imposition during the Cultural Revolution.^[9] This rapid pivot enhanced access to pre-1965 heritage texts while necessitating retraining for recent literacy cohorts, marking a key stabilization in Xinjiang's post-1978 language policies.^[14]

Reception, Impact, and Controversies

Domestic and Linguistic Reception

The Uyghur New Script, a Latin-based system introduced in 1965, was designed to provide a more phonetically accurate representation of the language's vowel harmony and consonant clusters compared to the Perso-Arabic script's abjad structure, which often omits short vowels.^[5] Domestic linguists affiliated with Chinese institutions, such as those on the Xinjiang Language and Script Committee, endorsed this feature in early implementation reports, arguing it simplified orthography for agglutinative Turkic morphology and supported broader accessibility in education.^[9] However, empirical usability assessments were limited, with official metrics focusing on rollout rather than comparative literacy outcomes. Among Uyghur speakers, practical reception was marked by reluctance and low voluntary adoption, as evidenced by sluggish implementation in everyday use despite mandatory education policies.^[9] Language policy analyses indicate that while the script's alphabetic nature theoretically reduced ambiguities in reading unfamiliar words, speakers familiar with Arabic-script religious texts experienced difficulties transitioning, leading to persistent error rates in writing complex suffixes typical of Uyghur's synthetic structure.^[14] Oral accounts from the period, subordinated to policy records, highlight resentment toward enforced relearning, contributing to minimal retention post-1982 reversion.^[9] Turkic linguists outside mainland China critiqued the script for alienating users from the Chagatai literary tradition tied to Arabic orthography, viewing the Latin shift as disruptive to cultural continuity in reading classical texts.^[18] In contrast, People's Republic of China reports emphasized implementation successes in rural areas without addressing underlying adoption barriers or comparative error data, reflecting institutional priorities over independent verification.^[9] Overall, while the script offered orthographic innovations, domestic feedback underscored usability challenges rooted in linguistic habits and transitional friction rather than inherent flaws.

Political Motivations and Criticisms

The adoption of the Uyghur New Script in 1965 aligned with the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) script latinization campaigns for minority languages, drawing partial inspiration from Soviet-era reforms while incorporating Pinyin-derived diacritics to facilitate phonetic alignment with standard Chinese romanization and promote linguistic integration.^[9]^[12] This move preceded the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), during which broader ideological drives to dismantle the "four olds"—encompassing old customs tied to religious traditions—targeted the Arabic script's longstanding Islamic connotations as emblematic of feudal backwardness, prioritizing state-directed modernization over indigenous orthographic continuity.^[18] Such reforms reflected causal priorities of Sinicization, embedding compatibility with Han-centric systems to erode cultural distinctiveness under the guise of scientific progress, rather than responding to demonstrated phonetic deficiencies in the Arabic script.^[14] Critics, including analyses of CCP language policies, contend the New Script's imposition bypassed meaningful Uyghur consultation, with formal adoption by a centralized Language and Script Committee overriding community reluctance, akin to Soviet manipulations that shifted Uyghur scripts from Latin to Cyrillic in the 1940s to sever pan-Turkic affiliations.^[9]^[12] Absent referenda or efficacy trials, internal policy emphases on quotas for script rollout—evident in uneven educational mandates—privileged ideological conformity over empirical outcomes, resulting in persistent literacy shortfalls and burdensome retraining demands that post-hoc rationales later downplayed.^[18] The 1982 abandonment, prompted by these practical failures amid post-Cultural Revolution pragmatism, reinstated a modified Arabic script without documented mass opposition, highlighting top-down inefficiencies where state fiat trumped adaptive local needs.^[23]^[14] Controversies surrounding the reforms often invoke Sinicization as cultural suppression, yet the rapid reversion—coupled with Arabic's enduring dominance in Uyghur media and education today—counters absolutist interpretations of intent to eradicate heritage, as the script's brevity and familiarity fostered sustained usage absent coercive enforcement post-1982.^[9]^[18] This policy oscillation underscores inefficiencies in centralized engineering of orthographic change, where initial abandonments of Arabic for Latin yielded to reversion not through grassroots revolt but recognition of mismatched implementation, favoring skeptical assessments of bureaucratic overreach over narratives framing isolated reforms as wholesale genocidal vectors.^[12]^[14]

Long-Term Legacy and Modern Relevance

The Uyghur New Script's primary long-term legacy lies in its contribution to broader debates on romanization for Turkic languages, where it highlighted challenges in adapting Latin alphabets to Uyghur phonetics amid ideological shifts.^[9] Post-1982, its influence within China proved negligible, with the script abandoned in favor of the reinstated Arabic system, reflecting limited organic adoption despite state promotion.^[14] In linguistic terms, it prompted minimal carryover in phonetic standardization, as subsequent Arabic orthography reverted to traditional conventions without incorporating New Script innovations.^[1] Critics have noted that the script's imposition and rapid reversal disrupted generational literacy continuity, requiring older Arabic-proficient readers to navigate Latin materials from the intervening period, though empirical evidence of widespread literacy decline remains sparse and tied to broader reform instability rather than the script alone.^[24] This underscores the resilience of the Arabic script, which endured multiple state-driven changes—from pre-1965 Arabic, to Latin variants, and back—demonstrating greater alignment with cultural and practical preferences absent enforced use.^[9] In diaspora communities, informal Latin variants drew partial inspiration from historical romanization efforts like the New Script, facilitating digital communication, but formal writing predominantly retained Arabic.^[25] Modern relevance persists in niche digital archiving and conversion tools, with software developed since the early 2000s enabling transcription between New Script Latin, Arabic, and other Uyghur variants to preserve historical texts.^[26] Examples include open-source converters handling Uyghur Latin Yëziqi (ULY), a descendant form, though usage remains rare and overshadowed by Arabic dominance in both China and exile contexts.^[27] No organized revival campaigns have emerged, as Arabic's entrenched position—bolstered by cultural continuity and practical utility—has prevailed over predictions of Latin's inevitability during earlier reforms.^[1] This outcome illustrates the limited efficacy of top-down script engineering without sustained grassroots or technological reinforcement, with Arabic literacy rates stabilizing post-reversion.^[14]

References

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