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2022

2022 (MMXXII) was a common year commencing on a , distinguished by profound geopolitical upheaval, including Russia's initiation of a full-scale of on 24 February, which precipitated extensive territorial advances, civilian casualties exceeding tens of thousands, and a protracted humanitarian displacing millions. The incursion, launched from multiple fronts including and , intensified NATO's eastern flank reinforcements and triggered unprecedented Western sanctions on Russian energy exports, exacerbating global inflation and fuel shortages amid pre-existing supply chain strains from the . The year featured other seismic shifts, such as the 15 January eruption of the submarine volcano, the most powerful atmospheric explosion instrumented in modern records, injecting unprecedented water vapor into the and generating tsunamis that inundated Pacific islands including . Natural and societal disruptions extended to widespread protests, from Kazakhstan's fuel-price revolt in January to Iran's nationwide uprisings following Mahsa Amini's custody death in September, challenging authoritarian governance. Queen Elizabeth II's death on 8 September at age 96 concluded Britain's longest monarchy tenure, prompting a global mourning period and constitutional transitions across the Commonwealth. Sporting spectacles persisted with the Beijing Winter Olympics from 4 to 20 February, topping the medal count despite diplomatic boycotts over , and Qatar's from 20 November to 18 December, where clinched victory in a finale against . Economically, persistent inflation peaked in many nations, driven by monetary expansion and war-induced commodity shocks, while U.S. midterm elections saw House gains, signaling voter discontent with incumbent policies.

Overview

Key global themes and statistics

Russia's full-scale invasion of on triggered the largest conflict in Europe since , resulting in widespread geopolitical realignments, expansions, and sanctions against that disrupted global energy and food supplies. The war contributed to humanitarian crises, with over 8 million Ukrainian refugees by year's end and significant civilian casualties reported. Concurrently, protests erupted in following the in custody on September 13, challenging the regime's enforcement of laws and leading to hundreds of deaths amid crackdowns. Economically, global inflation surged to an average of 8.7%, driven by disruptions, energy price spikes from the Ukraine conflict, and lingering effects, marking the highest rates in decades for many advanced economies. GDP slowed to an estimated 3.5%, reflecting tighter monetary policies and fears in parts of and . International trade values rose about 25% above pre- levels, buoyed by demand recovery but strained by sanctions and logistics issues. The eased significantly, with variant dominance leading to widespread lifting of restrictions; global cases peaked early but deaths declined as vaccinations exceeded 13 billion doses administered. Climate-related disasters intensified, including the January 15 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption that generated atmospheric shockwaves and tsunamis affecting Pacific nations, alongside European heatwaves claiming over 60,000 lives from July to August. In total, 387 were recorded worldwide, causing 30,704 deaths and affecting 185 million people. Demographically, the reached 8 billion on , a milestone projecting slower future growth due to declining fertility rates below replacement levels in over half of countries.

Armed conflicts and

On February 24, 2022, initiated a multi-axis invasion of , launching strikes on cities including , , and , followed by ground advances from toward the capital, from Russian territory into the east, and from into the south. Russian President described the operation as a "special military operation" aimed at "" and demilitarization of , claims disputed by officials and Western governments as pretexts for territorial expansion. Initial Russian advances reached 's outskirts within days, but stalled due to supply line vulnerabilities, irregular warfare tactics, and Javelin anti-tank deliveries from the . In the south, Russian troops captured city on March 2, establishing a to , while the port of endured a starting late that destroyed over 90% of residential structures and resulted in an estimated 20,000 civilian deaths by May, when Ukrainian defenders at the Azovstal steel plant surrendered after exhausting supplies. Russian forces withdrew from northern in early , ceding and oblasts amid revelations of mass graves in Bucha, where Ukrainian authorities documented over 400 civilian bodies showing signs of execution. On the eastern front, Russia shifted focus post-April, capturing Severodonetsk and by July after attritional urban fighting that inflicted heavy casualties on both sides. Ukrainian forces, bolstered by Western-supplied artillery like HIMARS systems introduced in June, launched counteroffensives later in the year. In September, a surprise operation in recaptured over 12,000 square kilometers, including the logistical hubs of and , and encircled Russian troops at Lyman, forcing a retreat that exposed command disarray in . responded by mobilizing 300,000 reservists on September 21 and staging referendums in occupied , , , and oblasts, annexing the territories on September 30 despite international non-recognition. By year's end, advances had liberated city on November 11, but the front stabilized with controlling approximately 18% of , including and the coast. Casualty estimates for 2022 remain contested, with Ukrainian General Staff reports claiming over 100,000 Russian killed or wounded by December, while independent verifications like those from confirmed around 20,000 Russian deaths by open-source analysis; Ukrainian military losses were reported at 10,000-13,000 killed by President Zelenskyy, though total figures including civilians exceeded 100,000 combined per UN data. Western sanctions, including exclusions for major Russian banks and asset freezes totaling $300 billion, contributed to a 2.1% GDP contraction in , though energy export rerouting to and mitigated revenue losses initially. Reports from outlets like the and CFR, often aligned with perspectives, emphasize sanction efficacy, but causal analysis indicates adaptation via parallel imports sustained military production.

Other major conflicts

In , the between federal forces and the (TPLF) saw a unilateral declared by the on June 28 amid TPLF territorial gains, but hostilities resumed in August around key towns like Kobo. A mediated occurred on November 2 with the Pretoria Agreement, establishing a permanent cessation of hostilities, of TPLF forces, and humanitarian access, though implementation faced challenges including rights monitoring needs. The conflict, which began in November 2020, contributed substantially to global battle-related deaths, with accounting for a large portion of over 237,000 such fatalities recorded worldwide in 2022 excluding . Yemen's , pitting Houthi forces against the internationally recognized government and Saudi-led coalition, entered a temporary phase with a UN-brokered nationwide truce effective April 2, the first since 2016, prohibiting airstrikes, ground offensives, and cross-border attacks while enabling fuel imports and Sana'a flights. Initially set for two months, the truce was extended twice but expired unrenewed on October 2, yet both sides largely refrained from pre-truce levels of escalation, sustaining informal calm into late 2022 despite sporadic violations. Myanmar's civil war escalated sharply in 2022 following the February 2021 military coup, as (PDFs)—aligned with the shadow —and ethnic armed groups coordinated guerrilla operations, capturing territory and supply routes, with resistance controlling over 40% of the country by June. The junta intensified aerial bombings, village destructions, and digital crackdowns, displacing millions and prompting broader armed resistance that fragmented military control across multiple fronts. In the , jihadist insurgencies intertwined with political upheavals, including two coups in —on January 24, ousting President Roch Marc Kaboré amid security failures, and September 30, toppling interim leader for insufficient jihadist containment. Mali's junta, in power since 2021, faced persistent violence from and affiliates, exacerbating displacement and territorial losses, while regional dynamics fueled cross-border affecting millions.

Political and legal developments

Elections and referendums

In 2022, several high-profile national elections occurred across multiple continents, often resulting in shifts toward center-left or right-wing governments amid economic pressures and geopolitical tensions. Presidential contests in and saw incumbents or challengers navigating polarized electorates, while parliamentary votes in and elsewhere highlighted gains for conservative coalitions. The held midterm elections that altered congressional control without delivering the expected "red wave." Voter turnout varied, with concerns over raised in some cases, particularly in where incumbent contested results despite official certification. France's presidential election proceeded in two rounds on April 10 and 24, with incumbent securing re-election in the runoff against of the , obtaining 58.5% of the vote to Le Pen's 41.5%. Macron's victory marked the first re-election of a French president since in 2002, though his margin narrowed from 2017 amid dissatisfaction with economic policies and pension reforms. Legislative elections followed in June, yielding a with no clear majority. Brazil's featured a first round on October 2 and runoff on October 30, where former President defeated incumbent by 50.9% to 49.1%, a margin of under 2 million votes out of 120 million cast. Lula's return to office ended Bolsonaro's term, which had been marked by environmental policy disputes and handling of the ; Bolsonaro's subsequent claims of fraud lacked evidence and were rejected by Brazil's electoral court and . Concurrent congressional elections saw Bolsonaro's allies retain influence in . Italy conducted snap general elections on September 25 following the collapse of Mario Draghi's . The center-right coalition, led by Giorgia Meloni's party, secured approximately 44% of the vote, translating to a majority in both chambers of under a new electoral law reducing seats. Meloni's party alone garnered 26%, positioning her to become Italy's first female ; the coalition's platform emphasized controls and EU skepticism without exiting the bloc. The midterm elections on November 8 involved all 435 House seats, 35 Senate seats, and 36 gubernatorial races. Republicans gained a narrow House majority (222-213), enabling oversight of Joe Biden's administration, while Democrats retained the Senate (51-49, including independents caucusing with them) through wins in and . Voter concerns over and influenced outcomes, defying pre-election forecasts of larger Republican gains; several Republican-endorsed election deniers lost key races. Other notable elections included Australia's federal vote on May 21, where the Labor Party under ousted the Liberal-National , ending nine years of conservative rule with 77 seats to the 's 58. Colombia elected as president on June 19, marking the first left-wing victory in the Andean nation's modern history. Referendums in 2022 addressed al changes and opt-outs. Chile's September 4 plebiscite overwhelmingly rejected (61.9% "Reject" to 38.1% "Approve") a new drafted by a citizen assembly following 2019 protests, citing concerns over expanded state powers, indigenous rights provisions, and economic instability risks; the vote preserved the 1980 Pinochet-era charter temporarily. Denmark ended its EU defense opt-out on June 1, with 66.9% approval, aligning the kingdom more closely with amid Russia's Ukraine invasion. Belarus held a February 27 referendum approving al amendments extending Alexander Lukashenko's rule potential and nuclear hosting, but international observers noted suppression of opposition and lack of transparency. In Russian-occupied Ukrainian territories (Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, Zaporizhzhia), purported referendums from September 23-27 claimed over 90% support for annexation by Russia, but these were conducted under military duress without independent monitoring, leading to unanimous non-recognition by the UN General Assembly and most states as violations of international law.

Judicial and policy shifts

In June 2022, the U.S. Supreme Court delivered rulings that reversed longstanding precedents on abortion, firearms, and regulatory authority. In Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization on June 24, the Court held 6–3 that the Constitution makes no provision for a right to abortion, explicitly overturning Roe v. Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), and devolving authority over abortion laws to state legislatures. This decision prompted immediate policy responses: by late 2022, 14 states had enacted near-total bans on elective abortions, while others imposed gestational limits or expanded access, resulting in an estimated 32,000 fewer abortions nationwide in the second half of the year compared to pre-Dobbs trends, according to provisional data from state health reports aggregated by researchers. On June 23, in New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, the Court ruled 6–3 that New York's restrictive licensing regime for concealed carry permits violated the Second Amendment, establishing a historical tradition test for evaluating gun regulations and invalidating subjective "proper cause" requirements. These shifts reflected a conservative majority's textualist and originalist approach, limiting judicially implied rights and federal overreach. Further U.S. judicial developments curtailed administrative power. In West Virginia v. Environmental Protection Agency on June 30, the Court invoked the to restrict the EPA's authority under the Clean Air Act to mandate broad shifts from coal to renewables without clear congressional authorization, vacating the agency's 2015 and signaling skepticism toward executive-driven climate policies. Internationally, the issued provisional measures on March 16 in Ukraine v. Russian Federation, ordering to suspend military operations in Ukraine, finding plausible rights violations under the amid Russia's claim of preemptive action against alleged genocide; rejected the ruling's binding force, continuing its . In , the on September 5 upheld William Ruto's victory against Raila Odinga's challenge, affirming despite irregularities but rejecting fraud claims for lack of . Policy arenas saw reactive shifts tied to geopolitical tensions. Following Russia's February invasion of Ukraine, the accelerated its plan in May, aiming to phase out Russian fossil fuels by 2027 through diversified imports, renewable acceleration, and energy efficiency mandates, reducing Russian gas imports from 40% of EU supply pre-invasion to under 10% by year-end. In the U.S., the , signed August 9, allocated $52 billion in subsidies for domestic manufacturing to counter vulnerabilities exposed by the and trade frictions, marking a departure from prior globalization-focused . The of August 16 invested $369 billion in clean energy tax credits and incentives, alongside capping drug prices, though critics argued it subsidized intermittent renewables without addressing baseload reliability amid rising energy demands. These measures prioritized security and domestic production over prior emphases on and minimal intervention, driven by empirical disruptions in global energy and tech supplies.

Economic developments

Inflation, monetary policy, and recession indicators

Global inflation surged in 2022, reaching an average of approximately 8.7% across advanced and emerging economies, driven by lingering pandemic-related supply disruptions, fiscal stimulus-induced demand pressures, and energy price spikes following Russia's invasion of Ukraine. In the United States, the Consumer Price Index (CPI) for all urban consumers rose to a year-over-year peak of 9.1% in June, with monthly figures escalating from 7.5% in January to this high before moderating to 6.5% by December; core CPI, excluding food and energy, averaged around 6% annually, indicating persistent non-transitory pressures. Empirical analyses attribute the U.S. surge primarily to federal spending exceeding $5 trillion in pandemic relief, which boosted aggregate demand beyond supply capacity, rather than supply chains alone, though the latter amplified effects in sectors like autos and semiconductors. In the Eurozone, Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices (HICP) hit 10.6% in , with exceeding 8%, fueled by costs that comprised over half the to shortages and sanctions on supplies. Central banks responded aggressively to anchor expectations and curb demand. The U.S. initiated rate hikes on March 16, raising the federal funds target from 0-0.25% by 25 basis points, followed by 50 basis points in May, 75 basis points in June and July, another 75 in September, 75 in November, and 50 in December, culminating at 4.25-4.5% by year-end—the fastest tightening cycle since the . The ended negative rates in July, hiking by 50 basis points to 0%, then 75 in to 2%, prioritizing over growth amid fiscal expansions that had sustained high but overheated prices. Recession indicators emerged prominently, signaling cooling activity despite robust job markets. The U.S. Treasury inverted briefly in early April— with the 10-year minus 2-year spread turning negative—before a more sustained inversion from , a historical precursor to downturns averaging 12-18 months prior. Real GDP contracted 1.6% annualized in Q1 and 0.6% in Q2 per data, meeting the technical definition of via two consecutive negative quarters, though officials emphasized resilient and low (averaging 3.6%) as mitigating factors against a broader slump. Globally, similar signals appeared in contracting PMIs and rising in energy-dependent regions, but no widespread materialized by year-end, with growth forecasts revised downward yet positive at around 3% for advanced economies.
EconomyPeak YoY Inflation (Month)Annual Average Inflation
United States9.1% (June)8.0%
Eurozone10.6% (October)8.4%
WorldN/A8.7%

Energy markets and supply chain disruptions

In early January 2022, protests erupted across Kazakhstan following a sharp increase in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) prices, which nearly doubled after the government lifted a price cap on January 1 to transition to market-based pricing via electronic trading initiated in 2019. The unrest, initially localized in oil-rich regions like Zhanaozen, rapidly escalated into nationwide riots demanding President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev's resignation, resulting in over 200 deaths, thousands arrested, and Tokayev's consolidation of power with Russian-led CSTO intervention. This event highlighted vulnerabilities in energy-dependent economies amid subsidy reforms and underlying socioeconomic grievances. Energy prices had been rising globally since late 2021 due to factors including COVID-19-induced disruptions, adverse weather, and insufficient prior investment in production capacity. Russia's full-scale of on intensified these pressures, as sanctions and Russia's retaliatory supply cuts targeted Europe's heavy reliance on Russian gas, which accounted for about 40% of imports pre-war. Russia reduced gas deliveries to by approximately 80 billion cubic meters in 2022, triggering a severe continental with benchmark TTF reaching all-time highs above €300 per megawatt-hour in August. prices surged nearly 150% immediately following the , while oil markets experienced heightened volatility from fears of broader supply interruptions, though peaked around $130 per barrel in March before moderating. Supply chain disruptions in the energy sector were exacerbated by the war's ripple effects, including sanctions limiting oil and gas exports, which forced to compete for (LNG) cargoes originally destined elsewhere, reorienting global flows and straining shipping and infrastructure. Russia's pivot to Asian markets via pipelines like increased transit dependencies, while bans on seaborne crude to certain ports disrupted tanker availability and insurance chains. In the U.S., heightened LNG demand contributed to domestic price volatility, with futures swinging amid export competition and storage concerns. These interruptions, compounded by pre-existing shortages affecting grid equipment manufacturing, amplified risks to infrastructure reliability and accelerated calls for diversification, though immediate shortages threatened output and household heating in during the 2022-2023 winter.

Public health and pandemics

COVID-19 trajectory and policy critiques

In 2022, the and its sublineages dominated global epidemiology, with BA.1 and BA.2 driving widespread transmission in the first half of the year, followed by BA.4 and BA.5 later on. These subvariants exhibited enhanced transmissibility compared to prior strains, leading to record case surges—such as over 20 million daily global cases reported in —but with reduced severity in terms of hospitalizations and deaths per case, attributable to accumulated population immunity from prior infections and vaccinations. According to data, cumulative confirmed cases exceeded 400 million by mid-year, though underreporting and testing variations complicated precise tallies. Mortality trends reflected this shift: while Omicron waves caused elevated deaths early in 2022, global fatalities declined progressively as hybrid immunity (from and ) mitigated severe outcomes, with weekly confirmed deaths dropping below 10,000 by late year in many regions. remained elevated, however, totaling approximately 808,000 additional deaths across Western countries, many non-COVID-coded and linked to indirect effects like delayed care rather than direct viral impact. , provisional data indicated over 1 million COVID-attributed deaths for the year, but excess all-cause mortality suggested broader burdens, including from policy-induced disruptions. Policy responses diverged globally, with most nations dismantling lockdowns, mask mandates, and travel restrictions by spring 2022 amid high seroprevalence—often exceeding 90% in surveyed populations—rendering prolonged measures of diminishing utility. booster campaigns intensified, yet critiques emerged that mandates overlooked immunity's durability, which studies showed conferred robust, long-lasting protection against severe disease comparable to or exceeding vaccine-induced responses. For instance, analyses argued that ignoring prior infection status in policy design led to inefficient and eroded , as exemptions for natural immunity were rarely granted despite evidence of cross-protection. Lockdown persistence drew sharp scrutiny for collateral harms outweighing benefits in a high-immunity context. In , the strategy—enforced through mass testing, quarantines, and city-wide shutdowns—culminated in nationwide protests in , prompting abrupt abandonment on , after which infections surged but official deaths remained low amid data opacity. Critics, including researchers, contended that extended non-pharmaceutical interventions fostered "immunity debt" in children by curtailing exposure to common pathogens, correlating with rises in other respiratory illnesses post-reopening, while inflicting economic losses estimated in trillions globally and exacerbating crises. Sustained excess non-COVID mortality in 2022, particularly from cardiovascular and other causes, underscored these trade-offs, with analyses attributing patterns to healthcare deferrals and socioeconomic stressors rather than viral effects alone. Vaccine policy evaluations highlighted waning against Omicron-era , with boosters providing transient protection—fading within months—prompting debates over universal mandates' . Empirical reviews concluded that while initial doses reduced hospitalizations, late-pandemic mandates risked net societal harm by incentivizing evasion, stigmatizing the unvaccinated, and diverting focus from targeted protection of vulnerable groups. infection's role in building immunity was downplayed in official guidance, despite data indicating immunity's superiority in preventing reinfection, fueling arguments that policies prioritized compliance over evidence-based risk stratification. By year's end, retrospective assessments in multiple jurisdictions affirmed that earlier relaxation aligned with epidemiological realities, contrasting with rigid approaches that amplified disruptions without commensurate gains.

Other health crises

In 2022, a global outbreak of (formerly ), caused by clade IIb of the , began in early May with cases detected in non-endemic countries across , , and beyond, primarily spreading through close physical contact, including sexual transmission among men who have sex with men. The declared it a of international concern on July 23, prompting vaccination campaigns using smallpox vaccines like JYNNEOS and enhanced surveillance, though the remained below 0.2%, with severe outcomes more common in immunocompromised individuals and children. By late 2022, the outbreak had reported tens of thousands of cases worldwide, straining resources in affected regions despite containment efforts through and behavioral interventions. Poliomyelitis saw a notable resurgence in 2022, with 22 confirmed cases of wild type 1 globally, concentrated in endemic areas of and amid challenges from conflict, , and access barriers. In the United States, the first paralytic polio case in over three decades was confirmed on in an unvaccinated in , involving vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 linked to circulating strains from oral use elsewhere, highlighting risks of incomplete global eradication and low rates in pockets of immunity gaps. Environmental surveillance detected the virus in , underscoring undetected circulation, while the Global Polio Eradication Initiative intensified campaigns, though circulating vaccine-derived strains added 881 cases worldwide, complicating progress toward full elimination. Cholera outbreaks intensified globally in 2022, with 472,697 suspected cases reported across 44 countries, more than double the 223,370 cases from , driven by factors including conflict, flooding, and strained water sanitation in regions like and the . The upsurge resulted in 2,349 deaths, reflecting inadequate access to and sanitation improvements, with hotspots in , , and where humanitarian crises exacerbated transmission via contaminated water sources. Response efforts by organizations like WHO emphasized rapid diagnostics and stockpiles, but underreporting likely understated the true burden in resource-limited settings.

Scientific and technological advancements

Space exploration and astronomy

The , launched in December 2021, completed its commissioning phase in June 2022 and released its first full-color science images on July 12, 2022, revealing unprecedented infrared views of distant galaxies, nebulae, and such as the spectrum of WASP-96 b. These images, including deep-field observations of galaxy cluster SMACS 0723, demonstrated the telescope's ability to peer back over 13 billion years, surpassing Hubble's resolution in the infrared spectrum. By year's end, JWST had begun contributing to early discoveries, such as evidence of in atmospheres, though full data analysis extended into subsequent years. NASA's (DART) spacecraft, launched in November 2021, successfully impacted the moonlet on September 26, 2022, at approximately 14,000 miles per hour, marking the first demonstration of kinetic impactor technology for planetary defense. The 570-kilogram impactor altered 's around its parent Didymos by about 32 minutes, confirming the efficacy of momentum transfer from a non-nuclear deflection method against near-Earth objects. Observations from the accompanying LICIACube and ground-based telescopes validated the mission's success, providing data on plumes and formation for future threat mitigation strategies. Artemis I, NASA's uncrewed test flight for the Artemis program, launched on November 16, 2022, aboard the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket from Kennedy Space Center, carrying the Orion spacecraft on a 25-day, 1.4-million-mile trajectory around the Moon. The mission achieved key objectives, including Orion's separation from the SLS interim cryogenic propulsion stage, solar array deployment, and a low-altitude lunar flyby at 80 miles, before splashing down in the Pacific Ocean on December 11, 2022. This flight validated the SLS-Orion stack's performance for future crewed lunar missions, despite minor issues like brief telemetry losses during launch. Private sector activity surged, with conducting 61 Falcon 9 and launches in 2022, eclipsing all other providers combined and deploying over 1,600 satellites for global internet coverage. The company executed two crewed Commercial Crew missions to the , including Crew-4 in April and Crew-5 in October, each carrying four astronauts and demonstrating reusable capsule reliability with rapid reusability turnaround times under 60 days. In ground-based astronomy, the collaboration released the first image of Sagittarius A*, the at the Milky Way's center, on May 12, 2022, capturing a 6.5-million-solar-mass shadow consistent with predictions from observations in 2017. This complemented the 2019 M87* image, affirming shadow scaling with mass and enabling studies of accretion dynamics in our galaxy's core. NASA's launched on June 28, 2022, via Rocket Lab's rocket, to test navigation and operations in a around the Moon, paving the way for the station in the . The mission entered successfully in August, validating autonomous positioning technologies for future infrastructure.

Energy and physics breakthroughs

On December 5, 2022, scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's achieved the first controlled experiment to reach scientific breakeven, producing 3.15 megajoules (MJ) of fusion output from 2.05 MJ of laser input to the target, surpassing the ignition threshold where fusion reactions yield more than required to initiate them. This milestone, decades in pursuit, demonstrated a net gain in the fuel pellet despite overall system inefficiencies, advancing prospects for sustainable, low-carbon by mimicking stellar processes without long-lived associated with . The experiment involved 192 high-powered lasers compressing a deuterium-tritium capsule, validating computational models refined over years of iterative testing. The 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded on October 4 to , John F. Clauser, and , recognized their foundational experiments confirming and Bell inequality violations, refuting local hidden variable theories and bolstering ' non-local predictions. Clauser's 1972 closed detection loopholes by measuring entangled photons with high efficiency, Aspect's 1982 Orsay experiments eliminated the locality loophole via rapid-switching polarizers, and Zeilinger's work advanced and information protocols using entangled states. These results, grounded in empirical photon correlation data defying , underpin emerging quantum technologies like and , though practical scalability remains challenged by decoherence. Independent replications since the 1970s, including those by the laureates, affirm the findings' robustness against measurement biases.

Natural disasters and environmental events

Major disasters

The eruption of the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai on , 2022, produced one of the most powerful explosions recorded in modern history, with a of 5, ejecting massive ash plumes and generating across the Pacific Ocean. The event caused four deaths in directly from the tsunami, with two additional tsunami-related fatalities elsewhere, while severely damaging on multiple islands and disrupting communications due to severed undersea cables. Atmospheric effects persisted for years, injecting into the that influenced global weather patterns. Monsoon flooding in from to 2022 devastated the country, affecting 33 million people across 90 districts and displacing about 8 million. The floods resulted in 1,730 deaths, widespread destruction of homes and crops, and economic losses exceeding $30 billion, with reconstruction needs estimated at over $16 billion. Heavy rainfall, exceeding historical norms in some areas, overwhelmed river systems and , exacerbating vulnerabilities in flood-prone regions. A magnitude 6.2 earthquake struck southeastern Afghanistan on June 22, 2022, killing at least 1,039 people and injuring over 2,900 in Afghanistan and neighboring Pakistan, marking it as the deadliest seismic event of the year. The quake, centered near Khost, caused widespread building collapses in poorly constructed rural areas, compounded by aftershocks and limited access to rescue operations amid ongoing humanitarian challenges. In November 2022, a magnitude 5.6 hit in , , on , resulting in 334 deaths, over 2,000 injuries, and the displacement of thousands as buildings collapsed and landslides occurred. Shallow depth and local amplified ground shaking, leading to significant structural failures in the densely populated region. Hurricane Ian made landfall in western and in September 2022 as a Category 4 storm, causing 152 deaths and $112.9 billion in damages, the costliest U.S. weather on record at the time. and high winds destroyed coastal , while inland flooding added to the toll in a record year for U.S. billion-dollar disasters, totaling 18 events. Globally, 2022 saw 387 per the EM-DAT database, claiming 30,704 lives, with floods as the most frequent hazard and extreme temperatures the deadliest, accounting for 16,416 fatalities.

Climate and weather data

The global average surface temperature for 2022 ranked as the sixth warmest year in NOAA's record since 1880, at 0.86°C (1.55°F) above the 20th-century average of 13.9°C (57.0°F), despite the cooling influence of a third consecutive La Niña event. 's GISTEMP analysis placed 2022 in a tie for the fifth warmest year, with an anomaly of 0.89°C above its 1951–1980 baseline, equivalent to approximately 1.11°C above the late-19th-century average. These rankings reflect combined land and ocean surface measurements, with minor methodological differences between agencies accounting for the variance, such as baseline periods and data interpolation techniques. Atmospheric concentrations at reached new daily highs in 2022, peaking at 422.06 on April 26, marking the continuation of an upward trend driven primarily by emissions and land-use changes. The annual mean CO2 level for 2022 was approximately 418.5 , up from prior years, as measured by NOAA's continuous observations which provide the longest direct record of atmospheric CO2 since 1958. Sea surface temperatures exhibited positive anomalies globally, contributing to the year's warmth, with the extrapolar ocean average showing ongoing increases consistent with absorbed heat from the atmosphere. NOAA data indicated elevated SSTs in regions like the equatorial Pacific under La Niña conditions, though overall ocean heat content remained high, supporting intensified weather patterns. The reported that 2015–2022 comprised the eight warmest years on record, with 2022 featuring widespread extreme events including heatwaves in and , severe droughts in the and , and flooding in that displaced millions, amid a 7% projected increase in extreme daily rainfall per degree of warming. regions experienced temperature anomalies exceeding the global mean for the ninth consecutive year, amplifying loss and thaw.
Metric2022 Value/AnomalySource/Baseline
Global Surface Temp (NOAA)+0.86°C above 20th-century avg.1880–present
Global Surface Temp ()+0.89°C above 1951–1980 avg.1880–present
CO2 Peak ()422.06 (April 26)Daily record since 1958
SST Trend (Extrapolar)~0.9°C increase since 1980sObservational composites

Demographics and society

Population and migration trends

The world's reached the milestone of 8 billion on November 15, 2022, as projected by the based on demographic data indicating slower growth rates compared to previous decades. This marked only 11 years since the surpassed 7 billion, reflecting a deceleration in annual growth from peaks above 2% in the late to approximately 0.9% by 2022, driven by falling rates and rising . Global fertility rates continued a long-term decline, averaging around 2.3 children per in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.1 needed for stable size without migration, with sharper drops in industrialized nations and emerging economies like . In , the peaked at 1.412 billion in 2022 before contracting for the first time since 1961, with births falling to 9.02 million amid a record low rate of 1.09, exacerbated by the legacy of prior policies, , and economic pressures delaying family formation. Forced migration surged due to conflicts, with the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reporting a record 35.3 million refugees worldwide by the end of 2022, up from 27.1 million in 2021, primarily from the which displaced over 5.2 million Ukrainians to by mid-year. The Ukraine crisis alone generated the fastest-growing refugee outflow in since , with nearly 6 million refugees recorded globally from by early 2023, many seeking temporary protection in , , and other states. At the U.S.-Mexico border, U.S. Customs and Border Protection recorded nearly 2.4 million encounters in 2022 (October 2021 to September 2022), the highest on record, reflecting increased irregular crossings driven by economic instability, violence in , and policy shifts post-COVID restrictions, though many encounters involved repeat attempts and expulsions under Title 42. Overall, international migrants comprised about 3.7% of the global in 2022, with totaling over 100 million people including internally displaced persons, underscoring 's role in offsetting low fertility in aging societies like those in and .

Cultural and social shifts

The death of Mahsa Amini on September 16, 2022, while in custody of Iran's morality police for alleged hijab violations ignited nationwide protests against compulsory veiling and the Islamic Republic's governance. Demonstrators adopted the slogan "Woman, Life, Freedom," symbolizing broader demands for gender equality and political reform, with women publicly burning headscarves and cutting hair in defiance. Security forces responded with lethal force, shooting hundreds of protesters according to United Nations fact-finding missions. In China, escalating discontent with zero-COVID lockdowns peaked in November 2022 following a deadly apartment fire in Urumqi attributed to restricted access, sparking protests across major cities including and . Crowds held blank sheets of paper as symbols of censored grievances, directly criticizing President and calling for policy reversal, in the largest demonstrations since the 1989 events. These actions prompted authorities to dismantle zero-COVID measures within weeks, highlighting rare public influence on state policy amid economic and social strain. The U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Dobbs v. on June 24, 2022, overturned , removing federal constitutional protection for abortion and devolving regulation to states. By December, at least 14 states had implemented near-total bans, restricting access for millions and intensifying partisan divides on , with data showing increased travel for procedures to permissive states. Queen Elizabeth II's death on September 8, 2022, after 70 years on the throne, elicited widespread mourning across nations and beyond, underscoring a generational transition in monarchical symbolism. Studies indicated psychological effects on British public sentiment, evoking nostalgia for post-war stability amid contemporary uncertainties like political turmoil. Broader trends reflected post-pandemic recovery, with surveys noting a return to traditional practices amid uncertainty and Gen Z's growing pessimism driving cultural searches for meaning. emphasized short-form videos and awareness, while events like the Oscars slap and high-profile trials amplified discussions on celebrity accountability and media sensationalism.

Chronology of events

January

On January 2, protests began in the western Kazakh city of Zhanaozen against a near-doubling of liquefied petroleum gas prices, following the government's decision to lift price caps implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic. The unrest rapidly expanded nationwide, including to Almaty, initially focusing on economic grievances but evolving into demands for political reform and an end to the influence of former president Nursultan Nazarbayev, who had retained significant behind-the-scenes power despite stepping down in 2019. By January 5, President declared a two-week , dismissed Nazarbayev from the chairmanship of the , and ordered security forces to shoot to kill if necessary to quell the violence. appealed for assistance from the (CSTO), prompting the deployment of approximately 2,500 troops from , , , , and —the alliance's first-ever mission outside its members' borders. Clashes intensified on January 5–6, particularly in , where protesters stormed government buildings and looted stores; security forces responded with lethal force, resulting in 238 deaths (mostly civilians) and over 12,000 arrests according to official figures, though organizations reported evidence of excessive use of force against unarmed demonstrators and disputed government claims of "armed terrorists" and foreign orchestration. Nationwide internet shutdowns lasted several days, hindering communication and . CSTO forces withdrew by January 19 after the situation stabilized, with Tokayev framing the intervention as successful in preventing a coup. On January 15, the in the underwent a massive , the most powerful since in 1883, ejecting an ash plume to 58 kilometers altitude and generating shockwaves detectable globally. The eruption triggered tsunamis with waves up to 15 meters in , killing four people, displacing thousands, and damaging or destroying about 75% of structures on island; smaller waves propagated across the Pacific, causing fatalities in and affecting coasts in , , and . It injected an unprecedented 150 million tons of water vapor into the , temporarily altering and contributing to minor in the . The reached its 2 operational orbit on January 24, completing a month-long journey after its December 2021 launch and beginning its mirror alignment process. On January 16, tennis player was deported from following a ruling upholding the cancellation of his visa over his refusal to disclose vaccination status upon arrival, barring him from the Australian Open. The variant of drove record case surges globally, with the reporting over 1 million daily infections by late January amid relaxed restrictions in some regions.

February

The took place in , , from February 4 to 20, featuring 109 events across 15 disciplines with participation from 2,893 athletes representing 91 National Olympic Committees. led the medal standings with 37 medals, including 16 golds, while host nation secured 15 medals for third place overall. The Games introduced seven new events, such as women's monobob and for both genders. Notable performances included American winning two golds and a silver in , and Norwegian Therese Johaug claiming gold in . Controversies arose over strict protocols, diplomatic boycotts by several Western nations citing abuses in , and the participation of Russian figure skater , who tested positive for a banned substance but was provisionally allowed to compete by the before her team placed fourth in the team event. Amid the Olympics, Russian President attended the opening ceremony on February 4 and met with Chinese President , issuing a joint statement on "no-limits" partnership hours before the event. Tensions escalated in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian crisis as amassed over 100,000 troops near Ukraine's borders, prompting to reinforce eastern flanks and the to warn of an imminent invasion. On February 21, Putin recognized the independence of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) and Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) in eastern Ukraine, signing treaties of friendship and deploying Russian forces as "peacekeepers" into these regions, which Russia had supported since 2014. Russia initiated a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on February 24, launching missile strikes on military targets nationwide and advancing ground forces from multiple directions: northward from Belarus toward Kyiv, eastward into Kharkiv and Sumy oblasts, and southward from Crimea into Kherson and Mariupol. Putin described the operation as aimed at "demilitarization and denazification" of Ukraine, rejecting its sovereignty over the annexed Crimea and the breakaway regions. Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy declared martial law, mobilized reserves, and appealed for international support as Russian airborne troops seized Hostomel Airport near Kyiv, though Ukrainian counterattacks limited further gains. By late February, Russian forces reached Kyiv's suburbs, besieging Mariupol and capturing the Chernobyl nuclear site en route from Belarus, while Ukraine reported over 3,000 civilian deaths in the initial assaults and destruction of infrastructure. The invasion prompted swift Western sanctions on Russian banks, oligarchs, and energy exports, alongside arms shipments to Ukraine. Other notable events included the death of Russian nationalist politician on February 6 from complications, and severe flooding in , , on February 15, which killed over 200 people due to landslides following heavy rains.

March

On March 8, President signed an prohibiting the importation of Russian crude oil, petroleum, petroleum fuels, oils, and products of their distillation; ; and coal into the , effective immediately, as part of sanctions in response to the invasion of . This measure aimed to reduce Russia's revenue from energy exports, which funded approximately 40% of its federal budget at the time. Russian forces intensified operations in southern and eastern Ukraine during the month, besieging Mariupol and advancing toward key ports, while stalling in the north around Kyiv due to Ukrainian counterattacks and logistical challenges. On March 16, a Russian airstrike destroyed the Mariupol Drama Theatre, a designated civilian shelter marked with "children" in large letters visible from the air, killing an estimated 600 people according to Associated Press analysis of satellite imagery and witness accounts. Amnesty International later classified the attack as a war crime, citing the deliberate targeting of a known shelter housing over 1,000 civilians. Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress virtually on March 16, urging increased military aid including no-fly zones and citing Churchill's World War II defiance to rally support; Congress responded with a $13.6 billion aid package shortly after. By mid-March, the United Nations reported over 847 Ukrainian civilian deaths from Russian actions since the invasion began, with intensified shelling of urban areas like Kharkiv and Sumy. On March 27, at the in , actor walked onstage and slapped presenter after Rock joked about the appearance of Smith's wife, , prompting Smith to shout profanities twice; Smith later won the Oscar for King Richard. The Academy banned Smith from its events for 10 years following an internal review. From March 28, authorities in enforced a citywide under China's policy to curb an outbreak, confining 25 million residents to homes with mass testing and food deliveries; the measures lasted until , sparking rare public protests over shortages and economic disruption. Daily cases peaked at over 20,000 by early , overwhelming hospitals despite low reported deaths due to gaps among the elderly.

April

In early April, Russian forces completed their withdrawal from the region and northern , following stalled advances and logistical challenges, allowing Ukrainian forces to reclaim territories such as , Bucha, and amid revelations of atrocities including mass civilian killings in Bucha. On April 1, met with Indigenous delegations from and expressed "sorrow and shame" for the Catholic Church's complicity in the residential school system, which involved and documented abuses resulting in thousands of deaths. The dominated the month, with fighting intensifying in the east and south. Russian troops refocused on the region after the northern pullback, while the siege of persisted, leaving much of the city in ruins and prompting UN-mediated evacuation efforts for civilians and wounded fighters from the Azovstal steel plant starting April 19. On April 14, Ukraine struck the Russian flagship Moskva with anti-ship missiles, sinking the Slava-class cruiser and resulting in the deaths of at least 40 Russian sailors according to official Russian figures, though independent estimates suggest higher casualties; Russia attributed the loss to a fire but Western intelligence confirmed the missile attack. In France, the presidential election proceeded with the first round on April 10, where incumbent Emmanuel Macron secured 27.8% of the vote, followed by Marine Le Pen with 23.2%, advancing both to the runoff amid fragmentation among other candidates. Macron won re-election on April 24 with 58.5% against Le Pen's 41.5%, marking the first reelection of a French president since Jacques Chirac in 2002 and reflecting voter concerns over economic issues and the Ukraine war.

May

On May 2, published a leaked draft majority opinion from the in the case Dobbs v. , authored by Justice , which argued that the Constitution does not confer a right to and proposed overturning both (1973) and (1992); the leak, sourced from an unidentified individual with access to the court's internal deliberations, sparked immediate protests and debates over judicial integrity. The ongoing intensified around key sites, with Russian forces completing the capture of by mid-May after a months-long siege; on May 16–20, approximately 2,000 Ukrainian soldiers and civilians, including wounded fighters from the Azov Regiment, were evacuated from the Azovstal steel plant under UN and Red Cross mediation, marking the effective end of organized Ukrainian resistance in the city, which had suffered extensive destruction and an estimated 20,000 civilian deaths. On May 9, Russia held its annual parade in Moscow's , where President delivered a speech justifying the "special military operation" in as a defensive response to expansion and historical threats, though he stopped short of announcing full mobilization or nuclear escalation despite prior rhetoric. In the United States, two mass shootings drew national attention: on May 14, a gunman motivated by racial animosity killed 10 and injured 3 others at a supermarket in , in an attack live-streamed and accompanied by a espousing "great replacement" theory; the perpetrator, an 18-year-old white supremacist, was charged with federal hate crimes. Ten days later, on May 24, 19 children and 2 teachers were killed at Robb Elementary School in , by a gunman who entered with a legally purchased AR-15-style ; response delays exceeding 70 minutes, involving over 300 rounds fired by the shooter, prompted investigations into police inaction and renewed debates on school security and firearm access. Sri Lanka's economic crisis reached a , with widespread protests forcing Prime Minister to resign on May 9 amid fuel shortages, exceeding 50%, and foreign debt defaults; the unrest, rooted in policy mismanagement including tax cuts and import dependencies, led to President Gotabaya Rajapaksa's flight from the country later in July, though May marked peak demonstrations involving hundreds of thousands. Concurrently, the first cases of monkeypox outside endemic African regions were confirmed in the UK on May 6, with over 100 cases reported globally by month's end across , , and , primarily among men who have sex with men; the noted human-to-human transmission via close contact, prompting stockpiling without declaring an at that stage. Other notable developments included U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi's visit to on May 1, where she met President and pledged continued military aid amid the war; the in , , on May 10–14, won by Ukraine's with the song "Stefania," reflecting public sympathy for the invaded nation; and ongoing civil trials, such as the defamation case between actors and , which featured testimony throughout May and concluded with a June verdict favoring Depp on most counts.

June

On June 1, a jury delivered its verdict in the defamation trial between actors and , finding that Heard's 2018 Washington Post , in which she described herself as a victim of domestic abuse without naming Depp, defamed him on all three counts, awarding Depp $10 million in compensatory damages and $5 million in punitive damages (later reduced to $350,000 under law). The jury also found in favor of Heard on one of Depp's three counts against her, awarding her $2 million in compensatory damages for a statement by Depp's former attorney calling her claims a . From June 2 to 5, the celebrated Queen Elizabeth II's , marking her 70 years on the throne—the first British monarch to achieve this milestone—with events including on June 2, a thanksgiving service at on June 3, a concert at on June 4, and a pageant on June 5 featuring 6,000 participants, culminating in the Queen's balcony appearance. The four-day weekend drew millions of spectators and highlighted the monarchy's continuity amid health concerns for the 96-year-old sovereign, who limited her public engagements. Throughout June, Russian forces intensified their offensive in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine, focusing on the city of Severodonetsk, where street fighting and artillery barrages led to heavy Ukrainian casualties and infrastructure destruction; by June 24, Ukrainian commanders ordered a withdrawal to more defensible positions across the Siverskyi Donets River, allowing Russian troops to claim full control of the city by June 25—their most significant territorial gain since the fall of Mariupol in May. Ukrainian forces inflicted substantial Russian losses, estimated at thousands killed or wounded, while holding adjacent Lysychansk and disrupting Russian supply lines through counterstrikes. On June 9, the House Select Committee investigating the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack began its series of prime-time public hearings, presenting evidence of former President Donald Trump's efforts to challenge the 2020 election results, including pressure on state officials and Vice President , though the committee's Democratic-majority composition drew criticisms of partisanship and selective evidence. On June 24, the U.S. ruled 6–3 in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization that the makes no reference to and does not guarantee a right to it, overruling (1973) and (1992), and returning regulatory authority to the states; the decision upheld Mississippi's 15-week ban and prompted immediate restrictions or bans in multiple states, while sparking protests and legal challenges nationwide. From June 28 to 30, leaders convened in , , for the alliance's summit, adopting a new Strategic Concept that identified as the "most significant and direct threat" to members' security for the first time since the , committing to enhanced deterrence including new battlegroups in eight eastern member states, increased defense spending targets, and support for Ukraine's defense against the invasion; the summit also advanced Finland's and Sweden's accession processes amid their applications following 's actions.

July

On July 7, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced his resignation as leader of the Conservative Party amid a mass revolt by ministers over ethics scandals, including his handling of lockdown parties and the appointment of Chris Pincher despite known misconduct allegations. Johnson had faced multiple no-confidence votes and declining public support following Brexit implementation challenges and economic pressures, leading to over 50 ministerial resignations in 48 hours that forced his exit. He remained in office until a successor was chosen, with Liz Truss ultimately selected on September 5. The following day, July 8, former was assassinated while delivering a campaign speech in , shot twice in the chest and neck by a suspect using a homemade gun. , who had served as Japan's longest-tenured from 2012 to 2020, died shortly after from blood loss despite resuscitation efforts; the attacker, , cited personal grievances linked to Abe's perceived associations with the . The killing shocked , where is rare, prompting heightened security for political figures and investigations into Abe's church ties, which fueled public scrutiny of religious-political influence. In , the ongoing economic crisis intensified with massive protests against government mismanagement of debt, fuel shortages, and exceeding 50%, culminating in the storming of President Gotabaya Rajapaksa's residence and office on July 9. Rajapaksa fled the country on July 12, initially attempting to depart via the before reaching ; he formally resigned on via , marking the first mid-term presidential ouster in Sri Lankan . The crisis stemmed from years of fiscal deficits, tax cuts, and reliance on unsustainable borrowing, exacerbated by tourism losses and the war's impact on imports, leading to interim leadership under as prime minister. Scientific progress marked the month with the release of the first full-color images from the on July 12, including the deepest infrared view of the universe ever captured, revealing thousands of galaxies in the SMACS 0723 cluster from 4.6 billion years ago. The $10 billion observatory, launched in December 2021, provided unprecedented data on early cosmic structures, atmospheres, and , surpassing Hubble's capabilities and advancing understanding of the universe's expansion and composition. Other notable developments included the men's singles final on July 10, where defeated 4–6, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6(3) to claim his seventh title and 21st . On July 22, and signed a UN-brokered allowing safe export of 22 million tons of Ukrainian grain annually to alleviate global food shortages amid the war. The Summit from July 28–30 reinforced alliance commitments, designating as the primary threat and inviting and Sweden's accession processes.

August

On August 1, the first grain ship departed from , , under a United Nations-brokered agreement that temporarily lifted Russia's naval blockade of ports to alleviate global food supply disruptions caused by the ongoing war. This deal aimed to export millions of tons of Ukrainian grain amid fears of famine in Africa and elsewhere. On August 2, U.S. Speaker arrived in for a meeting with President , marking the first such visit by a U.S. speaker in 25 years and prompting immediate military drills by in response, escalating tensions over the . August 4 saw a Russian court convict U.S. basketball player of drug smuggling, sentencing her to nine years in prison after she was arrested at a with cannabis oil vape cartridges; the case heightened U.S.- frictions amid the conflict. That same day, a U.S. court ordered host to pay nearly $4.1 million in compensatory damages to Elementary School parents for defamation over his false claims that the 2012 shooting was a hoax. In , monsoon floods, which began in June but intensified through August, had by early August killed over 1,000 people, displaced more than 1 million, and submerged vast areas due to record rainfall exceeding 190% of normal levels in some regions, exacerbating economic strain in the country. On August 5, explosions at a fuel depot in , , triggered by a killed at least 16 firefighters and injured over 100, prompting a and highlighting vulnerabilities in the island's infrastructure. A brief took effect in on August 7 after clashes between and Palestinian militants killed 43 people over three days, though violations quickly resumed. The U.S. Senate passed the on the same day, a $740 billion package including $370 billion for climate initiatives, tax reforms, and drug price caps, which President Biden signed into law on August 16. The executed a at former President Donald Trump's residence in on August 8, seizing documents as part of an into the handling of classified materials; the raid, authorized by a federal judge, recovered items including binders of photos and over 11,000 documents from storage areas. Author was stabbed multiple times on August 12 while preparing to speak at the in , suffering severe injuries including loss of sight in one eye; the attacker, Matar, was charged with attempted murder and had cited inspiration from Iran's 1989 against Rushdie over . International Atomic Energy Agency Director General Rafael Grossi warned on August 18 of risks akin to "another " at Ukraine's , Europe's largest, amid Russian occupation and crossfire damaging power lines and raising fears of a radiological incident. Former Malaysian Prime Minister began a 12-year prison sentence on August 23 after conviction on and charges related to the 1MDB scandal, involving billions in misappropriated funds. Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the who initiated glasnost and perestroika reforms leading to the USSR's dissolution and the end of the , died on August 30 at age 91 following a long illness, as announced by Moscow's Central Clinical Hospital; his death prompted mixed reactions, with Western leaders praising his role in détente while Russian officials under Putin criticized his legacy for weakening the state. In U.S. politics, Democrat won a special election on August 31 to become the first Alaska Native and first woman to represent in Congress, defeating Republican in a ranked-choice vote. The reported on the same day that had committed against Muslims in , including mass detention and forced labor, based on evidence from , testimonies, and documents.

September

On September 1, an assassination attempt targeted Argentina's when Fernando André Sabag Montiel fired a at her from close range during a event in ; the weapon misfired, sparing her life, and Montiel was arrested along with two accomplices. The incident stemmed from political tensions, with Fernández alleging a plot linked to judicial and media opponents. On September 6, Liz Truss was appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom by the newly ascended King Charles III, succeeding Boris Johnson following his resignation amid party scandals and economic pressures. Truss's ascension marked a shift toward more interventionist economic policies, including planned tax cuts that later contributed to market turmoil. Queen Elizabeth II died on September 8 at in , aged 96, after a 70-year reign—the longest of any British monarch—ending an era of relative constitutional stability. Her death prompted a 10-day period of national mourning across the UK and Commonwealth, with her coffin lying in state at from September 14 to 19, drawing over 250,000 mourners despite queues exceeding five miles. The state funeral occurred on September 19 at , attended by over 2,000 dignitaries including 500 world leaders; the event, broadcast globally, cost an estimated £162 million and featured a procession involving 142 sailors towing the gun carriage. Charles III's accession formalized the transition, though underlying debates on monarchy's relevance persisted amid republican sentiments in realms like . On September 16, , a 22-year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman, died in after her arrest three days earlier by the Gasht-e Ershad morality police for allegedly improper wearing; Iranian authorities claimed a pre-existing heart condition caused her death, but medical evidence and witness accounts indicated blows to the head and body inflicted in custody. A fact-finding mission later concluded the death resulted from state-inflicted physical violence, sparking nationwide protests under the slogan "" that challenged the Islamic Republic's enforcement of compulsory veiling and broader authoritarian controls. Demonstrations, initially at Amini's funeral in , escalated into clashes in over 100 cities, with protesters burning hijabs and security forces responding with live fire, tear gas, and mass arrests; by late September, at least 200 deaths were reported by monitors, though Iranian state media downplayed figures amid internet blackouts. The protests represented a rare direct challenge to the regime's gender policies, rooted in causal failures of enforcement mechanisms that prioritize ideological conformity over individual rights, with women's defiance highlighting systemic repression rather than isolated incidents. On September 21, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced a partial mobilization of 300,000 reservists in response to setbacks in the Ukraine invasion, prompting an exodus of over 300,000 draft-eligible men fleeing the country and international condemnation for escalating the conflict. The for assassinated former Prime Minister occurred on September 27 at in , attended by over 1,000 foreign dignitaries but marred by public protests over its ¥16.5 million cost (about $115,000 USD at the time) and Abe's Liberal Democratic Party's ties to the controversial . The event, the first state funeral for a leader since 1967, honored Abe's role in economic reforms like but fueled opposition due to perceived favoritism toward nationalist elements and church influence scandals exposed post-assassination. Other events included making landfall in on September 6, killing at least 10 and causing widespread flooding.

October

On October 1, Ukrainian forces encircled and prompted the retreat of Russian troops from Lyman, a key rail hub in that Russia had captured in May, marking a major advance in Ukraine's eastern counteroffensive. President confirmed the city's full liberation the following day, with Ukrainian troops raising the amid reports of heavy Russian during the withdrawal. The operation disrupted Russian supply lines toward and , highlighting vulnerabilities in Moscow's defensive positions despite prior claims of consolidation in the region. Recovery efforts from , which had made landfall in as a Category 4 storm on September 28, persisted into early October, with over 2 million customers still without power on October 2 and widespread flooding affecting coastal areas from to Fort Myers. The storm caused at least 100 deaths in the U.S., primarily from and , and inflicted an estimated $112 billion in damages, ranking it among the costliest U.S. hurricanes on record. Federal disaster declarations enabled aid distribution, though infrastructure repairs, including to sewage systems and bridges, extended disruptions for weeks. The Nobel Prizes for 2022 were announced from October 3 to 10, recognizing advancements in science, literature, peace, and economics. On October 3, the Physiology or Medicine prize went to for his research on and genomes, elucidating through sequencing. The Physics prize on October 4 was awarded jointly to , John F. Clauser, and for experiments with entangled photons, affirming principles and enabling technologies like . Chemistry on October 5 honored Carolyn R. Bertozzi, Morten Meldal, and K. Barry Sharpless for developing and bioorthogonal reactions, facilitating precise studies. Literature on October 6 went to for her autobiographical works exploring personal memory and in . The Peace Prize on October 7 recognized of , the Russian human rights group , and Ukraine's Center for Civil Liberties for defending against amid ongoing conflicts. Economics on October 10 was given to Ben S. Bernanke, Douglas W. Diamond, and for analyses of banking crises and mechanisms. On October 8, an explosion damaged the Kerch Bridge connecting to occupied , killing three people and disrupting a vital supply artery for Russian forces in , with Ukrainian officials claiming responsibility while Russia attributed it to a truck bomb. responded on October 10 with its largest aerial assault of the war, launching over 80 missiles and 24 drones at Ukrainian energy facilities, causing blackouts in and other cities affecting millions. In Brazil's general election first round on October 2, incumbent President Jair Bolsonaro received 43.2% of the vote against 48.4% for Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, forcing a runoff on October 30 that Lula won with 50.9%, marking a shift back to left-leaning leadership after Bolsonaro's term amid disputes over electoral integrity. On October 12, a Connecticut court ordered Infowars host Alex Jones to pay $965 million in damages to Sandy Hook families for defamation, following his false claims that the 2012 shooting was a hoax, with additional punitive awards bringing the total near $1.5 billion across trials. Formula 1 driver secured his second consecutive World Drivers' Championship on October 23 at the in , after finishing second behind teammate , amid controversies over .

November

On November 8, the held midterm elections, resulting in Republicans gaining a narrow majority in the with 222 seats to Democrats' 213, while Democrats retained control of the with 51 seats to Republicans' 49. Voter turnout was approximately 46% of eligible voters, lower than presidential years, amid debates over , immigration, and crime. In the , Russian forces announced a withdrawal from the city of on November 9, completing the retreat to the eastern bank of the River by November 11, marking the abandonment of the only regional capital captured early in the invasion. The move followed Ukrainian counteroffensives and supply line pressures, with Russian forces destroying infrastructure like bridges to hinder advances. The FTX filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on November 11, amid revelations of an $8 billion shortfall in customer funds and close ties to its hedge fund , leading to CEO Sam Bankman-Fried's resignation. The collapse triggered a broader crypto market downturn, with FTX's valuation dropping from $32 billion earlier in the year, exposing risks in unregulated digital asset platforms. The Summit convened in , , from November 15 to 16, where leaders issued a declaration addressing global crises including the aftermath, inflation, and the conflict, but stopped short of explicitly condemning Russia's invasion, reflecting divisions among members. Discussions emphasized sustainable recovery and , with commitments to for low-income countries. COP27, held in Sharm El-Sheikh, , from to 20, concluded with an to establish a loss and damage fund for climate-vulnerable nations, though details on funding sources and amounts remained unresolved, and no new binding commitments emerged on emissions reductions to limit warming to 1.5°C. Progress on goals was noted, but critics highlighted persistent gaps in pledges. The commenced in on November 20, the first held in the and during the northern hemisphere winter to avoid summer heat, featuring 32 teams across 64 matches ending December 18. The tournament faced pre-event scrutiny over labor conditions and , with reporting over 6.5 million migrant workers involved in infrastructure. On November 30, publicly released , a conversational AI model based on GPT-3.5, which rapidly gained over one million users within days, demonstrating advanced capabilities while raising concerns about misinformation and ethical use.

December

On December 7, Chinese authorities announced the abandonment of key elements of the strategy, including the end of mandatory quarantines for positive cases, mass testing requirements, and restrictions on movement between cities, following widespread protests against lockdowns. This shift marked a rapid transition to allowing the virus to spread more freely, leading to a surge in cases; cities like reported up to 530,000 daily infections by December 24. The policy reversal was driven by economic strain and public dissent, though official narratives emphasized campaigns for the elderly as a precondition. In , President attempted to dissolve and declare a on December 7, citing obstruction of his ; rejected the move, impeached him for rebellion, and he was arrested after failing to appear. Vice President assumed the presidency, prompting protests demanding her resignation and new elections, which escalated into violence with at least 18 deaths by December 15. The government declared a national on December 14 to curb unrest, amid accusations of authoritarian overreach from both Castillo's supporters and critics who viewed his actions as an autogolpe. The knockout stages dominated early December, with defeating 1–0 on December 10 to become the first African and Arab nation to reach the semifinals. The final on December 18 saw triumph over France 3–3 after extra time, winning 4–2 on penalties for their third title; scored twice, cementing his legacy. In the Russia-Ukraine war, explosions damaged airbases on December 5, killing three and wounding five, attributed to drone strikes far from the front lines. launched a massive barrage of 76 missiles on December 16, targeting Ukraine's energy infrastructure and leaving millions without power, including in . President Volodymyr Zelensky visited the on December 21, addressing to secure additional aid; the U.S. announced $1.85 billion in military support shortly after. Scientific milestones included the U.S. Department of Energy announcing on December 13 that scientists at achieved the first controlled reaction yielding net energy gain, producing 3.15 megajoules from 2.05 megajoules input. At the UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15) in , 190 countries agreed on December 19 to protect 30% of global land and oceans by 2030, though implementation details faced criticism for lacking enforcement mechanisms. Other notable developments included the prisoner swap on December 8 between the U.S. and , exchanging WNBA player for arms dealer . Brazilian soccer legend died on December 29 at age 82 from complications of colon cancer, having scored 1,279 goals in his career. In , parliament passed a criminal code on December 6 banning extramarital sex, punishable by up to one year in prison, drawing international human rights concerns.

Notable births and deaths

Notable births

Techno Mechanicus Musk, the son of and musician (Claire Elise Boucher), was born in June 2022 via surrogate; the child is nicknamed Tau and represents Musk's eighth known child at the time. Cy Maroney, the first child of actress and art dealer Cooke Maroney, was born in February 2022. RZA Athelston Mayers, the son of singer (Robyn Fenty) and rapper A$AP Rocky (Rakim Mayers), was born on May 13, 2022, marking the couple's first child together. Other notable births included children of celebrities such as actor and author (Eloise Christina, born June 21), though these primarily gained attention due to parental prominence rather than independent achievements, as the individuals were infants at the time.

Notable deaths

In 2022, numerous influential figures across politics, entertainment, sports, and science died, marking the end of significant eras in global history. Among the most prominent was Queen Elizabeth II, who reigned for 70 years as the United Kingdom's monarch until her death on September 8 at age 96 from old age. Her passing prompted widespread mourning and constitutional transitions in the realms. Other key political losses included former Japanese Shinzo , assassinated on July 8 at age 67 during a campaign speech in by a gunman motivated by personal grievances against Abe's perceived ties to a religious group; Abe had been instrumental in Japan's economic revival policies known as . U.S. diplomat , the first woman to serve as , died on March 23 at age 84 from cancer, having shaped American during the administration amid post-Cold War expansions of . In entertainment, actor , the first Black man to win a Oscar for Lilies of the Field (1963), died on January 6 at age 94, leaving a legacy of breaking racial barriers in Hollywood. Director , known for films like , passed on January 11 at age 82 from natural causes. Singer , a pioneer with hits like "Coal Miner's Daughter," died on October 4 at age 90. Fleetwood Mac's died on November 30 at age 79 from a , contributing to the band's enduring rock sound. Sports icon , the Brazilian soccer legend who won three World Cups and scored over 1,000 goals, died on December 29 at age 82 after battling colon cancer, solidifying his status as one of the game's greatest players. Comedian died unexpectedly on January 9 at age 65 from head trauma, best known for . These deaths, verified across multiple outlets, highlight 2022's toll on cultural icons, with causes ranging from natural decline to violence.

Awards and recognition

Nobel Prizes

The Nobel Prizes in 2022 recognized advancements across scientific, literary, peace, and economic fields, with announcements occurring in October and ceremonies in December. The was awarded jointly to of , John F. Clauser of the , and of "for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering ." Their work demonstrated quantum entanglement's implications, challenging classical notions of locality and in physics. In Chemistry, the prize went to Carolyn R. Bertozzi of the , Morten Meldal of , and K. Barry Sharpless of the "for the development of and ." enables efficient molecule assembly, while allow reactions in living organisms without disrupting natural processes, advancing and diagnostics. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Svante Pääbo of "for his discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and ." Pääbo's techniques for sequencing revealed interbreeding between Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans, illuminating genetic contributions to human adaptation. Annie Ernaux of France received the "for the courage and clinical acuity with which she uncovers the roots, estrangements and collective restraints of personal memory." Her autobiographical works explore class, gender, and social dynamics in post-World War II France through precise, unflinching prose. The was shared by of , the Russian organization , and the Ukrainian Center for Civil Liberties "for their efforts to document war crimes, human right abuses and resistance against in their respective countries." founded Belarus's leading human rights group; preserved Soviet-era atrocity records and opposed Russia's actions; the Center monitored abuses in , particularly amid the ongoing conflict. In Economic Sciences, Ben S. Bernanke, Douglas W. Diamond, and , all of the , were honored "for research on banks and financial crises." Their models explained bank runs and the role of banks in liquidity provision, with Bernanke's analysis of the informing modern crisis responses.

Other significant awards

The Fields Medals, the highest honor in mathematics awarded every four years to mathematicians under 40, were presented on July 5, 2022, at the in , . The recipients were of the in , recognized for resolving a two-century-old problem concerning the in the three-dimensional using innovative techniques; of in the United States, honored for developing powerful connections between and , including proofs of the Dowling–Wilson conjecture and Rota’s conjecture; James Maynard of the in the , awarded for advancing the understanding of the distribution of prime numbers, particularly through bounds on gaps between primes; and of the in , celebrated for proving the densest packing of spheres in eight dimensions using modular forms. The ceremony occurred on March 27, 2022, at the in , , where won Best Picture for its portrayal of a deaf family's dynamics. received Best Actress for The Eyes of Tammy Faye, won Best Actor for King Richard following his onstage altercation with , and earned Best Director for . The 64th Annual Grammy Awards took place on April 3, 2022, in Las Vegas, Nevada, with Jon Batiste's We Are securing Album of the Year for its blend of jazz, soul, and funk influences. Silk Sonic (Bruno Mars and Anderson .Paak) won Record of the Year and Song of the Year for "Leave the Door Open," while Olivia Rodrigo was named Best New Artist. The Pulitzer Prizes were announced on May 9, 2022, with Joshua Cohen's novel taking the Fiction category for its satirical depiction of a 1960s academic encounter. Andrea Elliott's Invisible Child: Poverty, Survival & Hope in an American City won General Nonfiction, based on her investigative reporting on a homeless family.