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Vulnerable plaque

Vulnerable plaque refers to an atherosclerotic lesion within the arterial wall, most commonly in the coronary arteries, that possesses structural and compositional features predisposing it to rupture, erosion, or rapid progression, thereby triggering thrombus formation and acute cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction or stroke. These plaques are distinguished from stable ones by their instability, which arises from imbalances in biological processes like inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation, rather than solely from the degree of luminal narrowing.^[1] The vulnerable plaque hypothesis emerged in the late 20th century to explain the unpredictable clinical course of atherosclerosis, where many acute coronary syndromes occur in lesions with minimal prior stenosis, emphasizing plaque vulnerability over stenosis severity as a key risk factor.^[1] Morphologically, vulnerable plaques are classified into subtypes such as ruptured plaques (with fibrous cap discontinuity exposing a necrotic core), eroded plaques (intact cap but endothelial denudation leading to thrombosis), and calcified nodules, all of which carry a high risk of thrombosis.^[2] Hallmark features include a thin fibrous cap (typically <65–75 μm thick, often infiltrated by macrophages), a large lipid-rich necrotic core (occupying >40% of plaque area or with a lipid arc >180°), active inflammation from macrophage accumulation, positive remodeling (arterial expansion to accommodate plaque growth), and sometimes spotty calcification or intraplaque hemorrhage.^[3]^[2] These characteristics are associated with significantly elevated risks of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), with thin-cap fibroatheroma conferring a hazard ratio of up to 3.19 for patient-level events.^[4] Detection of vulnerable plaques has advanced through invasive and noninvasive imaging modalities, including optical coherence tomography (OCT) for high-resolution cap thickness measurement, intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) for plaque burden assessment, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for lipid detection, and coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) for identifying features like the napkin-ring sign or low-attenuation plaque.^[3] Recent trials, such as PROSPECT II (2021) and PREVENT (2024), have validated these tools for predicting events and demonstrated that preventive percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) on non-obstructive vulnerable plaques can reduce MACE rates from 3.4% to 0.4% over two years.^[3] Management strategies focus on stabilization through aggressive lipid-lowering with statins or PCSK9 inhibitors, which reduce plaque volume and necrotic core size, alongside antithrombotic therapies to mitigate rupture risks.^[3] Despite these advances, the positive predictive value for individual events remains modest due to the multifactorial nature of atherosclerosis, underscoring the need for integrated risk assessment.^[4]

Overview

Definition

A vulnerable plaque is defined as an unstable atheromatous lesion in arterial walls, particularly in coronary arteries, that is susceptible to rupture and subsequent thrombosis due to its structural fragility. It is characterized by a thin fibrous cap measuring less than 65 μm in thickness, a large necrotic core comprising more than 40% of the plaque area and rich in lipids and cellular debris, and significant infiltration by inflammatory cells such as macrophages.^[5]^[6] This configuration distinguishes vulnerable plaques from more stable forms, as the thin cap—often depleted of smooth muscle cells and collagen—fails to contain the expansive lipid core, increasing the risk of exposure to blood flow and activation of the coagulation cascade.^[7] The core components of a vulnerable plaque include the lipid-rich necrotic core, which serves as a reservoir for pro-thrombotic materials; the thin-cap fibroatheroma (TCFA), representing the advanced stage of this lesion; macrophage accumulation that promotes matrix degradation through proteolytic enzymes; and neovascularization of the vasa vasorum, which contributes to intraplaque hemorrhage and further instability.^[5]^[6] These elements collectively render the plaque prone to disruption, potentially leading to acute coronary events without prior significant luminal narrowing.^[7] The concept of the vulnerable plaque emerged in the 1990s, primarily from autopsy studies that linked plaque rupture to sudden cardiac death and acute coronary syndromes, highlighting the discordance between mild stenosis and severe clinical outcomes. Pioneering work by pathologists such as Michael J. Davies analyzed ruptured plaques in victims of myocardial infarction, establishing the histological criteria for vulnerability and shifting focus from plaque size to composition and stability.^[8]

Clinical Significance

Vulnerable plaques hold profound clinical significance due to their central role in precipitating acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Rupture of these plaques triggers thrombus formation, leading to vessel occlusion and ischemia. Post-mortem analyses of sudden cardiac death victims reveal that plaque rupture underlies 60-70% of coronary thrombosis cases, making it the predominant mechanism for myocardial infarction and sudden death.^[9] Similarly, serial angiographic evaluations demonstrate that 60-70% of ACS events originate from mildly to moderately obstructive plaques that exhibit vulnerable characteristics prior to rupture.^[10] Epidemiologically, vulnerable plaques impose a substantial subclinical burden, even among asymptomatic individuals. Pathology studies estimate that approximately 10% of the subclinical U.S. adult population harbors advanced coronary atheroma consistent with vulnerable plaques, detectable through imaging modalities like intravascular ultrasound or optical coherence tomography.^[11] More recent imaging studies, such as the Miami Heart Study (2022), report coronary plaque in 49% of asymptomatic individuals, with high-risk features in approximately 3–5%.^[12] These lesions contribute significantly to global cardiovascular mortality, which claims approximately 19.8 million lives annually as of 2022—representing 32% of all deaths worldwide—with acute plaque disruptions accounting for the majority of ischemic heart disease fatalities within this total.^[13] The implications extend beyond coronary events to cerebrovascular disease, where vulnerable plaques in carotid arteries are strongly associated with ischemic stroke. Atherothrombotic complications from carotid plaque rupture or erosion constitute a primary etiology of stroke, with vulnerable features predicting events independently of luminal narrowing.^[14] Economically, the public health burden is immense; in the United States, cardiovascular diseases incur annual costs exceeding $400 billion as of 2020–2021, with ACS and related acute events driven by vulnerable plaque rupture forming a major component, including direct medical expenditures, hospitalizations, and productivity losses.^[15]

Pathophysiology

Formation Process

The formation of vulnerable plaques begins with endothelial dysfunction, primarily triggered by cardiovascular risk factors such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, smoking, and diabetes, which impair the vascular endothelium's barrier function and promote inflammatory responses.^[16] This dysfunction, often occurring at sites of low or oscillatory shear stress in arterial branches, reduces nitric oxide bioavailability and increases endothelial permeability, allowing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles to infiltrate the intima layer via transcytosis mediated by receptors like SR-B1 and ALK1.^[16] Once in the subendothelial space, LDL undergoes oxidation to form oxidized LDL (oxLDL), driven by enzymes such as lipoxygenases and myeloperoxidase, which further exacerbates local inflammation and attracts immune cells.^[17] Progression to intermediate lesions involves the recruitment of monocytes from the bloodstream, facilitated by the expression of adhesion molecules (e.g., VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) and chemokines (e.g., MCP-1) on the dysfunctional endothelium.^[16] These monocytes differentiate into macrophages upon transmigration into the intima, where they avidly uptake oxLDL through scavenger receptors, transforming into lipid-laden foam cells that form the initial fatty streak visible in early atherosclerosis.^[17] Concurrently, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from the media migrate into the intima, proliferating and contributing to foam cell formation (accounting for up to 50% of foam cells in coronary lesions) while secreting extracellular matrix components like proteoglycans and collagen.^[16] Over time, these intermediate lesions evolve into advanced fibroatheromas as foam cells undergo apoptosis due to oxidative stress and lipid overload, leading to the expansion of a necrotic core filled with cellular debris, cholesterol crystals, and extracellular lipids.^[18] Chronic inflammation serves as a key driver throughout plaque maturation, with proinflammatory M1-polarized macrophages secreting cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which amplify endothelial activation, leukocyte recruitment, and VSMC phenotypic switching.^[17] These cytokines, along with interferon-γ from T helper 1 cells, promote a self-perpetuating inflammatory milieu that impairs efferocytosis—the clearance of apoptotic cells—further enlarging the necrotic core.^[16] Additionally, macrophages release matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9, which degrade the collagen-rich fibrous cap overlying the necrotic core, progressively thinning it and rendering the plaque vulnerable; caps thinner than 65 μm are particularly prone to instability.^[17] The entire process spans years to decades, with fatty streaks emerging in childhood or adolescence and vulnerable fibroatheromas typically developing after age 55 in susceptible individuals.^[18]

Rupture Mechanisms

The rupture of vulnerable plaques in atherosclerosis is primarily driven by biomechanical and inflammatory processes that compromise the structural integrity of the fibrous cap overlying the necrotic core. This disruption exposes thrombogenic components to the bloodstream, initiating acute thrombosis and potentially leading to myocardial infarction or stroke. Key triggers include hemodynamic forces, vascular leakage, and calcific disruptions that act on plaques already predisposed to instability from prior lipid accumulation and inflammation.^[17] Biomechanical triggers play a central role in initiating cap failure. High or oscillatory shear stress exerted by blood flow on the thin fibrous cap can induce mechanical strain, particularly at sites of arterial bifurcation where flow disturbances are pronounced, leading to cap thinning and eventual tearing. Intraplaque hemorrhage, originating from rupture of fragile neovessels in the vasa vasorum, further destabilizes the plaque by expanding the necrotic core with erythrocytes and iron-laden macrophages, which promote inflammation and matrix degradation. Additionally, extrusion of calcium nodules—protruding calcific deposits within the plaque—creates focal points of stress concentration, disrupting the cap's continuity and contributing to luminal thrombosis in a subset of cases.^[19]^[17] Biological processes exacerbate these mechanical vulnerabilities through enzymatic and cellular mechanisms. Macrophages infiltrating the plaque shoulder release matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP-1, -2, -8, -9, and -13, which degrade collagen and elastin in the fibrous cap, reducing its thickness and tensile strength. Concurrently, apoptosis of smooth muscle cells and foam cells diminishes collagen synthesis while increasing necrotic core volume, further weakening the cap; this process is amplified in lipid-rich environments. Following rupture, exposure of subendothelial tissue factor—abundantly expressed by apoptotic macrophages and microparticles—triggers the coagulation cascade, forming occlusive thrombi.^[19]^[17]^[5] Conceptual models classify rupture events and quantify risk based on plaque morphology. The Virmani classification, derived from histopathological analysis of coronary thrombi, distinguishes plaque rupture (type VIa lesions) from erosion (type VIb), with rupture involving a disrupted thin cap (<65 μm) over a necrotic core in approximately 55-60% of fatal cases, often in proximal vessels with modest stenosis, whereas erosion features an intact intima without a prominent core and predominates in younger women and smokers. Statistical risk models, informed by optical coherence tomography data, estimate rupture probability using cap thickness and core size; for instance, a thinnest cap <67 μm yields an odds ratio of 16.1 for rupture (95% CI: 7.5-34.4), while representative caps <151 μm increase it to 35.6 (95% CI: 15.0-84.3), with larger necrotic cores (>20% plaque area) synergistically elevating risk. These thresholds highlight the interplay of cap fragility and core expansion in predicting instability.^[5]^[20]^[17]

Characteristics and Detection

Histological Features

Vulnerable plaques are histologically characterized by a large, eccentric necrotic core comprising a significant portion of the plaque volume, often exceeding 40% and containing acellular debris, extracellular lipid pools, and cholesterol crystals. This core forms through the accumulation and coalescence of lipid-laden foam cells and apoptotic debris, contributing to plaque instability. Autopsy studies have identified these cores as central to the vulnerability of thin-cap fibroatheromas (TCFAs), the primary precursor lesions to acute coronary events.^[21] Overlying the necrotic core is a thin fibrous cap, typically less than 65 μm in thickness, composed of sparse smooth muscle cells embedded in a collagen-rich matrix with minimal proteoglycans. The cap exhibits high macrophage density, often exceeding 20% of its area, reflecting intense inflammatory activity that weakens its structural integrity through matrix metalloproteinase secretion and smooth muscle cell depletion. These features distinguish TCFAs from more stable plaque morphologies in histopathological examinations.^[5] Inflammatory markers further define vulnerability, including T-lymphocyte infiltration within the cap and shoulder regions, observed in up to 75% of TCFA cases, alongside macrophage dominance. Endothelial expression of adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) facilitates this leukocyte recruitment, promoting ongoing inflammation. Additionally, spotty or speckled calcification patterns, consisting of microcalcific deposits less than 3 mm in size, are prevalent in over 50% of vulnerable plaques, contrasting with dense, sheet-like calcification in stable lesions and potentially exacerbating mechanical stress. These elements collectively heighten the propensity for cap rupture, as evidenced by autopsy-derived histopathological standards.^[22]^[5]

Diagnostic Methods

The diagnosis of vulnerable plaques primarily relies on invasive and non-invasive imaging modalities that assess key features such as fibrous cap thickness, lipid core size, and inflammatory activity. Invasive techniques provide high-resolution details during catheterization procedures, while non-invasive methods enable broader screening but with trade-offs in specificity. These approaches aim to identify thin-cap fibroatheromas (TCFAs), defined by a cap thickness less than 65 μm overlying a lipid-rich necrotic core, though prospective prediction of rupture remains challenging due to dynamic plaque biology.^[3] Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) is a widely used catheter-based modality that employs high-frequency sound waves to evaluate plaque burden and vessel wall structure, with a resolution of approximately 100–150 μm allowing assessment of cap thickness and overall plaque volume. It excels in quantifying plaque burden exceeding 70% or minimal lumen area less than 4 mm², which correlates with vulnerability, but its lower resolution limits detection of thin fibrous caps under 65 μm. Virtual histology IVUS (VH-IVUS) enhances tissue characterization by color-coding components like fibrous, fibro-fatty, necrotic core, and dense calcium, improving differentiation of vulnerable features. However, IVUS has moderate sensitivity for lipid-rich plaques (around 24–84% depending on validation against optical coherence tomography) and is hindered by acoustic shadowing from calcifications.^[23]^[3]^[24] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) offers superior resolution of 10–20 μm, enabling precise in vivo measurement of fibrous cap thickness and identification of TCFAs, macrophage infiltration, and plaque erosion with high accuracy. It detects lipid arcs greater than 180° and minimal lumen areas under 3.5 mm² as vulnerability markers, achieving sensitivities of 71–79% and specificities of 97% for necrotic core and fibrous tissue differentiation in histological validations. OCT's near-histological detail makes it the gold standard for cap assessment, but its shallow penetration depth (1–2 mm) and need for blood clearance limit full vessel wall visualization. Combined IVUS-OCT systems address this by integrating plaque burden data from IVUS with OCT's cap metrics.^[23]^[3]^[25] Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), often integrated with IVUS, detects lipid core content by analyzing light absorption spectra, quantifying the lipid core burden index (LCBI) without providing structural anatomy. A maximum LCBI over 4 mm ≥400 signals high-risk lipid-rich plaques, with strong correlation to histological necrotic cores and prospective adverse events in trials like PROSPECT II. Its specificity for lipid detection exceeds 90% when combined with IVUS, but standalone use is limited by lack of cap or inflammation data, necessitating hybrid imaging.^[3]^[26]^[27] Non-invasive computed tomography (CT) angiography, enhanced by artificial intelligence (AI), assesses plaque burden and composition across the coronary tree, with resolutions up to 0.23 mm for detecting low-attenuation (lipid-rich) plaques. AI algorithms automate quantification of non-calcified plaque volume, achieving high agreement with IVUS (intraclass correlation >0.9) and improving risk stratification by identifying high-burden lesions linked to major adverse cardiac events. However, CT struggles with soft-tissue resolution for thin caps or erosion and involves radiation exposure.^[23]^[28]^[29] Emerging molecular imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) targets plaque inflammation using tracers like 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG), which accumulates in glycolytic macrophages, or 18F-sodium fluoride (18F-NaF) for microcalcifications indicative of instability. 18F-NaF PET shows high sensitivity (e.g., hazard ratio 7.1 for myocardial infarction with coronary microcalcification activity >1.56) but is limited by 4–6 mm resolution, myocardial spillover, and non-specific uptake. These tools validate against histology for active inflammation but face challenges in coronary-specific imaging due to cardiac motion.^[30]^[23]^[30] Despite advances, these methods have limitations in prospective rupture prediction, with OCT sensitivity for TCFA around 90% retrospectively but lower positive predictive value (20–30%) for events due to plaque healing or remodeling. Validation relies on trials like PREVENT and EMERALD-II, showing combined modalities improve outcomes but invasive risks restrict use. In the 2020s, machine learning algorithms integrated with IVUS, OCT, and CT data enhance risk stratification by predicting cap stress, plaque progression, and vulnerability scores with accuracies exceeding 85%, enabling personalized intervention thresholds.^[3]^[23]^[3]

Comparison to Stable Plaque

Structural Differences

Vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques are characterized by a thin fibrous cap, typically less than 65 μm in thickness, which separates the necrotic core from the arterial lumen and is composed primarily of a sparse layer of smooth muscle cells and collagen. In contrast, stable plaques feature a thick fibrous cap exceeding 200 μm, rich in dense collagen and smooth muscle cells that provide mechanical reinforcement.^[6] This cap thickness disparity contributes to the heightened rupture susceptibility of vulnerable plaques, as thinner caps are more prone to mechanical failure under hemodynamic stress. The necrotic core in vulnerable plaques is markedly expanded, often comprising more than 40% of the total plaque area and dominated by a large lipid-rich pool with extracellular matrix debris and cholesterol crystals.^[31] Stable plaques, however, contain a small or absent necrotic core, with minimal lipid accumulation overshadowed by fibrous tissue.^[6] Accompanying this, vulnerable plaques exhibit a high inflammatory infiltrate, including dense clusters of macrophages and T-lymphocytes that degrade the extracellular matrix through proteolytic enzymes. Stable plaques show lower inflammatory activity, with fewer such cells and greater collagen density that bolsters structural integrity.^[32] Vessel wall remodeling further distinguishes the two: vulnerable plaques undergo positive (expansive) remodeling, where the arterial wall enlarges to accommodate plaque growth without significant luminal narrowing. Stable plaques typically display negative (constrictive) remodeling, leading to a contracted vessel wall and more uniform plaque composition with prominent calcification.^[6] Calcification in stable plaques forms dense, sheet-like deposits that enhance rigidity, whereas vulnerable plaques have sparse or spotty calcification. Quantitative assessments highlight these contrasts, with vulnerable plaques showing greater lipid content relative to fibrous tissue compared to stable plaques, which have higher fibrous components. Biomechanically, the thin cap and large core in vulnerable plaques elevate peak circumferential stress above 300 kPa, surpassing the rupture threshold and increasing the risk of acute clinical events compared to the lower stress in stable plaques.

Risk and Stability Profiles

Vulnerable plaques demonstrate a markedly elevated risk of rupture compared to stable plaques, with low-attenuation features associated with increased likelihood of major adverse cardiac events, such as a nearly five-fold higher risk when low-attenuation plaque burden exceeds 4%.^[33] This heightened propensity stems from their structural weaknesses, such as thin fibrous caps and large necrotic cores, which predispose them to disruption under hemodynamic stress. Approximately 70% of sudden coronary deaths arise from acute plaque rupture, frequently involving thin-cap fibroatheromas in non-culprit lesions that progress silently without prior symptoms, culminating in abrupt thrombotic occlusion.^[34] Plaque rupture accounts for about 70% of fatal acute myocardial infarctions and sudden cardiac deaths, underscoring the unpredictable nature of these lesions in driving acute coronary syndromes.^[8] Stable plaques, by contrast, confer a protective profile against adverse events due to their robust fibrous cap, which shields the underlying necrotic core from luminal exposure, and minimal inflammatory infiltration that preserves cap integrity.^[35] Low inflammation reduces matrix metalloproteinase activity, preventing cap thinning and erosion, thereby maintaining plaque stability over time. Annual rupture or event rates for these plaques remain low, typically under 1%, as evidenced by long-term follow-up studies showing minimal progression in non-vulnerable lesions up to 2022.^[36] Prognostic models enhance risk stratification by evaluating plaque stability through advanced imaging and genetic markers. Virtual histology intravascular ultrasound (VH-IVUS) provides compositional analysis, quantifying necrotic core and fibrous tissue volumes to generate stability scores that correlate with future events; higher necrotic core percentages indicate greater vulnerability.^[37] Genetic variants at the 9p21 locus further modulate risk by accelerating atherosclerosis and promoting unstable plaque formation, with carriers exhibiting increased coronary heart disease progression independent of traditional factors.^[38] These tools collectively inform clinical prognosis, distinguishing high-risk profiles from more benign ones.

Prevention and Treatment

Preventive Strategies

Preventive strategies for vulnerable plaque primarily involve lifestyle modifications and control of modifiable risk factors to reduce plaque formation and progression. Smoking cessation is a cornerstone intervention, as quitting can reduce the risk of cardiovascular events by approximately 50% within the first year due to rapid improvements in endothelial function and reduced thrombogenicity.^[39] Adopting a Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats, has been shown to lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 5-10%, thereby decreasing lipid accumulation in plaques.^[40] Regular aerobic exercise, recommended at a minimum of 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity activity, promotes plaque stabilization through enhanced reverse cholesterol transport and reduced inflammation.^[41] Effective management of key risk factors further mitigates vulnerable plaque development. Blood pressure control targeting less than 130/80 mmHg in adults with hypertension or high cardiovascular risk helps prevent shear stress on arterial walls that contributes to plaque instability.^[42] For individuals with diabetes, maintaining hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) below 7% is associated with reduced cardiovascular events by limiting hyperglycemia-induced endothelial damage and advanced glycation end-product formation.^[43] In high-risk patients, such as those with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, achieving LDL cholesterol levels below 70 mg/dL through lifestyle measures supports plaque regression and lowers rupture risk.^[44] At the population level, evidence underscores the impact of addressing modifiable risks. The INTERHEART study demonstrated that nine modifiable factors—smoking, dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, poor diet, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol, and psychosocial stress—account for over 90% of the population-attributable risk for myocardial infarction worldwide.^[45] Screening guidelines from the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association recommend risk assessment using tools like the Pooled Cohort Equations for asymptomatic adults aged 40-75 at intermediate or high risk (10-year atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk ≥7.5%), enabling targeted preventive counseling.^[46]

Therapeutic Interventions

Pharmacotherapies targeting vulnerable plaques primarily focus on lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory agents to promote plaque stabilization and regression. High-intensity statin therapy, such as atorvastatin at 80 mg daily, has demonstrated the ability to regress coronary plaque volume and modify plaque composition toward greater stability. In the SATURN trial, intensive statin treatment led to a mean reduction in percent atheroma volume of 0.99% as assessed by intravascular ultrasound, with corresponding increases in fibrous cap thickness observed via optical coherence tomography in lipid-rich plaques. Specifically, high-dose atorvastatin therapy (20 mg daily) has been shown to increase minimum fibrous cap thickness from 0.12 mm to 0.17 mm (p = 0.005) while reducing overall plaque volume in patients with vulnerable lesions.^[47] Anti-inflammatory agents like low-dose colchicine (0.5 mg daily) further contribute to plaque stabilization by mitigating inflammation-driven rupture risks. The COLCOT trial reported a 23% relative reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events (5.5% vs. 7.1% absolute risk) in post-myocardial infarction patients treated with colchicine compared to placebo, attributed to decreased inflammatory activity in atherosclerotic plaques.^[48] Emerging pharmacotherapies, including PCSK9 inhibitors, enhance plaque regression beyond statins alone by achieving very low LDL cholesterol levels, typically below 50 mg/dL, which correlates with improved plaque morphology. In the GLAGOV trial, evolocumab added to statin therapy resulted in a 0.95% reduction in percent atheroma volume and a greater increase in minimum fibrous cap thickness (+42.7 μm vs. +21.5 μm with placebo; p = 0.015) as measured by intravascular ultrasound and optical coherence tomography.^[49] For instance, in the YELLOW III trial, such treatment led to a significant decrease in the prevalence of thin-cap fibroatheromas from 48% to 13% in stable coronary artery disease patients.^[50] Anti-thrombotic strategies, such as low-dose rivaroxaban (2.5 mg twice daily) combined with aspirin, reduce thrombotic complications from vulnerable plaques without directly altering plaque structure but by inhibiting factor Xa-mediated coagulation. The COMPASS trial demonstrated a 24% relative reduction in the composite of cardiovascular death, stroke, or myocardial infarction (4.1% vs. 5.4% with aspirin alone) in patients with stable atherosclerotic disease, supporting its role in secondary prevention of plaque-related events.^[51] Invasive therapeutic options aim to mechanically seal or cover vulnerable plaque segments to prevent rupture, though their application is selective due to procedural risks. Drug-eluting stents are deployed to stabilize high-risk lesions identified by imaging, particularly in prophylactic percutaneous coronary intervention for non-flow-limiting stenoses with vulnerable features. The PREVENT trial showed that preventive stenting of such plaques reduced target vessel failure by 89% (0.4% vs. 3.4% with optimal medical therapy alone; HR 0.11, 95% CI 0.03-0.37, p < 0.001) at 2 years, using intracoronary imaging to guide placement in patients with chronic or acute coronary syndromes.^[52] Bioresorbable scaffolds, intended for temporary support and plaque sealing before resorption, have a limited role owing to higher adverse outcomes compared to metallic stents. In the ABSORB IV trial, bioresorbable everolimus-eluting scaffolds exhibited a 3% higher rate of target lesion failure at 5 years (10.8% vs. 7.8% with cobalt-chromium everolimus-eluting stents), driven by increased scaffold thrombosis and restenosis, leading to restricted clinical adoption despite early promise for vulnerable plaque management.^[53] As of 2023, updated AHA/ACC guidelines emphasize aggressive lipid-lowering with PCSK9 inhibitors in addition to statins for very high-risk patients to further stabilize plaques.^[54]

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It addresses the primary prevention of CVD in adults (≥18 years of age), focused on outcomes of ASCVD (ie, acute coronary syndromes, MI, stable or unstable ...