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Percutaneous coronary intervention

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), also known as coronary angioplasty, is a minimally invasive, non-surgical procedure designed to treat obstructive coronary artery disease by restoring blood flow in narrowed or blocked coronary arteries, typically through the use of balloon dilatation and stent placement.^[1] This technique aims to alleviate ischemia, reduce symptoms such as angina, and improve survival in acute settings like myocardial infarction.^[2] The procedure was pioneered in 1977 by Andreas Gruentzig with the introduction of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), marking a significant advancement over open-heart surgery for coronary revascularization.^[2] Over the decades, PCI has evolved with the widespread adoption of stents—now used in over 80% of cases—particularly drug-eluting stents (DES) that release antiproliferative agents to minimize restenosis rates compared to bare-metal stents (BMS).^[1] Key developments include radial artery access, which reduces bleeding complications and mortality relative to femoral access, and adjunctive tools like intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) or optical coherence tomography (OCT) for guidance.^[3] During PCI, a catheter is inserted via the radial or femoral artery and advanced to the coronary arteries under fluoroscopic guidance, where contrast dye identifies the stenosis.^[2] A balloon is inflated to compress plaque against the vessel wall, often followed by stent deployment to maintain patency; additional techniques like atherectomy may be employed for calcified lesions.^[1] Post-procedure, patients receive dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) with aspirin and a P2Y12 inhibitor (e.g., clopidogrel or ticagrelor) for 1–12 months to prevent stent thrombosis, with durations tailored to bleeding and ischemic risks.^[3] PCI is indicated for a range of conditions, including ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) where primary PCI within 90–120 minutes of symptom onset significantly lowers mortality, non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS), stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD) with symptomatic relief, and multivessel or left main coronary artery disease in appropriately selected patients.^[3]^[2] While PCI offers rapid symptom improvement and lower upfront risks than coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), it is associated with higher rates of repeat revascularization, particularly in diabetic patients with multivessel disease.^[3] A multidisciplinary Heart Team approach is recommended for complex cases to optimize outcomes.^[3]

Medical Indications

Acute coronary syndromes

Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) encompass a spectrum of clinical conditions characterized by acute myocardial ischemia due to disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque, leading to thrombosis and reduced coronary blood flow. This includes ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), which typically results from complete occlusion of a coronary artery causing transmural ischemia; non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), involving partial occlusion with myocardial necrosis evidenced by elevated cardiac troponins; and unstable angina, a partial occlusion without troponin elevation but with ischemic symptoms at rest or increasing in frequency/severity.^[4]^[5]^[6] Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) serves as the primary reperfusion therapy for STEMI, aiming to restore blood flow rapidly and limit myocardial damage, in contrast to elective PCI for stable ischemic heart disease which focuses on symptom relief without time urgency. According to the 2025 ACC/AHA/ACEP/NAEMSP/SCAI Guideline, primary PCI is recommended over fibrinolysis for STEMI patients presenting within 12 hours of symptom onset, provided it can be performed promptly (Class 1, Level of Evidence A). Landmark trials support this approach: the DANAMI-2 trial demonstrated that primary PCI reduced the composite endpoint of death, reinfarction, or stroke at 30 days (8% vs. 13.7% with fibrinolysis), primarily due to lower reinfarction rates, even with interhospital transfer. Similarly, the PRAGUE-2 trial showed primary PCI superiority over immediate thrombolysis, with lower 30-day mortality (6.8% vs. 10%) and composite endpoints (8.4% vs. 15.2%), particularly beneficial for patients presenting more than 3 hours after symptom onset.^[4]^[7] Timing is critical in ACS management, with guidelines targeting a door-to-balloon time of ≤90 minutes for direct presenters to PCI-capable centers and first medical contact-to-device time of ≤90 minutes overall, extending to ≤120 minutes for transfers from non-PCI centers (Class 1, Level of Evidence A). For patients at non-PCI facilities, direct transfer to a PCI-capable hospital is recommended if achievable within 120 minutes of first medical contact, bypassing fibrinolysis unless delays exceed this threshold and symptoms are within 12 hours (Class 1, Level of Evidence A). These protocols incorporate system-level strategies like prehospital ECG transmission and cath lab activation to minimize delays. In NSTEMI and unstable angina, urgent PCI is indicated for high-risk features such as ongoing ischemia or hemodynamic instability, typically within 24 hours.^[4]^[4] Specific techniques in ACS PCI emphasize urgent cardiac catheterization to identify and treat the culprit lesion. Thrombus aspiration is not recommended routinely during primary PCI for STEMI due to lack of benefit and potential harm like increased stroke risk (Class 3: No Benefit, Level of Evidence A), but it may be considered selectively as a bailout strategy in cases of high thrombus burden after balloon angioplasty or stenting (Class 2b, Level of Evidence B). These approaches prioritize rapid restoration of flow while adhering to evidence-based protocols to optimize outcomes in this emergent setting.^[4]^[8]^[9]

Stable ischemic heart disease

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) plays a key role in managing stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD) by providing elective revascularization for patients with chronic angina or documented myocardial ischemia in the absence of acute coronary events. In this context, PCI is primarily aimed at alleviating symptoms rather than improving survival, as evidenced by major randomized trials. The COURAGE trial, involving 2,287 patients with stable coronary artery disease, demonstrated that PCI added to optimal medical therapy (OMT) did not reduce the risk of death or myocardial infarction compared to OMT alone, though it offered faster relief from angina symptoms. Similarly, the ISCHEMIA trial, which enrolled 5,179 patients with moderate-to-severe ischemia, found no significant difference in the composite primary outcome of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or hospitalization for unstable angina between an initial invasive strategy (including PCI) and a conservative approach with OMT; however, the invasive strategy led to greater improvements in angina frequency and quality of life scores at 12 months. These findings underscore that while PCI enhances symptom control and patient-reported outcomes in SIHD, it does not confer a mortality benefit over comprehensive medical management. Patient selection for elective PCI in SIHD focuses on individuals whose symptoms persist despite guideline-directed medical therapy, or those with objective evidence of ischemia. Candidates typically include patients with Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) class II-IV angina refractory to OMT, positive noninvasive stress testing indicating moderate-to-severe ischemia, or invasive assessment showing hemodynamically significant lesions. Fractional flow reserve (FFR), a physiologic measure of coronary stenosis severity, guides decision-making; lesions with FFR ≤0.80 are considered significant and warrant revascularization, as this threshold correlates with inducible ischemia and improved outcomes with PCI. High-risk anatomic features, such as left main or proximal left anterior descending artery stenoses ≥70%, may also prompt PCI in symptomatic patients. To promote judicious use and curb overuse in low-risk cases, professional societies have developed appropriate use criteria (AUC) for PCI in SIHD. The 2011 ACCF/AHA/SCAI Guideline for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention rated scenarios such as single-vessel disease with mild symptoms as rarely appropriate, emphasizing PCI for those with limiting angina despite OMT or large ischemia burden. These criteria were updated in the 2021 ACC/AHA/SCAI Guideline for Coronary Artery Revascularization, which reinforces a class 1 recommendation for PCI to improve symptoms in patients with SIHD and significant stenoses (≥70% in major vessels or ≥50% in left main), while deeming it inappropriate for asymptomatic low-risk disease without ischemia. Adherence to AUC has been associated with reduced rates of nonemergent PCI in asymptomatic patients, dropping from higher historical levels to around 10-20% in audited registries. Outcomes of elective PCI in SIHD highlight its efficacy for symptom palliation, with approximately 70% of patients achieving complete angina relief at 12 months post-procedure, particularly when drug-eluting stents (DES) are used. Quality-of-life improvements, as measured by tools like the Seattle Angina Questionnaire, are sustained in responders, with reduced need for antianginal medications. However, without DES, the risk of restenosis remains notable; bare-metal stents (BMS) carry a 6-month restenosis rate of about 25-30%, compared to less than 10% with DES, potentially necessitating repeat interventions. Long-term follow-up from trials like COURAGE shows durable symptom benefits in 60-80% of cases at 5 years, though overall event rates align closely with OMT alone.

Procedural Techniques

Vascular access and preparation

Vascular access is a critical initial step in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), involving the selection of an arterial entry site to safely introduce catheters and guidewires into the coronary circulation.^[3] The two primary access sites are the femoral artery in the groin and the radial artery in the wrist, with the choice influenced by patient anatomy, procedural complexity, and evidence from clinical trials demonstrating reduced risks with radial access.^[10] The femoral approach, accessed via the common femoral artery, has been the traditional method for PCI due to its larger diameter and direct path to the aorta, facilitating easier catheter manipulation.^[3] However, it carries a higher risk of bleeding and vascular complications, such as hematomas or pseudoaneurysms, compared to radial access.^[11] In contrast, radial access has become the preferred method following the 2011 RIVAL trial, which showed it reduces major vascular complications by approximately 62% (1.4% vs. 3.7%; hazard ratio 0.37, 95% CI 0.24-0.56).^[10] This preference is reinforced by the 2025 ACC/AHA/ACEP/NAEMSP/SCAI Guideline for the Management of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndromes, which recommends radial access for patients with acute coronary syndromes or stable ischemic heart disease to minimize bleeding and vascular access-site complications (Class I, LOE A).^[4] Emerging alternatives to proximal radial access include distal radial access at the anatomical snuffbox and ulnar artery access, both aimed at further reducing forearm radial artery occlusion risks, which occur in up to 5-10% of proximal radial cases.^[12] Distal radial access preserves the proximal radial artery for potential future use, such as coronary bypass grafting, while maintaining high procedural success rates comparable to conventional radial access.^[13] Ulnar access offers similar benefits when radial access is unsuitable due to occlusion or anatomical variants, with low complication rates in experienced hands.^[14] Patient preparation begins with anticoagulation to prevent thrombus formation during the procedure, typically using unfractionated heparin (initial bolus of 50-70 units/kg, targeting activated clotting time >250 seconds) or bivalirudin as an alternative in high-bleeding-risk patients.^[15] Premedication includes anxiolytics such as midazolam to alleviate procedural anxiety, which affects up to 50% of patients undergoing PCI.^[16] For patients with a history of iodinated contrast allergy, prophylaxis with oral corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone 50 mg at 13, 7, and 1 hours pre-procedure) and antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine 50 mg) is administered to mitigate hypersensitivity reactions.^[17] Access is achieved by inserting a vascular sheath (typically 5-7 French) under local anesthesia with lidocaine after sterile skin preparation and Seldinger technique puncture.^[18] Imaging setup involves real-time fluoroscopy for catheter navigation and guidewire advancement, enabling safe access to the target lesion.^[3] Diagnostic coronary angiography is performed immediately after sheath insertion to map the coronary anatomy and confirm lesion location, with baseline hemodynamic monitoring (e.g., blood pressure and heart rate) to assess procedural stability.^[18] This preparation facilitates subsequent wire advancement toward stent deployment without delving into lesion-specific interventions.

Lesion treatment and stenting

Lesion treatment in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) begins with balloon angioplasty to prepare the atherosclerotic plaque for stent placement. Predilation involves inflating compliant balloons, typically ranging from 1.5 to 4.0 mm in diameter, at pressures of 12 to 20 atmospheres (atm) to crack and displace the lesion, facilitating subsequent stent delivery without causing vessel trauma.^[19] This step is essential for achieving adequate lesion modification, particularly in fibrotic or moderately calcified plaques, and is performed under fluoroscopic guidance to ensure controlled expansion.^[3] Stent deployment follows predilation, utilizing primarily balloon-expandable stents crimped onto delivery balloons, with diameters sized between 2.5 and 5.0 mm to match the target vessel.^[20] These stents are advanced over a guidewire through the prepared lesion and expanded by inflating the balloon at 10 to 16 atm for a duration of 20 to 30 seconds, allowing the stent struts to fully appose the arterial wall.^[21] Self-expanding stents, though less common in standard coronary PCI, may be considered for specific anatomies like tapered vessels, where radial force provides ongoing adaptation post-deployment.^[3] Optimal deployment minimizes malapposition and ensures uniform expansion, often confirmed via angiography or intravascular imaging. Post-dilation is routinely performed to further optimize stent geometry using high-pressure non-compliant balloons, which resist overexpansion and allow inflation up to 20 atm or more without significant diameter change.^[22] This technique enhances stent expansion and wall apposition, reducing residual stenosis and the risk of thrombosis, particularly in underexpanded segments.^[22] It is applied selectively based on procedural assessment, with studies showing its use in nearly 50% of PCI cases, more frequently in complex lesions.^[22] For bifurcation lesions involving the main vessel and a significant side branch, a provisional single-stent strategy is the preferred approach, involving stenting of the main vessel with optional side branch intervention only if compromise occurs post-deployment.^[3] This method, supported by randomized trials, yields comparable long-term outcomes to dedicated two-stent techniques while simplifying the procedure and reducing complications.^[23] Dedicated two-stent strategies, such as culotte or crush, are reserved for complex bifurcations with large side branches or significant ostial disease, where upfront side branch stenting is planned to preserve flow.^[23] Guidelines and expert consensus recommend provisional stenting as first-line, with two-stent approaches guided by Heart Team discussion in high-risk cases.^[3]

Adjunctive procedures

Adjunctive procedures in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) encompass specialized techniques employed to manage complex lesion characteristics, such as high thrombus burden or severe calcification, that may impede standard stenting. These interventions aim to optimize procedural success by facilitating lesion preparation, reducing embolic risks, or enhancing plaque modification, often in high-risk scenarios like ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) or interventions in saphenous vein grafts. While not routine, their selective use is guided by lesion anatomy and clinical context to improve outcomes beyond basic angioplasty.^[24] Thrombus aspiration involves the manual or mechanical removal of thrombotic material from the coronary artery prior to stenting, particularly in cases of high thrombus burden during primary PCI for STEMI. Devices such as the Export aspiration catheter (Medtronic) enable direct suction of clots through a proximal guide, potentially improving myocardial reperfusion by clearing debris that could otherwise cause no-reflow phenomenon. The Thrombus Aspiration during Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Acute Myocardial Infarction (TAPAS) trial, a randomized study of 1,071 patients, demonstrated that routine manual aspiration improved myocardial blush grade compared to conventional PCI alone, with a 1-year follow-up showing reduced cardiac death and reinfarction rates (5.7% vs. 9.9%; hazard ratio 0.57).^[8] However, subsequent larger trials have debated these benefits; the Trial of Routine Aspiration Thrombectomy with PCI versus PCI Alone in Patients with STEMI (TOTAL), involving over 10,000 patients, found no reduction in the composite endpoint of death, myocardial reinfarction, or cardiogenic shock at 180 days with routine aspiration, and noted a potential increase in stroke risk (0.7% vs. 0.3%; p=0.02). As a result, thrombus aspiration is now recommended selectively for cases with evident high thrombus burden rather than routinely.^[25] Atherectomy techniques debulk atherosclerotic plaque, particularly in heavily calcified lesions, to enable better balloon expansion and stent deployment. Rotational atherectomy employs a high-speed rotating diamond-coated burr, such as the Rotablator system (Boston Scientific), which ablates inelastic calcium at speeds of 140,000 to 180,000 rpm, creating micro-particles less than 5-10 μm to minimize embolization. This approach is particularly useful for severely calcified, non-dilatable lesions, with expert consensus indicating procedural success rates exceeding 90% in experienced centers, though it carries risks like burr entrapment or slow-flow.^[24]^[26] Orbital atherectomy, using devices like the Diamondback 360 (Cardiovascular Systems Inc.), features an eccentrically mounted crown that orbits and sands plaque at lower speeds (80,000-120,000 rpm), allowing treatment of larger vessels (up to 4 mm) with continuous luminal gain and potentially less heat generation than rotational methods. Comparative analyses suggest orbital atherectomy may reduce procedural complications in diffuse calcification, with studies reporting similar 30-day major adverse cardiac event rates (around 2-3%) to rotational atherectomy but with advantages in vessel preparation efficiency.^[27]^[28] Embolic protection devices are deployed during PCI of saphenous vein grafts to capture debris and prevent distal microvascular embolization, a common complication due to the friable, atherosclerotic nature of degenerated grafts. Filter-based systems, such as the FilterWire EZ (Boston Scientific), consist of a nitinol basket that captures particles greater than 100 μm while maintaining perfusion, whereas proximal occlusion devices like the Proxis (Zevex) temporarily block flow for aspiration. The Safeguard trial and subsequent meta-analyses have established their efficacy, showing a 40-60% relative reduction in 30-day major adverse cardiac events (from 10-15% without protection to 5-8% with), particularly in lesions longer than 10 mm or with moderate-to-large thrombus. Guidelines endorse their use as a Class IIa recommendation (Level of Evidence B-R) when technically feasible in saphenous vein graft interventions.^[29]^[30]^[3] Intravascular lithotripsy represents an emerging modality for calcium modification, utilizing sonic pressure waves to fracture superficial and deep calcium without mechanical abrasion. The Shockwave Intravascular Lithotripsy (IVL) system (Shockwave Medical), a balloon-based catheter delivering pulses at 80-90 atm, was approved by the FDA in 2021 for de novo calcified coronary lesions based on the Disrupt CAD series of trials, which reported acute success rates over 92% with low dissection (1.6%) and perforation (0.2%) rates. This technology offers a safer profile for complex bifurcations or small vessels compared to atherectomy, as it preserves vessel integrity while enabling optimal stent expansion, with 12-month target lesion failure rates around 7-10% in pivotal studies.^[31]^[32]

Stent Technologies

Bare-metal and drug-eluting stents

Bare-metal stents (BMS) consist of metallic platforms, typically made from stainless steel or cobalt-chromium alloys, which provide structural support to the coronary artery following deployment.^[33] These stents are characterized by a restenosis rate of 20% to 30%, primarily resulting from neointimal hyperplasia, where excessive proliferation of smooth muscle cells leads to tissue overgrowth within the stent lumen.^[34] Endothelialization of BMS, the process by which endothelial cells cover the stent struts to restore a functional vascular lining, generally occurs within 1 to 3 months, facilitating vessel healing but not preventing the underlying hyperplastic response.^[33] Drug-eluting stents (DES) represent an advancement over BMS, featuring a polymer coating on a similar metallic platform that releases antiproliferative drugs to inhibit cellular proliferation and reduce restenosis.^[33] First-generation DES, such as those eluting sirolimus or paclitaxel on stainless steel platforms, achieved restenosis reduction but were associated with higher rates of late stent thrombosis owing to non-erodible polymers that prolonged inflammation.^[33] Second-generation DES, including everolimus-eluting stents like Xience on cobalt-chromium platforms and zotarolimus-eluting stents like Resolute, improved upon this with thinner struts, more biocompatible durable polymers, and reduced thrombosis risks.^[35] These developments have lowered restenosis rates to less than 10%—a reduction of over 70% compared to BMS in native coronary lesions—significantly decreasing the need for repeat interventions.^[36] However, early generations of DES carried a higher risk of stent thrombosis due to delayed endothelialization from the drug's inhibitory effects, a risk now mitigated by dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) consisting of aspirin and a P2Y12 inhibitor, with durations of 3–12 months tailored to bleeding and ischemic risks per current guidelines (as of 2025).^[33]^[37]^[38] DES have evolved through generations to address thrombosis concerns. Third-generation DES incorporate biodegradable polymers that degrade over time, reducing long-term inflammatory risks; the BIOSCIENCE trial demonstrated that a biodegradable polymer sirolimus-eluting stent was non-inferior to a durable polymer everolimus-eluting stent in target lesion failure at 12 months, with comparable stent thrombosis rates and potential benefits in acute myocardial infarction subgroups.^[39] Selection of stent size for both BMS and DES relies on quantitative coronary angiography (QCA) to measure vessel diameter and lesion length, ensuring the stent matches the distal reference segment diameter and covers the entire lesion without excessive protrusion.^[40] This approach optimizes apposition and minimizes complications like underexpansion or geographic miss. As an evolution from contemporary DES, bioresorbable stents aim to further eliminate permanent implants but remain under evaluation.^[33]

Bioresorbable and emerging stents

Bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) represent an innovative class of temporary implants designed to provide mechanical support to coronary arteries during the healing process before fully degrading, thereby avoiding the long-term presence of a permanent foreign body. These scaffolds are typically composed of materials such as poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) or magnesium, which biodegrade over time through hydrolysis or bioabsorption. PLLA-based BVS, for instance, offer biocompatibility and a controllable degradation rate, allowing for high-strength fiber processing while gradually restoring natural vessel physiology. Magnesium-based alternatives, on the other hand, provide faster resorption and potentially better radial strength due to their metallic properties. A prominent example of a PLLA-based BVS was the Absorb scaffold, which was introduced to deliver everolimus while resorbing within approximately three years. However, clinical trials revealed higher rates of scaffold thrombosis compared to metallic drug-eluting stents, leading to its commercial withdrawal in 2017 despite no increase in overall mortality. In contrast, the Magmaris magnesium-based BVS has shown promising results in ongoing trials; for example, the BIOSOLVE-IV registry reported excellent safety and efficacy at two years, with a target lesion failure rate of around 8.5% and no scaffold thrombosis after the first year in a multicenter cohort. Similarly, in diabetic patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes, two-year outcomes indicated good safety, with a primary endpoint rate of 5.2% versus 15% for Absorb. Newer second-generation BVS, such as Firesorb and MeRes, have demonstrated improved safety in recent trials (as of 2025), addressing earlier limitations in strut thickness and thrombosis rates.^[41] Emerging alternatives to traditional stenting include drug-coated balloons (DCBs), which deliver antiproliferative drugs without leaving an implant behind, making them suitable for small vessel disease. The BASKET-SMALL 2 trial, a randomized noninferiority study involving over 750 patients with de novo lesions in vessels under 3 mm, demonstrated that DCBs were noninferior to drug-eluting stents for major adverse cardiac events at 12 months (7.5% vs. 7.3%), with sustained efficacy up to three years and lower rates of target vessel revascularization in subgroups. Long-term follow-up confirmed maintained safety, supporting DCBs as a stentless option for select anatomies. Advancements in nanotechnology and self-healing polymers are pushing BVS toward preclinical and early investigational stages. For instance, graphene-enhanced polycaprolactone scaffolds fabricated via electrospinning have demonstrated improved mechanical properties and biocompatibility for cardiac tissue engineering, potentially addressing limitations in scaffold durability. Reviews of nanotechnology-based modifications, including chemical coatings, highlight their role in enhancing endothelialization and reducing inflammation on coronary stents. Key advantages of BVS include the elimination of permanent metallic implants, which permits natural vasomotion and vessel remodeling post-resorption, potentially lowering late thrombosis risks. Challenges persist, however, such as thicker struts (typically 150-200 μm) that increase acute recoil and procedural complexity compared to thinner metallic stents.

Risks and Complications

Immediate procedural risks

Periprocedural myocardial infarction (PMI) is a common immediate risk during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), defined as an elevation in cardiac biomarkers such as high-sensitivity troponin T greater than five times the upper reference limit following the procedure.^[42] The incidence of PMI ranges from 5% to 10%, primarily resulting from side-branch occlusion during stent deployment or distal embolization of atherosclerotic plaque debris.^[43] These events can lead to acute ischemia and are more frequent in complex lesions, such as those in chronic total occlusions, though prevention strategies including intravascular imaging guidance (e.g., optical coherence tomography) and optimized antithrombotic regimens can mitigate risk.^[44] Vascular complications represent another key immediate risk, particularly with femoral artery access, where pseudoaneurysm formation occurs in 1% to 2% of cases due to arterial wall injury from sheath insertion or closure device use.^[45] Retroperitoneal bleeding, a potentially life-threatening hematoma, has an incidence of approximately 0.5%, often linked to high femoral puncture sites or excessive anticoagulation.^[46] These complications are significantly higher with transfemoral access compared to transradial approaches, which reduce vascular event rates by up to 70% through smaller sheath sizes and better hemostasis. Early detection via ultrasound and prompt intervention, such as compression or thrombin injection for pseudoaneurysms, are essential for management. Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN), an acute kidney injury triggered by iodinated contrast media, affects patients undergoing PCI, with risk factors prominently including chronic kidney disease defined by an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m².^[47] The incidence varies from 2.8% to 13%, rising substantially in those with baseline renal impairment or diabetes.^[48] Prevention focuses on intravenous hydration with isotonic saline and the use of low- or iso-osmolar contrast agents to minimize osmotic and direct tubular toxicity.^[49] Arrhythmias, such as ventricular tachycardia, may arise intraprocedurally due to mechanical irritation of the myocardium or reperfusion during PCI, with sustained ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation occurring in about 1% of cases.^[50] These are often transient but can precipitate hemodynamic instability, particularly in ST-elevation myocardial infarction settings. Immediate management involves defibrillation for hemodynamically significant episodes, alongside beta-blockers to suppress recurrent events.^[51] Procedural mortality remains low in elective PCI at 0.5% to 1%, but rises to 5% to 8% in ST-elevation myocardial infarction cases, as reported in recent (2023-2025) registry data reflecting advancements in reperfusion timing and adjunctive therapies.^[52]^[53] Factors contributing to mortality include procedural complexity, patient comorbidities, and failure to achieve timely revascularization, underscoring the need for risk stratification using tools like the GRACE score.^[52]

Long-term complications

Long-term complications of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) primarily involve delayed adverse events that can occur weeks to years after the procedure, often requiring ongoing clinical surveillance to detect and manage them effectively. Among these, stent thrombosis represents a critical risk, classified by the Academic Research Consortium (ARC) definitions into acute (within 24 hours), subacute (1 to 30 days), late (beyond 30 days to 1 year), and very late (beyond 1 year) thrombosis, with overall incidence approximately 0.5-1% in the first year for modern drug-eluting stents (acute/subacute <0.5-1% combined; late ~0.1%/year) and very late ~0.2-0.4%/year thereafter.^[54]^[55] These events are associated with high mortality rates of 15-30% within 30 days and are frequently linked to factors such as dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) non-compliance, which increases the risk of thrombus formation within the stent.^[54]^[56] Restenosis, the re-narrowing of the treated coronary artery due to neointimal hyperplasia, occurs in 20-30% of cases with bare-metal stents (BMS) but is substantially reduced to 5-10% with drug-eluting stents (DES), reflecting the antiproliferative effects of the eluted drugs.^[57] This complication is typically detected through target lesion revascularization (TLR) rates, which serve as a clinical proxy for symptomatic restenosis requiring repeat intervention.^[57] Over longer follow-up periods, patients post-PCI face elevated risks of major adverse cardiac events (MACE), including death, myocardial infarction, and revascularization; meta-analyses indicate 5-year MACE rates of 20-30% in acute coronary syndrome (ACS) cohorts.^[58] In contrast, for stable ischemic heart disease, PCI does not confer an overall survival benefit compared to optimal medical therapy alone, as evidenced by landmark trials showing no reduction in long-term mortality or nonfatal myocardial infarction.^[59] Neoatherosclerosis, the development of atherosclerotic plaque within the neointima of stented segments, emerges as a distinct late complication, often 1-2 years post-implantation, and contributes to very late stent failure.^[60] This process is characterized by lipid-laden macrophages and thin-cap fibroatheromas, detectable via optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging, which reveals its higher prevalence in DES compared to BMS and its association with recurrent events.^[60]^[61]

Post-Procedure Management

Pharmacological therapy

Pharmacological therapy plays a crucial role in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) to mitigate thrombotic risks during the procedure and support long-term vessel patency. Prior to PCI, patients typically receive a loading dose of aspirin at 162-325 mg to inhibit platelet aggregation immediately.^[62] Concurrently, a P2Y12 inhibitor is administered, with options including clopidogrel at 600 mg for chronic coronary syndromes, prasugrel at 60 mg, or ticagrelor at 180 mg, depending on the clinical presentation and bleeding risk.^[63] Anticoagulation is initiated with unfractionated heparin at a dose of 50-70 units per kilogram to prevent thrombus formation during catheter manipulation and stent deployment.^[64] Following PCI, dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) consisting of aspirin and a P2Y12 inhibitor is standard to reduce the incidence of stent thrombosis. According to the 2023 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines, DAPT duration is recommended for at least 6 months in patients with stable coronary artery disease undergoing PCI, while a minimum of 12 months is advised for those with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) to balance ischemic and bleeding risks.^[65] For patients at high bleeding risk, shorter durations of 3-6 months may be considered as a Class IIa recommendation.^[66] Cangrelor, an intravenous P2Y12 inhibitor, can be used as a bridging agent in select cases where oral loading is delayed or inadequate.^[67] Adjunctive medications further optimize outcomes by addressing plaque stability and myocardial protection. High-intensity statin therapy, such as atorvastatin 40-80 mg daily, is initiated or intensified peri-PCI to promote plaque regression and reduce periprocedural myocardial infarction risk.^[68] Beta-blockers are recommended in hemodynamically stable patients post-PCI for their anti-ischemic effects, particularly in those with ACS or reduced ejection fraction, though long-term use in stable chronic coronary disease without prior infarction is not routinely advised per 2023 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology guidelines.^[69]^[70] Recent clinical trials have explored strategies to shorten DAPT duration and minimize bleeding complications. The 2024 ULTIMATE-DAPT trial demonstrated that 1 month of DAPT followed by ticagrelor monotherapy in ACS patients post-PCI reduced bleeding events without increasing ischemic risks compared to 12-month DAPT.^[71] Similarly, the T-PASS trial showed ticagrelor monotherapy after 3 months of DAPT lowered net adverse clinical events versus prolonged DAPT in ACS cohorts.^[72] These findings support de-escalation approaches, with the 2025 guideline update endorsing ticagrelor monotherapy after at least 1 month of DAPT as a Class I recommendation for appropriate patients.^[73]

Recovery and rehabilitation

Following percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), patients typically undergo a short hospital stay, often lasting 4 to 24 hours for those accessed via the radial artery, allowing for same-day discharge in uncomplicated elective cases after an observation period of 4 to 6 hours.^[74] During this time, continuous electrocardiographic monitoring is standard to detect arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia or atrial fibrillation, with a median duration of 24 hours recommended by the American Heart Association for uncomplicated cases to identify any ECG changes or actionable events occurring in about 2.3% of procedures.^[75] Discharge criteria emphasize stable vital signs, ability to ambulate independently, and absence of procedural complications like bleeding or ischemia.^[76] Post-discharge, patients should avoid heavy lifting or strenuous activities for at least one week to prevent access-site complications, while driving can generally resume after 2 to 7 days depending on the procedure's elective or acute nature and local regulations. As part of discharge instructions, adherence to prescribed pharmacological therapy is reinforced alongside these restrictions to support initial recovery.^[76] Cardiac rehabilitation begins with Phase I during the in-hospital stay, focusing on education about risk factor modification, lifestyle changes, and early mobilization to prepare patients for discharge.^[77] Phase II follows as an outpatient supervised exercise program, typically starting 1 to 3 weeks post-discharge and lasting 3 to 6 months, which includes aerobic and strength training to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and has been shown in meta-analyses to reduce all-cause mortality by 15% to 28% in coronary patients.^[77]^[78] Follow-up care includes a clinic visit within 1 to 4 weeks to assess recovery, adherence to lifestyle modifications, and symptom status, with stress testing recommended only if new or recurrent symptoms arise rather than routinely.^[79]^[80]

Clinical Usage and Outcomes

Guidelines and appropriateness

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is guided by evidence-based appropriateness criteria established by major cardiovascular societies to ensure its use aligns with patient outcomes and resource allocation. The 2021 ACC/AHA/SCAI Guideline for Coronary Artery Revascularization categorizes PCI as "appropriate" for patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS), including ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) for primary reperfusion with door-to-balloon time ≤90 minutes or first medical contact (FMC)-to-device time ≤120 minutes, and non-ST-elevation ACS (NSTE-ACS) in high-risk cases (e.g., GRACE score >140) via an early invasive strategy within 24 hours.^[3] In contrast, for stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD), PCI is deemed "may be appropriate" in scenarios such as single-vessel disease with persistent symptoms despite guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT), particularly when fractional flow reserve (FFR) ≤0.80 or involving the proximal left anterior descending artery.^[3] Usage trends in the United States reflect these criteria, with approximately 600,000 PCI procedures performed annually as of recent estimates (e.g., 2023), predominantly for ACS indications.^[52] However, procedures for stable coronary artery disease have declined consistently over the past decade, accelerated by results from the ISCHEMIA trial in 2019, which demonstrated no reduction in hard endpoints with routine invasive strategies in moderate-to-severe ischemia compared to optimal medical therapy alone.^[81] This shift addresses concerns over overuse in low-risk stable patients, promoting GDMT as first-line for symptom management unless refractory angina or high-risk features are present.^[82] Patient-specific factors significantly influence PCI appropriateness, particularly comorbidities like diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), which elevate procedural risks and may favor alternatives. In multivessel disease, PCI is less appropriate than coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) for diabetic patients due to higher long-term mortality, as evidenced by the FREEDOM trial showing a 5-year mortality benefit with CABG.^[3] Similarly, in low-risk NSTE-ACS, PCI is less appropriate for patients with CKD owing to limited benefit and increased contrast-induced nephropathy risk.^[3] Equity gaps persist, with 2024 studies reporting lower PCI utilization rates among underserved populations, such as Black patients receiving 10.3% fewer procedures than White patients post-Medicaid expansion, often due to hospital-level disparities in service adoption in racially segregated communities.^[83]^[84] Quality metrics for PCI delivery emphasize efficiency and safety, with radial artery access now exceeding 70% in high-performing centers to minimize bleeding complications, surpassing the national average of 59% in 2023.^[85] For STEMI, door-to-balloon (D2B) time remains a cornerstone metric, targeting <90 minutes from hospital arrival to reperfusion to optimize survival, as shorter intervals are associated with reduced in-hospital mortality; additionally, FMC-to-device time <120 minutes is recommended.^[3] These benchmarks, monitored through registries like the National Cardiovascular Data Registry, guide ongoing improvements in procedural standardization.^[86]

Comparison to coronary artery bypass grafting

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) represent the primary revascularization strategies for multivessel coronary artery disease and left main disease, with treatment selection guided by factors such as lesion complexity, patient comorbidities, and surgical risk.^[3] The SYNTAX trial, a landmark randomized study published in 2009, compared PCI using drug-eluting stents with CABG in 1,800 patients with three-vessel or left main coronary artery disease.^[87] Overall, PCI failed to demonstrate noninferiority to CABG for the primary endpoint of major adverse cardiac or cerebrovascular events (MACE) at 1 year (17.8% with PCI vs. 12.4% with CABG; P=0.002). However, subgroup analysis using the SYNTAX score—a measure of lesion complexity—revealed that PCI was noninferior to CABG in patients with low scores (≤22; MACE 13.6% vs. 14.7%) and intermediate scores (23-32; 16.7% vs. 12.0%), while CABG reduced MACE in those with high scores (≥33; 23.4% vs. 10.9%; P=0.002).^[87] In patients with diabetes and multivessel disease, the FREEDOM trial (2012) demonstrated the superiority of CABG over PCI with drug-eluting stents in 1,900 participants.^[88] The primary composite outcome of death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke occurred in 26.6% of the PCI group versus 18.7% of the CABG group at 5 years (hazard ratio [HR] 0.74; 95% CI 0.59-0.92; P=0.005). Specifically, CABG reduced the risk of death or myocardial infarction (HR 0.67; 95% CI 0.51-0.87; P=0.003), with 5-year rates of 18.8% versus 25.9%.^[88] Repeat revascularization was markedly higher with PCI (12.3% vs. 7.8%), though stroke rates were lower with PCI (2.4% vs. 5.2%; P=0.03). These findings underscore CABG's advantage in diabetic patients with complex multivessel disease, influencing guideline recommendations for revascularization choice.^[88] Recent updates as of 2023 emphasize hybrid revascularization approaches, combining PCI and CABG, for select complex cases to leverage the strengths of both modalities, such as minimally invasive left internal mammary artery grafting to the left anterior descending artery paired with PCI for non-left anterior descending lesions.^[89] In elderly or high surgical-risk patients, PCI is often preferred over CABG due to lower periprocedural morbidity, particularly in frail individuals where complete revascularization via CABG may not outweigh operative risks.^[3] For instance, guidelines highlight PCI's suitability in patients with advanced age (≥75 years) or elevated Society of Thoracic Surgeons scores, balancing long-term durability with immediate recovery needs.^[3] Regarding procedural and economic aspects, PCI typically involves shorter hospital stays (1-2 days) compared to CABG (5-7 days), facilitating faster recovery and reduced initial healthcare costs.^[90] However, long-term outcomes show higher repeat revascularization rates with PCI (10-20% at 5 years) versus CABG (approximately 5%), driven by target vessel restenosis and progression of native disease, as evidenced in meta-analyses of randomized trials.^[91] Despite this, PCI's upfront cost-effectiveness improves in high-risk cohorts where surgical avoidance prevents complications.^[92]

Historical Development

Origins of angioplasty

The origins of angioplasty trace back to the innovative work of Andreas Grüntzig, a German-born cardiologist who pioneered the use of balloon-tipped catheters to dilate arterial stenoses without surgery. In 1974, Grüntzig conducted initial animal experiments in dogs to test his prototype balloon catheter for coronary artery dilatation, demonstrating successful widening of induced stenoses while preserving vessel integrity. Building on this, he performed the first human peripheral balloon angioplasty on a stenosed femoral artery in Zurich, Switzerland, marking the transition from experimental to clinical application.^[93] Grüntzig's breakthrough came on September 16, 1977, when he executed the world's first percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) on a 38-year-old patient with a single proximal left anterior descending artery stenosis at the University Hospital of Zurich. The procedure involved advancing a specialized 3.0 mm diameter balloon catheter (Grüntzig Dilaca DG 20-30) over a guidewire under fluoroscopic guidance, inflating it to 6 bar for 1 minute to fracture the atherosclerotic plaque, achieving immediate angiographic success without complications.^[94] This landmark event established PTCA as a viable alternative to open-heart surgery for coronary artery disease, though initial applications were limited to select patients with single, proximal, concentric lesions.^[94] The PTCA era gained momentum in the 1980s following Grüntzig's demonstrations and training sessions in the United States, leading to widespread adoption among interventional cardiologists. Early clinical series reported angiographic success rates of approximately 80% in appropriately selected cases, with significant symptom relief and improved myocardial perfusion. However, restenosis occurred in about 30% of patients within six months, primarily due to neointimal hyperplasia, necessitating repeat procedures or alternative therapies. Key milestones included the first PTCAs in the US in 1978 by Simon Stertzer at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York and Richard Myler in San Francisco, with Grüntzig's assistance, expanding the technique beyond Europe. The US Food and Drug Administration granted approval for PTCA catheters in 1980, facilitating broader clinical use and the establishment of national registries to track outcomes.^[95] Despite these advances, early PTCA faced notable limitations, including acute vessel closure from elastic recoil—where the artery partially rebounds after balloon deflation—and coronary dissection, which compromised up to 10% of procedures. Such complications often required emergency coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) in 5-10% of cases, with associated perioperative mortality around 5% and myocardial infarction in over 40% of those patients. These challenges underscored the need for refined techniques and adjunctive pharmacotherapy, paving the way for subsequent evolutions in percutaneous coronary intervention.^[95]

Evolution of PCI techniques

Building upon the foundational percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) introduced in the late 1970s, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) evolved significantly in the 1990s with the integration of bare-metal stents (BMS) to address limitations such as acute vessel closure and elastic recoil. The Palmaz-Schatz stent, a balloon-expandable slotted-tube design, received FDA approval in 1994 following pivotal trials that demonstrated its efficacy.^[96] The BENESTENT trial, a randomized comparison of Palmaz-Schatz stenting versus PTCA in patients with stable angina and single-vessel disease, reported angiographic restenosis rates of 22% at six months with BMS compared to 39% with PTCA alone, marking a substantial reduction from the approximately 30% restenosis typical of early PTCA procedures.^[96] This advancement reduced the need for repeat interventions and solidified stenting as a standard component of PCI, with BMS adoption rapidly increasing throughout the decade.^[97] The 2000s ushered in the drug-eluting stent (DES) era, revolutionizing restenosis management through antiproliferative drug release to inhibit neointimal hyperplasia. The Cypher sirolimus-eluting stent, approved by the FDA in 2003, represented a landmark innovation based on trials like RAVEL and SIRIUS, which showed restenosis rates below 10% (0% in RAVEL for small vessels and 8% in SIRIUS for complex lesions) compared to 20-30% with BMS. However, early DES implementations revealed heightened risks of late stent thrombosis due to delayed endothelialization, prompting concerns that led to the standardization of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) protocols, extending aspirin plus a P2Y12 inhibitor for at least 6-12 months post-implantation to mitigate thrombotic events.^[98] This shift, informed by observational data and registries post-2003 approval, balanced the reduced restenosis benefits against ischemic risks, establishing DAPT as a cornerstone of post-PCI care.^[98] Procedural refinements in the 2010s focused on access sites and physiological guidance to enhance safety and precision. The RIVAL trial, a large multicenter randomized study published in 2011, compared radial versus femoral access in over 7,000 patients with acute coronary syndromes, demonstrating radial access's noninferiority for the primary composite outcome while significantly reducing major bleeding (0.7% vs 0.9%) and vascular access complications.^[10] This evidence contributed to the dominance of radial access in PCI by the mid-2010s, with adoption rates surpassing 50% in many centers due to reduced access-site morbidity.^[99] Concurrently, the FAME trial in 2009 established fractional flow reserve (FFR)-guided PCI as superior to angiography alone for multivessel disease, reducing the number of stents placed by approximately 30% (mean 1.9 vs 2.7 per patient) and lowering major adverse cardiac events by 30% at one year through avoidance of unnecessary interventions in non-ischemic lesions. In the 2020s, intravascular imaging with intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) has become integral for PCI optimization, particularly in complex anatomies. The ILUMIEN trials, including ILUMIEN III (2016) and ILUMIEN IV (2024), have demonstrated that OCT- or IVUS-guided stenting achieves larger minimum stent areas; in a substudy of complex lesions from ILUMIEN IV, OCT guidance reduced serious MACE by 37% (3.1% vs 4.9%) compared to angiography guidance alone, primarily by minimizing underexpansion and malapposition.^[100] These high-resolution imaging modalities, now emphasized in procedural protocols, have further lowered target lesion failure rates and supported mandates for their use in high-risk cases, continuing the trajectory toward more personalized and effective PCI strategies.^[100]

Current Research

Technological advancements

Technological advancements in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) have focused on improving imaging precision, physiological assessment, procedural automation, and treatment of complex lesions such as calcifications. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides high-resolution imaging at 10-15 µm, enabling detailed assessment of stent strut apposition and detection of malapposition with greater accuracy than intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), which has lower resolution and more artifacts.^[101]^[102] OCT's superior visualization of micron-level strut coverage has enhanced post-stent optimization, reducing risks like thrombosis. Complementing this, AI-enhanced angiography, such as AI-based quantitative coronary angiography (AI-QCA), automates lesion detection and procedural planning, with tools like those evaluated in the 2024 FLASH trial demonstrating noninferiority to OCT guidance for noncomplex lesions and improving efficiency in resource-limited settings.^[103]^[104] Physiological assessment tools have evolved to simplify functional evaluation of coronary stenoses without pharmacological agents. The instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR) measures pressure during diastole without adenosine, unlike fractional flow reserve (FFR), and was shown noninferior to FFR in guiding revascularization in the DEFINE-FLAIR trial, with a primary endpoint event rate of 6.8% for iFR versus 7.0% for FFR at one year.^[105] This advancement reduces procedural time, patient discomfort, and costs associated with hyperemia induction, promoting wider adoption in intermediate lesion assessment. Robotic PCI systems, such as the CorPath platform approved by the FDA in 2012, enable precise catheter manipulation from a protected console, minimizing operator radiation exposure in complex, high-radiation cases.^[106] Subsequent iterations like CorPath GRX have improved success rates for challenging lesions, with clinical success exceeding 96% in registries, though adoption remains limited to select high-volume centers due to cost and training barriers.^[107] These systems enhance ergonomic control and accuracy, particularly for multivessel interventions. For calcified lesions, intravascular lithotripsy (IVL), exemplified by the Shockwave system approved by the FDA in 2021, uses sonic pressure waves to fracture calcium via a balloon catheter, achieving procedural success rates over 92% in trials like DISRUPT CAD III while maintaining low perforation risk (0.5%).^[108]^[109] This technology facilitates optimal stent expansion without the vessel trauma of rotational atherectomy, addressing a key limitation in heavily calcified coronary arteries.

Clinical trials and evidence gaps

The COMPLETE trial, published in 2019, demonstrated that complete revascularization with multivessel percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and multivessel disease reduced the composite endpoint of cardiovascular death or myocardial infarction by 26% compared to culprit-lesion-only PCI (hazard ratio 0.74, 95% CI 0.60-0.91).^[110] This large-scale randomized controlled trial, involving over 4,000 patients, underscored the benefits of addressing non-culprit lesions during or after the index procedure, influencing guidelines for STEMI management.^[111] Similarly, the SMART-CHOICE trial in 2019 evaluated antiplatelet strategies post-PCI, finding that ticagrelor monotherapy after 3 months of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) was noninferior to 12 months of DAPT for the primary ischemic endpoint of death, myocardial infarction, or stroke (2.9% vs. 2.5%; hazard ratio 1.19, 95% CI 0.72-1.98), while significantly reducing major bleeding events (2.0% vs. 3.4%; hazard ratio 0.58, 95% CI 0.36-0.90). This open-label, noninferiority study across 33 South Korean centers highlighted the potential to shorten DAPT duration in high-risk PCI patients, balancing ischemic and bleeding risks.^[112] Despite these advances, evidence gaps persist in PCI outcomes. Long-term safety concerns with bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) remain unresolved following the ABSORB trials, which reported higher rates of target lesion failure (11.8% vs. 7.9% at 3 years) and scaffold thrombosis (3.3% vs. 0.8%) compared to metallic drug-eluting stents, leading to market withdrawal in 2017.^[113] Emerging designs in bioresorbable stents are in early clinical stages to address these issues. Additionally, underrepresentation of women and minorities in PCI trials contributes to knowledge gaps, with a 2025 meta-analysis indicating higher procedural risks for these groups, including increased in-hospital mortality (odds ratio 1.91, 95% CI 1.84–1.99 for women with STEMI undergoing primary PCI).^[114]^[115] In 2025, ongoing research includes the PANVIS STAR multicenter randomized controlled trial, which reported positive results for robot-assisted PCI in complex cases at TCT 2025, enhancing procedural precision and safety.^[116] Antiplatelet strategies were further explored in trials like NEO-MINDSET, supporting early P2Y12 inhibitor monotherapy after PCI in acute coronary syndrome patients to reduce bleeding risks without increasing ischemic events.^[117] The TAILORED-CHIP trial indicated that tailored escalation and de-escalation of antiplatelet therapy does not benefit high-risk patients.^[118] Future research directions include gene therapy to prevent restenosis, such as localized delivery of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) via nanoparticle-coated stents to promote endothelial healing and inhibit smooth muscle proliferation.^[119] Personalized risk stratification using artificial intelligence (AI) models, which integrate electronic health records, imaging, and clinical data to predict post-PCI outcomes like mortality or bleeding, shows promise in enhancing decision-making, as evidenced by recent machine learning calculators achieving superior accuracy over traditional scores.^[120] These approaches, often tested in trials alongside new devices from technological advancements, aim to fill critical evidence voids in PCI optimization.^[121]

Controversies

Efficacy debates

The efficacy of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in stable coronary artery disease (CAD) has been a subject of intense debate, particularly following landmark sham-controlled and comparative trials that challenge its incremental benefit over optimal medical therapy (OMT). The ORBITA trial, a double-blind, randomized study published in 2018 involving 200 patients with stable angina and single-vessel disease, demonstrated no significant difference in exercise tolerance or angina frequency between PCI and a sham procedure after 6 weeks of follow-up, suggesting that much of the perceived benefit may stem from procedural awareness rather than physiological improvement.^[122] However, the follow-up ORBITA-2 trial, published in 2023 with 201 patients with stable angina off antianginal medications, found significant improvements in angina symptoms (e.g., Seattle Angina Questionnaire score difference of 7.0 points favoring PCI) and exercise capacity with PCI versus sham, indicating a physiological benefit beyond placebo effects in this setting.^[123] Similarly, the ISCHEMIA trial, reported in 2020 and enrolling over 5,000 patients with moderate-to-severe ischemia on stress testing, found no reduction in the primary composite endpoint of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or hospitalization for unstable angina with an initial invasive strategy including PCI compared to OMT alone over a median follow-up of 3.2 years.^[82] These results have fueled discussions on whether PCI primarily addresses symptoms through placebo mechanisms or if trial designs, such as incomplete revascularization in complex disease (approximately 40-60% of invasive arm patients did not achieve complete revascularization; anatomic: 56.6%, functional: 41.6%), limit demonstrable hard outcomes like mortality.^[124] Explanations for these null findings often center on the placebo effect inherent in unblinded procedures, where patient expectations and awareness of intervention drive symptom relief, as evidenced by the sham arm in ORBITA where both groups improved similarly on OMT.^[122] In ISCHEMIA, critics have noted that approximately 40-60% of patients in the invasive arm did not undergo complete revascularization due to lesion complexity or operator discretion, potentially diluting efficacy signals in real-world scenarios beyond trial constraints.^[82]^[124] Despite these debates, PCI's role in symptom palliation remains supported when OMT fails, though the trials underscore the need for shared decision-making to avoid over-reliance on invasive approaches without clear prognostic gains, as reaffirmed in the 2023 AHA/ACC guidelines for chronic coronary disease.^[70] In acute coronary syndromes (ACS), PCI's benefits are more consensus-driven, with undisputed efficacy in ST-elevation myocardial infarction via primary reperfusion, but ongoing contention surrounds routine versus selective use in non-ST-elevation ACS like NSTEMI. The TACTICS-TIMI 18 trial, a 2001 randomized study of 2,220 patients with unstable angina or NSTEMI, showed that an early invasive strategy with routine angiography and PCI within 48 hours reduced the 6-month composite rate of death, myocardial infarction, or rehospitalization by 22% compared to a selective conservative approach (relative risk 0.78), particularly in higher-risk subgroups with elevated troponins or dynamic ECG changes.^[125] This supports routine invasion for high-risk NSTEMI, yet selective strategies persist in lower-risk cases to minimize procedural risks without compromising outcomes. As of 2025, meta-analyses synthesizing trials like COURAGE, BARI-2D, and ISCHEMIA continue to question PCI overuse in stable CAD, reinforcing no survival advantage over OMT while highlighting symptom-focused applications.^[70] Audits from the National Cardiovascular Data Registry indicate that 12-17% of non-ACS PCIs in the U.S. remain inappropriate, often in asymptomatic patients or those with low-risk ischemia, prompting guidelines to prioritize OMT escalation before intervention.^[126] These perspectives emphasize quality improvement initiatives to curb unnecessary procedures, balancing PCI's established role in ACS with cautious expansion in stable settings.

Ethical and access issues

One significant ethical concern surrounding percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is its overuse in patients with stable coronary artery disease, driven in part by financial incentives within healthcare systems. Studies indicate that approximately 20% of stents placed in Medicare recipients with stable coronary artery disease between 2019 and 2021 were classified as overuse, potentially exposing patients to unnecessary procedural risks without clear benefits. This overuse has been linked to higher reimbursements for PCI procedures compared to conservative management, creating incentives for providers and facilities to favor invasive interventions, which raises ethical questions about balancing patient safety against economic pressures and the principle of non-maleficence. Such practices can lead to avoidable harm, including bleeding complications or restenosis, underscoring the tension between potential benefits and the moral imperative to avoid overtreatment. Access to PCI remains uneven across socioeconomic and geographic lines, exacerbating health inequities. In the United States, patients admitted to rural hospitals are significantly less likely to undergo cardiac catheterization or PCI compared to those in urban settings, contributing to higher cardiovascular mortality rates in rural areas—up to 40% elevated compared to urban populations. Low-income communities face similar barriers, with hospitals in economically disadvantaged areas 1.8 times less likely to offer PCI services, resulting in delayed or foregone interventions. Gender and racial disparities further compound these issues: women are 10-20% less likely to receive invasive therapies like PCI than men, and they experience higher complication rates, including a 20% increased age-adjusted risk of adverse outcomes post-PCI for ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Racial biases are evident as well, with Black women facing elevated in-hospital mortality rates (3.3% versus 2.1% for Black men) following acute coronary events, often due to underutilization of PCI and systemic barriers. Globally, PCI availability is severely limited in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where 80% of the world's population resides but access to timely reperfusion therapy is scarce due to inadequate infrastructure and resources. In many LMICs, patients rely on outdated equipment or alternative strategies like fibrinolysis because PCI centers are concentrated in urban areas, leaving rural and low-resource populations underserved and increasing mortality from acute myocardial infarction. Cost-effectiveness debates intensify these challenges, as PCI procedures typically cost around $20,000-30,000 per case in high-income settings, compared to approximately $5,000 annually for optimal medical therapy (OMT), with evidence showing PCI often fails to provide superior long-term outcomes over OMT alone in stable disease, rendering it less economical in resource-constrained environments. To mitigate these ethical and access issues, recent policy responses emphasize shared decision-making to enhance informed consent and equity. The 2023 AHA/ACC/ACCP/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline for the Management of Patients With Chronic Coronary Disease mandates shared decision-making processes, recommending multidisciplinary heart team discussions for non-emergent PCI to align treatments with patient values and reduce overuse. These guidelines aim to address disparities by promoting patient-centered care, particularly for vulnerable populations, and have been integrated into performance measures for coronary revascularization to incentivize equitable practices.^[70]

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The incidence of CI-AKI following CA and PCI varies from 2.8%–13% in selected studies, depending on the risk factor profile of patients studied.2,3 Several risk ...
[45]
Contrast-Induced Nephropathy - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
In patients older than 60 years, the incidence of CIN has been reported as 8%-16%. In patients with acute myocardial infarction who undergo coronary ...
[46]
Intra-procedural arrhythmia during cardiac catheterization
Jun 26, 2020 · The incidence of sustained VT or VF, requiring anti-arrhythmia treatment either by medication or cardioversion, is relatively low (0.26%[19], 1 ...
[47]
2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients With ...
Aug 1, 2018 · Calcium channel antagonism reduces exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias in catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia patients ...
[48]
2023 AHA/ACC Clinical Performance and Quality Measures for ...
Jul 27, 2023 · This document describes performance measures for coronary revascularization that are appropriate for public reporting or pay-for-performance programs.
[49]
Stent Thrombosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Late stent thrombosis occurs between 1 and 12 months of initial placement. Very late stent thrombosis occurs after 12 months of initial placement.[5]. Based on ...
[50]
Coronary Stent Thrombosis—Predictors and Prevention - PMC - NIH
Stent thrombosis (ST) is a dreaded complication after stent implantation and is associated with a mortality between 5% and 45%.
[51]
Coronary In-Stent Restenosis: JACC State-of-the-Art Review
Compared with BMS, by combining the metallic stent platform with a polymer releasing an antiproliferative drug, DES significantly improved the efficacy of PCI ...
[52]
Stent-Related Adverse Events >1 Year After Percutaneous Coronary ...
Feb 10, 2020 · Between years 1 and 5, very-late MACE occurred in 9.4% of patients (including 2.9% cardiac death, 3.1% MI, and 5.1% ID-TLR). Very-late MACE ...
[53]
Optimal Medical Therapy with or without PCI for Stable Coronary ...
PCI reduces the incidence of death and myocardial infarction in patients who present with acute coronary syndromes, but similar benefit has not been shown in ...
[54]
Neoatherosclerosis: overview of histopathologic findings and ...
The development of neoatherosclerosis may occur in months to years following stent placement, whereas atherosclerosis in native coronary arteries develops over ...
[55]
Prevalence and Impact of Neoatherosclerosis on Clinical Outcomes ...
Sep 20, 2022 · Emerging evidence suggests that neoatherosclerosis is a major cause of stent failure, especially >1 year poststent implantation, and optical ...
[56]
Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation Treated ...
Feb 8, 2021 · All patients undergoing PCI, even those with AF requiring OAC, should be treated with aspirin in the peri-PCI period. After a 325 mg loading ...
[57]
Antiplatelet therapy after percutaneous coronary intervention
Clopidogrel, administered as a 600 mg loading dose followed by a 75 mg maintenance dose, is the P2Y12 inhibitor of choice in CCS patients undergoing PCI4043.
[58]
Periprocedural antithrombotic therapy during various types of ... - NIH
Pre-/periprocedural oral antiplatelet therapy. An oral loading dose of ASA 150–300 mg (or i.v. 80–150 mg) should be given to all patients. The preferred P2Y12 ...
[59]
Dual Antiplatelet Therapy Duration Following Percutaneous ... - JSCAI
Current clinical practice guidelines (CPG) recommend DAPT durations of 6 months following PCI for chronic coronary syndromes and 12 months for patients with ...
[60]
Shortened Dual Antiplatelet Therapy
Dec 11, 2023 · For patients with elevated bleeding risk, there is a class 2a recommendation for 3- and 6-month DAPT duration for stable CAD and ACS, ...Missing: pharmacological | Show results with:pharmacological
[61]
International Expert Consensus on Switching Platelet P2Y 12 ...
Oct 30, 2017 · Timing of switching should be 24 hours after the last dose of a given drug, with the exception of when escalating to prasugrel (P) or ticagrelor ...
[62]
Beneficial effects of statins after percutaneous coronary intervention
Statin therapy reduces the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) after elective PCI, but not necessarily mortality or repeat revascularization.
[63]
2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial ...
Aug 26, 2017 · ... beta-blockers should be considered in haemodynamically stable patients undergoing primary PCI. 7.3.2 Mid- and long-term beta-blocker treatment.
[64]
2023 AHA/ACC/ACCP/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline for the ...
Jul 20, 2023 · It aims to provide succinct recommendations in the domains of diagnostic evaluation, symptom relief, improvement in QOL, and reduction of future ...
[65]
One-Month Ticagrelor Monotherapy After PCI in Acute Coronary ...
Oct 27, 2024 · 1-month DAPT followed by de-escalation to ticagrelor monotherapy reduces bleeding without an increase in ischemic events at 1 year among patients undergoing ...
[66]
Effectiveness and Safety of Ticagrelor Monotherapy After Short ...
Ticagrelor monotherapy after 3 months of DAPT reduced net adverse clinical events compared to 12-month DAPT. T-PASS (2023), 2,850, ACS patients post-PCI, 2,850 ...
[67]
The 2025 Guideline Update Endorses Ticagrelor Monotherapy After ...
Jun 2, 2025 · Transitioning to ticagrelor monotherapy after ≥1 month of tolerated DAPT has now been endorsed as a Class 1, LOE: A recommendation in the 2025 guideline update ...
[68]
Use of Milestones to Guide Discharge After Elective PCI is Safe and ...
Oct 24, 2025 · The observation period post-PCI for same-day discharge patients is usually 4 to 6 hours, derived from 2 studies demonstrating that ...
[69]
Routine Continuous Electrocardiographic Monitoring Following ...
Dec 30, 2019 · More recently, AHA recommended the duration of telemetry monitoring to ≥12 to 24 hours after complete revascularization for MI, ≥24 to 48 hours ...<|separator|>
[70]
2021 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Same ... - JACC
Jan 7, 2021 · Same-Day Discharge (SDD): Same-day discharge after PCI is defined as a stay after a PCI procedure that does not include supervised overnight ...
[71]
Core Components of Cardiac Rehabilitation Programs: 2024 Update
Sep 24, 2024 · Programs must include physician prescribed exercise, cardiac risk factor modification, psychosocial assessment, and outcomes assessment. Each ...
[72]
Cardiac Rehabilitation Attendance and Outcomes in Coronary Artery ...
Jul 9, 2012 · Meta-analyses of smaller trials have shown that CR results in a decrease in all-cause mortality of 15% to 28%.
[73]
Patient Management Following Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
The long-term management of patients post-PCI should follow 3 main principles: 1) lifestyle modification and risk factor reduction; 2) administration of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
Routine Stress Testing After PCI in Patients With and Without Acute ...
Jun 26, 2024 · Cardiac stress testing has been widely implemented as an important part of the follow-up surveillance strategy after myocardial ...
[75]
Interventional Cardiology: What Factors are Driving Growth in the ...
Nov 1, 2023 · With the volume of PCI procedures in the United States estimated at more than 1,000,000 per year and rising, there will be positive growth in ...
[76]
Nationwide trends and outcomes of percutaneous coronary ...
Dec 18, 2024 · The main findings of this nationwide study are that there has been a consistent decline over the past decade in the number of PCI performed for ...
[77]
Initial Invasive or Conservative Strategy for Stable Coronary Disease
Mar 30, 2020 · The primary outcome was the composite of death from cardiovascular causes, myocardial infarction, or hospitalization for unstable angina, heart ...
[78]
Medicaid Expansion and Cardiovascular Equity: Progress, Gaps ...
Oct 3, 2025 · Still, procedural disparities remained, with minority patients undergoing PCI 10.3% less frequently compared to White patients, even after the ...
[79]
Structural Inequities In The Adoption Of Percutaneous Coronary ...
Hospitals serving Black, racially segregated communities were 48 percent less likely to adopt PCI services compared with hospitals in non-Black, racially ...Missing: equity | Show results with:equity
[80]
Cardiac Catheterization: Laboratory Procedure Outcomes
In 2023, Cleveland Clinic performed PCI with a radial approach in 71% of cases, which was more than the national radial artery use at 59%.
[81]
Benchmarking System Monitoring on Quality Improvement in ... - JACC
Feb 20, 2024 · Various QIs have been used in the context of PCI, including door-to-balloon (D2B) time in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and ...
[82]
Percutaneous Coronary Intervention versus Coronary-Artery Bypass ...
Feb 18, 2009 · Our trial compared PCI and CABG for treating patients with previously untreated three-vessel or left main coronary artery disease (or both).
[83]
Strategies for Multivessel Revascularization in Patients with Diabetes
Nov 4, 2012 · For patients with diabetes and advanced coronary artery disease, CABG was superior to PCI in that it significantly reduced rates of death and myocardial ...
[84]
The Current State of Hybrid Coronary Revascularization
Apr 25, 2024 · Compared with PCI, HCR may offer similar periprocedural morbidity while mitigating the need for repeat revascularization by providing a surgical ...
[85]
Long-term Outcome after Percutaneous Coronary Intervention ...
Studies showed the rate of repeat revascularization is higher after PCI compared with CABG, in a meta-analysis of 9 observational studies, Benedetto [20] found ...
[86]
Long-Term Outcomes of Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting vs ...
Oct 29, 2025 · Compared with CABG, PCI patients faced much higher rates of repeat revascularization during follow-up (pooled RR: 0.43 (95% CI: 0.37–0.50, p ...
[87]
Cost-Effectiveness of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Versus ...
Jul 19, 2022 · Follow-up costs in year 2 were numerically higher with PCI ($6131 versus $4967 for CABG) owing to increased rates of repeat revascularization ...
[88]
Balloon Angioplasty – The Legacy of Andreas Grüntzig, M.D. (1939 ...
German-born physician-scientist Andreas Grüntzig (1939–1985) for the first time applied a balloon-tipped catheter to re-open a severely stenosed femoral artery.
[89]
His master's art, Andreas Grüntzig's approach to performing and ...
Balloon catheter used for the first coronary angioplasty on 16 September 1977 at the University Hospital of Zurich, Switzerland. It was called Grüntzig Dilaca ...
[90]
Emergency coronary bypass surgery after coronary angioplasty
Jun 15, 1984 · The mortality rate with emergency CABG was 6.4%, and nonfatal MI occurred in 41% of patients, with Q waves developing in approximately 60% of ...Missing: early recoil
[91]
A Comparison of Balloon-Expandable-Stent Implantation with ...
Aug 25, 1994 · Balloon-expandable coronary-artery stents were developed to prevent coronary restenosis after coronary angioplasty.
[92]
40 Years of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: History and Future ...
Oct 1, 2018 · This evolution began with a balloon catheter mounted on a fixed wire and has progressed into bare-metal stents (BMS), first-generation drug- ...
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4671350/
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Radial Versus Femoral Access for Coronary Interventions Across the ...
Jun 29, 2016 · Compared with femoral access, radial access reduces mortality and MACE and improves safety, with reductions in major bleeding and vascular complications.Missing: dominance | Show results with:dominance
[95]
OCT-Guided vs Angiography-Guided Coronary Stent Implantation in ...
OCT-guided PCI led to a larger MSA and reduced the serious MACE, the composite of cardiac death, target-vessel MI, or stent thrombosis, compared with ...
[96]
Intravascular optical coherence tomography: optimisation of image ...
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) uses infrared light with the advantage of greater resolution (10-15 µm) and less strut induced artefacts compared with IVUS5, ...
[97]
FD-OCT and IVUS for detection of incomplete stent apposition ... - NIH
FD-OCT provides more detailed information as compared to IVUS and may be a valuable imaging modality in the setting of heavily calcified coronary lesions.
[98]
FLASH: AI-Based Quantitative Angiography Shows Promise For ...
Oct 30, 2024 · "Intracoronary imaging-guided PCI has demonstrated improved clinical outcomes compared to angiography-guided PCI, particularly in complex ...Missing: lesion CE- marked
[99]
Preprocedural AI-QCA Matches OCT-Guided PCI for Noncomplex ...
Oct 30, 2024 · Using an artificial intelligence (AI)-based quantitative coronary angiography (QCA) to help plan PCI may be as good as optical coherence tomography (OCT) ...Missing: CE- | Show results with:CE-
[100]
Use of the Instantaneous Wave-free Ratio or Fractional Flow ...
Mar 18, 2017 · In the DEFINE-FLAIR trial, we found that iFR-guided coronary revascularization was noninferior to FFR-guided revascularization with respect to ...
[101]
FDA Clears Corindus Vascular Robotics CorPath 200 System for PCI
Jul 24, 2012 · The overall procedure success rate was 97.6%. Additionally, the trial found that robotic-assisted PCI can make the procedure safer for the ...Missing: adoption | Show results with:adoption
[102]
Latest Developments in Robotic Percutaneous Coronary Interventions
Dec 6, 2023 · The newer-generation CorPath GRX R-PCI platform, which received FDA approval in 2016, integrated guiding catheter control, giving operators ...Missing: adoption 2025
[103]
Shockwave Intravascular Lithotripsy FDA Approved To Treat ...
Feb 16, 2021 · The company's sonic pressure wave therapy received Pre-Market Approval for severely calcified coronary artery disease from the US Food and Drug Administration ...Missing: PCI | Show results with:PCI
[104]
Use of Shockwave in Heavily Calcified Coronary Lesion - NIH
FDA approval was due to results from DISRUPT CAD trials. Especially in the DISRUPT CAD III trial, procedural success was achieved in 92.4% of patients and was ...
[105]
Complete Revascularization with Multivessel PCI for Myocardial ...
Sep 1, 2019 · The COMPLETE trial showed that, among patients with STEMI and multivessel coronary artery disease, a strategy of staged nonculprit-lesion PCI ...
[106]
Complete Versus Culprit-Only Revascularization Strategies to Treat ...
Sep 27, 2022 · The COMPLETE trial showed that complete revascularization was superior to culprit-only revascularization at reducing death or MI.
[107]
Effect of P2Y12 Inhibitor Monotherapy vs Dual Antiplatelet ... - PubMed
Design, setting, and participants: The SMART-CHOICE trial was an open-label, noninferiority, randomized study that was conducted in 33 hospitals ...
[108]
Three-Year Outcomes With the Absorb Bioresorbable Scaffold
Oct 31, 2017 · BVS was associated with increased rates of target lesion failure and device thrombosis between 1 and 3 years and cumulatively through 3 years of follow-up.
[109]
Maglev-fabricated long and biodegradable stent for interventional ...
Sep 10, 2024 · We develop a long and biodegradable stent with a length of up to 118 mm based on a metal-polymer composite material.
[110]
Long-term outcomes after percutaneous coronary intervention ...
Dec 20, 2024 · In the present study-level metanalysis, CABG is associated with a lower risk of major adverse cardiovascular events than PCI at long term follow-up in women.
[111]
The prevention of restenosis in vivo with a VEGF gene and ...
The VEGF/PTX NP-coated stents promote early endothelium healing while inhibit smooth muscle cell proliferation through sequential release of the VEGF gene and ...
[112]
Machine-learning based calculator for personalized risk assessment ...
Aug 28, 2025 · Machine-learning based calculator for personalized risk assessment following ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Afek Kodesh,; Nadav Loebl, ...
[113]
Automated Real-Time Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Risk ...
Our goal was to automatically extract data elements used in the Mayo Clinic PCI models from EHR to enable point of care risk assessment.
[114]
Comparison of Early Invasive and Conservative Strategies in ...
Jun 21, 2001 · A routine, early invasive strategy is superior to a conservative strategy for the management of unstable angina and myocardial infarction without ST-segment ...
[115]
Patient and Hospital Characteristics Associated with Inappropriate ...
Recent studies applying these criteria have found that rates of inappropriate PCI in the U.S. range from 12% to 17% for stable patients without acute coronary ...