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Wassermann test

The Wassermann test is a serological diagnostic assay for syphilis, introduced in 1906 as the first blood-based method to detect reagin antibodies produced in response to infection with the causative spirochete Treponema pallidum through a complement fixation reaction.^[1] Developed by August von Wassermann, Albert Neisser, and Carl Bruck at the Robert Koch Institute for Infectious Diseases, it represented a pioneering advancement in serological testing for infectious diseases, enabling earlier and more reliable identification of syphilis compared to prior clinical observation alone.^[2]^[1] The test's principle relies on the interaction between patient serum antibodies, a specific antigen derived from syphilitic liver or heart tissue extracts (later standardized using cardiolipin, lecithin, and cholesterol from bovine sources), complement proteins, and indicator sheep red blood cells sensitized with hemolysin.^[3] In the presence of reagin antibodies, complement is fixed and consumed, preventing hemolysis of the indicator cells; the degree of hemolysis (graded from 0 to 4) inversely indicates antibody levels and thus infection status.^[3] Historically, it played a crucial role in public health efforts, facilitating widespread screening, contact tracing, and monitoring of treatment efficacy during the early 20th-century syphilis epidemics.^[2] Despite its impact, the Wassermann test exhibited significant limitations, including lower sensitivity in primary syphilis (detecting only about 70–80% of cases)^[4] and late latent stages, as well as frequent biological false positives triggered by conditions like autoimmune diseases, pregnancy, or other infections due to its nonspecific reaction with host lipoidal antigens.^[3] Technical variability in antigen preparation and complement sourcing further reduced reproducibility until later refinements.^[1] By the mid-20th century, these shortcomings led to its replacement by more automated, sensitive, and specific nontreponemal tests (e.g., Rapid Plasma Reagin and Venereal Disease Research Laboratory) and treponemal assays (e.g., Treponema pallidum particle agglutination), which form the backbone of modern syphilis diagnostic algorithms recommended by health authorities.^[1] Today, the Wassermann test holds primarily historical significance, underscoring the evolution of serological diagnostics from qualitative complement-based methods to quantitative, point-of-care technologies.^[3]

Introduction

Definition and Purpose

The Wassermann test is a nontreponemal complement fixation test designed to detect reagin antibodies, which are non-specific autoantibodies produced in response to syphilis infection, in serum or cerebrospinal fluid.^[5]^[3] Developed in 1906 by August von Wassermann and colleagues, it represented the first practical serological blood test for diagnosing an infectious disease, specifically syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum.^[1]^[3] The primary purpose of the Wassermann test was to screen for and diagnose syphilis, particularly in its latent and tertiary stages where clinical symptoms may be absent or subtle, enabling earlier intervention in an era before antibiotics.^[6]^[1] Unlike treponemal-specific tests that target direct antibodies against the pathogen, the Wassermann test identifies these broader reagin responses, which arise from host lipid damage during infection and react with cardiolipin-based antigens.^[5]^[3] This complement fixation-based approach laid the groundwork for subsequent serological diagnostics, though its reliance on non-specific antibodies introduced challenges in specificity that later tests addressed.^[1]

Historical Significance

The Wassermann test, developed in 1906, represented a pivotal advancement in serology by providing the first reliable serological method for detecting syphilis through complement fixation, thereby marking a fundamental shift from reliance on clinical observation to laboratory-based diagnosis of infectious diseases.^[7] This innovation enabled the identification of asymptomatic cases, which had previously gone undetected, transforming the approach to syphilis management from symptomatic treatment to proactive screening and early intervention.^[8] The test's introduction facilitated widespread syphilis control efforts, particularly through mandatory screening programs that became integral to public health strategies in the early 20th century. In the United States, it underpinned premarital blood testing laws, beginning with Connecticut in 1935 and extending to nearly all states by the end of World War II, remaining a requirement for marriage licenses in many jurisdictions until the mid-20th century.^[7] These policies symbolized a broader application of serological testing to influence global health practices, positioning marriage as a checkpoint for preventing disease transmission and encouraging similar legislative measures worldwide.^[9] A key event highlighting the test's epidemiological impact was its role in post-World War I syphilis control, where mandatory testing in military drafts and civilian populations revealed high infection rates—such as 13% among U.S. draftees—and contributed to a dramatic decline in incidence through targeted treatment campaigns.^[10] Combined with emerging therapies like arsphenamine, the Wassermann test supported public health initiatives, such as the 1918 Chamberlain-Kahn Act and later urban screening drives, which identified tens of thousands of cases and helped reduce syphilis prevalence from widespread levels in the early 1900s to significantly lower rates by the 1930s.^[11]

Scientific Basis

Complement Fixation Principle

The complement fixation principle is a foundational immunological assay that detects specific antigen-antibody interactions through the consumption of complement proteins, a group of serum factors essential for immune-mediated cell lysis. In this mechanism, when an antibody binds to its corresponding antigen, the resulting immune complex activates the classical complement pathway, binding and depleting available complement components. This depletion prevents complement from participating in a controlled hemolytic indicator reaction, where the absence of hemolysis signals a positive test for the presence of the antibody or antigen. The principle exploits the lytic potential of complement while using it as an indirect reporter of immune complex formation.^[12] This concept originated from the work of Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou, who in 1901 identified complement as a heat-labile component of normal serum required for antibody-mediated bacteriolysis and demonstrated its fixation by immune complexes. Their discovery established that complement is non-specifically consumed during antigen-antibody binding, providing a sensitive means to quantify such interactions without direct observation of the complexes themselves. Bordet and Gengou's experiments showed that pre-incubation of serum with antigen and antibody abolished the serum's ability to support hemolysis, laying the groundwork for diagnostic applications. The specific process in complement fixation assays, such as the Wassermann test, utilizes an indicator system involving sheep red blood cells sensitized with hemolysin, an antibody that prepares the cells for complement-mediated lysis. In the absence of fixation, added complement binds to the sensitized cells via the classical pathway, triggering the formation of the membrane attack complex and resulting in observable hemolysis. However, if the patient's serum contains syphilis-associated reagin that binds to the added cardiolipin antigen, the resulting complex initiates the classical pathway cascade: C1q recognizes and binds the Fc regions of the antibodies in the complex, activating C1r and C1s proteases, which cleave C4 and C2 to generate C3 convertase (C4b2a). This enzyme cleaves C3, leading to downstream activation of C5-C9 and full consumption of complement, thereby inhibiting hemolysis and indicating a positive reaction for syphilis exposure. This cascade ensures specific and amplifiable detection, as even low levels of immune complexes can deplete sufficient complement to alter the indicator outcome.^[12]^[6]

Antigens and Reagents

The primary antigen in the Wassermann test is cardiolipin, a phospholipid extracted from beef heart, which is mixed with cholesterol and lecithin to form a stable complex capable of binding reagin antibodies produced in response to syphilis infection.^[1] This formulation, developed following the identification of cardiolipin by Mary C. Pangborn in 1941, replaced earlier crude extracts from syphilitic liver or heart tissue and improved the test's specificity by mimicking the lipoidal antigens released during Treponema pallidum-induced host tissue damage.^[13] The cholesterol enhances the antigen's solubility and stability in alcoholic suspension, while lecithin, a phosphorylcholine-containing phospholipid also derived from beef heart, facilitates the flocculation or fixation reaction with antibodies.^[14] Reagin, the target antibody detected by the test, consists of non-treponemal autoantibodies (primarily IgG and IgM) generated not against the Treponema pallidum bacterium itself but as a response to lipid antigens exposed by tissue damage in syphilitic lesions.^[5] These antibodies react with the cardiolipin-lecithin-cholesterol complex, distinguishing the Wassermann test as a nontreponemal assay focused on indirect markers of infection rather than treponemal-specific immunity.^[1] Additional reagents include patient serum as the source of reagin, fresh guinea pig serum providing complement proteins essential for the fixation reaction, washed sheep erythrocytes serving as indicator cells to visualize complement activity through hemolysis, and rabbit-derived anti-sheep hemolysin (amboceptor) to sensitize the erythrocytes for lysis if unbound complement remains.^[5] These components interact via the complement fixation principle, where reagin-antigen binding consumes complement, preventing hemolysis of the sensitized sheep cells.^[15] Early formulations of the Wassermann antigen faced significant standardization challenges due to variability in crude tissue extracts, leading to inconsistent reactivity and reproducibility across laboratories until the purified cardiolipin-based mixture was adopted.^[1] This variability stemmed from differences in extraction methods and source materials, prompting efforts in the 1920s and 1930s to establish uniform antigen preparations for more reliable serological diagnosis.^[16]

Test Procedure

Sample Preparation

The Wassermann test requires biological samples primarily consisting of venous blood for serum analysis or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for detecting neurosyphilis. Venous blood is collected via sterile venipuncture, typically drawing a minimum volume of 5 to 10 mL to ensure sufficient serum yield after processing, as smaller amounts may limit the number of tests performable.^[17]^[1] CSF samples, used specifically to identify central nervous system involvement in syphilis, are obtained through lumbar puncture, with approximately 1 to 5 mL collected to accommodate the test requirements while minimizing patient risk.^[18]^[1] Following collection, blood samples are allowed to clot at room temperature for 30 to 60 minutes to facilitate serum separation. The clotted blood is then subjected to centrifugation at approximately 1,000 to 2,000 revolutions per minute for 10 to 15 minutes to yield clear serum, removing cellular debris and ensuring a particle-free sample essential for accurate complement fixation.^[19]^[20] The separated serum undergoes heat inactivation by incubation in a water bath at 56°C for 30 minutes, a critical step to destroy the patient's endogenous complement activity without affecting reagin antibodies, thereby preventing interference in the subsequent reaction.^[21]^[22] CSF samples require similar clarification via low-speed centrifugation if turbidity is present, though heat inactivation is often omitted or adjusted due to the fluid's lower protein content.^[1] Prepared samples must be stored under controlled conditions to maintain reagin stability prior to testing. Serum is refrigerated at 4°C and can be held for up to 48 hours without significant loss of reactivity, beyond which freezing at -20°C is recommended to preserve activity for longer periods.^[1]^[23] CSF samples follow analogous refrigeration protocols, with testing ideally performed promptly to avoid degradation of complement-fixing components.^[1]

Execution and Interpretation

The execution of the Wassermann test begins with the mixture of inactivated patient serum, specific antigen (typically cardiolipin combined with cholesterol and lecithin), and a standardized amount of complement sourced from guinea pig serum. This combination is incubated in a water bath at 37°C for one hour to facilitate the binding of antibodies, if present, to the antigen and the subsequent fixation of complement by the resulting immune complexes.^[19]^[5] Following the primary incubation, sensitized sheep erythrocytes—coated with anti-sheep hemolysin (amboceptor)—are added to each tube, and the mixture undergoes a secondary incubation at 37°C for 30 to 60 minutes. Hemolysis is then visually assessed: the indicator red blood cells serve to detect whether complement remains available, as free complement in the presence of hemolysin causes cell lysis.^[8]^[5] Interpretation relies on the extent of hemolysis observed after centrifugation. Complete hemolysis indicates a negative result, signifying that no antigen-antibody reaction occurred and complement was available to lyse the indicator cells. Partial or absent hemolysis denotes a positive result, as complement was fixed by specific complexes and unavailable for the hemolytic reaction; results are graded from 1+ (minimal inhibition, nearly complete lysis) to 4+ (no lysis, strong positive) based on the degree of inhibition.^[5]^[8] To ensure validity, the test incorporates controls, including tubes with known positive and negative sera, as well as checks for complement activity, antigen potency, and the hemolytic system itself; these confirm that reagents function correctly and that non-specific reactions are absent.^[19]^[5] The Wassermann test exists in qualitative and quantitative forms. The qualitative version provides a binary or graded outcome from undiluted serum, while the quantitative variant involves serial twofold dilutions of the serum to establish a titer—the reciprocal of the highest dilution yielding a positive reaction—which helps gauge antibody levels and disease progression.^[1]^[5]

Limitations and Reliability

Sources of Error

The Wassermann test, as a complement fixation assay, is susceptible to technical errors arising from variations in laboratory procedures. Improper titration of reagents, such as complement or antigen, can lead to incomplete fixation or false negatives by failing to achieve the optimal balance required for the reaction.^[24] Fluctuations in incubation temperature, ideally maintained at 37°C, may disrupt the binding kinetics between reagin antibodies, cardiolipin-lecithin-cholesterol antigen, and complement, resulting in inconsistent hemolysis outcomes and reduced reproducibility.^[25] Contamination of reagents or samples with hemolytic substances can cause non-specific complement fixation, mimicking positive results through unintended inhibition of sheep red blood cell lysis.^[26] Biological factors in patient serum also contribute significantly to inaccuracies. The prozone phenomenon occurs when excess reagin antibodies overwhelm the antigen, preventing lattice formation and leading to false negatives, particularly in high-titer cases during secondary syphilis.^[27] Anticomplementary activity, where serum components like immune complexes or bacterial contaminants inactivate complement independently of specific antigen-antibody reactions, can produce invalid results by causing excessive hemolysis inhibition in control tubes.^[28] These serum-related issues necessitate dilution protocols or absorption steps to mitigate interference. The test's sensitivity varies across syphilis stages, reflecting biological limitations in reagin production. In primary syphilis, sensitivity is approximately 70-85% due to insufficient reagin levels early in infection, increasing to nearly 100% in secondary syphilis.^[29] Variability in antigen batches, stemming from differences in cardiolipin extraction purity or cholesterol ratios, further exacerbates inconsistencies, though partial standardization through defined antigenic units helped address this in later protocols.^[30] False positives can occasionally arise from non-syphilitic conditions like systemic lupus erythematosus, where autoantibodies cross-react with the lipid antigen.^[31]

Clinical Implications of Uncertainty

The unreliability of the Wassermann test, as a nontreponemal serological assay, introduced significant diagnostic uncertainty that directly influenced clinical decision-making and patient management in syphilis cases. False-positive results, occurring due to cross-reactivity with non-syphilitic conditions, often led to misdiagnosis and inappropriate initiation of treatment, particularly in the pre-antibiotic era when therapies like arsenicals carried substantial toxicity risks.^[32]^[1] Common causes of false positives included autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, infectious conditions like malaria, and physiological states including pregnancy, with biologic false-positive rates estimated at 0.2%–0.8% in general populations.^[32]^[1]^[33] These erroneous positives prompted unnecessary treatment courses, exposing patients to adverse effects without addressing the underlying non-syphilitic pathology and contributing to broader patterns of overtreatment in routine screening programs.^[32]^[34] False-negative results further compounded clinical uncertainty, particularly in early primary syphilis where insufficient reagin production results in nonreactive tests in 20–30% of cases, potentially delaying diagnosis and allowing disease progression or transmission.^[32]^[1] To mitigate this limitation, clinicians recommended pairing the Wassermann test with dark-field microscopy for direct visualization of Treponema pallidum in lesion exudates, which offered higher sensitivity in early stages.^[1]^[29] In late-stage syphilis or post-treatment scenarios, false negatives could arise from waning antibody levels, while "Wassermann-fast" cases—characterized by persistent positive reactions despite adequate therapy—created ambiguity regarding treatment efficacy and disease activity, often necessitating additional confirmatory testing to avoid undertreatment or unnecessary retreatment.^[32]^[35] In the pre-penicillin era, untreated early syphilis showed evidence of central nervous system invasion in approximately 30% of cases, and serofast states were associated with poorer prognoses, heightening the need for vigilant follow-up.^[35] The cumulative impact of these uncertainties fueled epidemics of overtreatment, as widespread Wassermann-based screening led to the administration of hazardous therapies to asymptomatic or falsely diagnosed individuals, ultimately accelerating the clinical shift toward penicillin adoption in the 1940s for its superior efficacy and safety in confirming and treating syphilis.^[36]^[37]

History and Development

Discovery

The Wassermann test, a pioneering serological diagnostic for syphilis, was developed in 1906 by German bacteriologist August von Wassermann, dermatologist Albert Neisser, and venereologist Carl Bruck at the Robert Koch Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin.^[38] Working collaboratively, Wassermann led the laboratory efforts, Neisser supplied clinical expertise and patient samples from his syphilis research, and Bruck contributed to the immunological adaptations.^[39] This breakthrough occurred amid growing recognition of syphilis as a major public health threat in early 20th-century Europe, where infection rates were estimated to affect up to 15% of the male population during the preceding century.^[40] The test's foundation drew from recent microbiological advances, particularly the 1905 identification of the syphilis-causing spirochete Treponema pallidum by Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann, which highlighted the need for reliable detection methods beyond clinical symptoms.^[41] Neisser's prior investigations into syphilis transmission and pathology provided key insights into the disease's latent stages.^[42] Crucially, the team adapted the complement fixation reaction originally described by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou in 1901, modifying it to detect reagin—a non-specific antibody-like substance produced in response to syphilitic infection—by using heart tissue extracts as antigens.^[38] First detailed in a seminal paper published on May 10, 1906, in Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, the test enabled serological screening for syphilis antibodies in blood serum, targeting especially asymptomatic carriers who posed risks for transmission and congenital infection.^[38] Its introduction marked a rapid shift in diagnostics, with widespread adoption across European laboratories within months, facilitating earlier intervention in an era when syphilis often went undetected until advanced stages.^[43] Following the initial development of the Wassermann test in 1906, refinements in the 1910s emphasized standardization of antigen preparations, particularly through the use of alcoholic extracts of beef heart combined with cholesterol to enhance sensitivity and reproducibility across laboratories.^[44] These efforts addressed early inconsistencies in antigen quality, which had led to variable results, by promoting uniform protocols for antigen titration and complement dosing as recommended by emerging national standardization committees.^[16] In the 1920s, John A. Kolmer introduced a significant modification tailored for cerebrospinal fluid analysis, incorporating a more sensitive complement fixation setup with heated serum and refined sheep red blood cell indicators to detect neurosyphilis more reliably than the original method. This Kolmer test reduced false negatives in spinal fluid samples by optimizing incubation conditions and antigen concentrations, making it a standard for central nervous system involvement in syphilis.^[45] Parallel to these refinements, alternative variants emerged to simplify the procedure while maintaining diagnostic utility. The Kahn test, developed by Reuben L. Kahn in 1923, shifted from complement fixation to a flocculation-based method using a standardized antigen suspension that produced visible precipitates, offering greater ease of performance in resource-limited settings without sacrificing sensitivity.^[46] By the 1940s, the Mazzini test introduced a rapid slide flocculation technique, employing cardiolipin-lecithin-cholesterol antigens on glass slides for quick microscopic reading, which further streamlined mass screening efforts.90429-2/abstract) Reproducibility challenges proliferated, resulting in over 50 variants of the Wassermann test by the 1930s, each tweaking antigen composition, incubation times, or reading criteria to mitigate lab-to-lab discrepancies.^[47] To resolve this, the World Health Organization convened an expert committee in 1952, establishing international standards for serological reagents and protocols that harmonized non-treponemal tests like the Wassermann derivatives for global use. Additionally, a conceptual evolution toward quantitative approaches—measuring antibody titers through serial dilutions—enabled clinicians to track treatment efficacy, with a fourfold titer decline indicating successful therapy response.^[48]

Legacy and Modern Context

Replacement Tests

The Wassermann test, a complement fixation assay introduced in 1906, was gradually replaced by more reliable nontreponemal tests starting in the 1940s due to its subjectivity in interpreting results and high rate of false positives from non-specific reagin antibodies.^[8] The Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test, developed in the early 1940s as a slide flocculation method using purified cardiolipin antigen, offered greater standardization and reproducibility, making it a key screening tool for syphilis.^[8] This was followed in the 1950s by the Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) test, a simplified version of the VDRL that used unheated serum or plasma and provided faster results with reduced preparation time.^[8] For confirmatory testing, treponemal-specific assays emerged in the 1960s, such as the Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody Absorption (FTA-ABS) test, which improved specificity by incorporating an absorption step to remove non-specific antibodies and using fluorescence microscopy to detect treponemal antibodies directly.^[8] These replacements addressed the Wassermann test's limitations, including lower false-positive rates and less operator-dependent interpretation, leading to its near-complete phase-out in clinical practice by the late 20th century.^[8] Contemporary guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) endorse a reverse sequence screening algorithm, starting with automated treponemal immunoassays followed by nontreponemal tests like RPR or VDRL for confirmation, over the traditional nontreponemal-first approach exemplified by the Wassermann test, to enhance early detection and efficiency.^[1] In the 21st century, these serologic methods have integrated with molecular diagnostics, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detecting Treponema pallidum DNA in challenging cases like congenital or neurosyphilis, and point-of-care tests that deliver rapid results in resource-limited settings to support global syphilis elimination initiatives.^[49]^[50] As of 2025, advances include dual HIV/syphilis rapid diagnostic tests scaled up in multiple countries, achieving over 90% testing coverage in some regions, and novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) targeting specific treponemal antigens to improve sensitivity in diverse populations.^[51]^[52]

Public Health Impact

By the 1930s, syphilis affected approximately 10% of the American population, with nearly half a million new infections annually, posing a major public health crisis. By facilitating serological detection in asymptomatic individuals, the test supported mandatory premarital and prenatal screening initiatives, allowing for early intervention and treatment. These efforts, combined with the advent of penicillin in the 1940s, led to a dramatic reduction in syphilis rates, dropping to under 1% in most U.S. populations by the 1950s.^[53]^[54] Despite this historical decline, syphilis cases resurged in the U.S., reaching over 207,000 reported infections in 2022—the highest since the 1950s—highlighting ongoing challenges in screening and treatment access as of 2025.^[55] The test's influence extended to key public health campaigns in the 1930s, including those led by the U.S. Public Health Service, which promoted widespread serological testing to curb syphilis transmission through education, free clinics, and legislative mandates. Internationally, it informed efforts by the League of Nations Health Organization, such as the 1930 Montevideo conference on standardizing Wassermann procedures, which aimed to harmonize syphilis control strategies across nations and reduce global incidence. These programs marked a shift toward proactive, population-based disease management, emphasizing the test's utility in resource-limited settings.^[47]^[56]^[57] The Wassermann test also contributed to significant ethical debates in public health, exemplified by its use in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972), where it monitored untreated African American men with syphilis under the guise of care, leading to preventable deaths and exposing vulnerabilities in research ethics. This and similar applications underscored the need for informed consent, equitable access, and safeguards against misuse in screening programs. Conceptually, the test laid foundational principles for serological diagnostics, influencing modern antibody-based assays for diseases like HIV by demonstrating the feasibility of large-scale, non-invasive testing while highlighting ethical imperatives for transparency and justice in implementation.^[58]^[59]^[8]

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[PDF] THE KAHN REACTION FOR SYPHILIS - MedNexus
During 1923 and 1924 this reaction was further perfected by Kahn with ... The several advantages of the Kahn over the Wassermann test are illustrated ...Missing: variant | Show results with:variant
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THE QUANTITATIVE SEROLOGIC TEST FOR SYPHILIS; ITS ...
The quantitative serologic test for syphilis; its variability, usefulness in routine diagnosis, and possible significance; a study of 1665 cases.
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PCR detection for syphilis diagnosis: Status and prospects - NIH
Here, we firstly present a mini‐review on the research of PCR detection methods used for syphilis diagnosis over the past decade.
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Advantages and limitations of current diagnostic laboratory ...
This review summarizes the major advantages and limitations of available diagnostic laboratory methods for syphilis, provides an update on recent advances in ...
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Syphilis 100 Years Later - Consult QD - Cleveland Clinic
Nov 21, 2017 · Approximately 1 out of every 10 Americans suffered from syphilis. · Each year, Americans contracted almost half a million new syphilis infections ...
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The Global Epidemiology of Syphilis in the Past Century
May 11, 2016 · Our findings were that in most populations syphilis prevalence dropped to under 1% before 1960. In the 2 populations from sub Saharan Africa, ...
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The Public Health Officer and the Control of Syphilis - American ...
use of free Wassermann service, of free arsphenamine when it is available. Let him teach us, with constant repetition of short summaries, such accepted pro-.
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Open-access The League of Nations Health Organization ... - SciELO
A major step was a laboratory meeting in Montevideo held in 1930 by the International Commission of Experts on Syphilis on Wassermann testing (Mazumdar, 2003, ...
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Unraveling the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis - JAMA Network
The TSUS was the 1932 through 1972 US Public Health Service (USPHS) study involving approximately 400 African American men with syphilis who were found ...
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[PDF] "Bad Blood:" A Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project
In 1907, the Wassermann blood test was developed, enabling physicians to diagnose the disease. Three years later, German scientist Paul Ehrlich created an ...