Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Weierstrass factorization theorem

The Weierstrass factorization theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis. It states that every entire function f(z) can be represented as f(z) = z^m e^{g(z)} P(z), where m is a non-negative integer, g(z) is an entire function, and P(z) is a canonical product formed from the zeros of f using Weierstrass elementary factors E_p.^[1] Named after the German mathematician Karl Weierstrass (1815–1897), who first published the theorem in 1876, it provides a way to factor transcendental entire functions analogous to the factorization of polynomials, ensuring convergence of the infinite product over the zeros (assuming no finite accumulation points).^[2] The theorem enables the construction of entire functions with prescribed zeros and has implications for the growth of entire functions, leading to refinements like the Hadamard factorization theorem and applications in the theory of special functions.^[1]

Introduction and Historical Context

Overview of the Theorem

The Weierstrass factorization theorem states that every entire function f(z), which is holomorphic everywhere in the complex plane, can be expressed in the form f(z) = z^m e^{g(z)} \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}\left(\frac{z}{a_n}\right), where m \geq 0 is the order of the zero at z = 0 (with m = 0 if f(0) \neq 0), g(z) is another entire function, the a_n are the non-zero zeros of f(z) repeated according to their multiplicity, and the E_{p_n} are elementary Weierstrass factors with non-negative integers p_n chosen to ensure convergence of the infinite product.^[3]^[4] An entire function is analytic on the whole complex plane \mathbb{C}, and zeros with multiplicity account for the order of each root, meaning a zero of order k at a point a is listed k times in the sequence \{a_n\}.^[3] This theorem generalizes the fundamental theorem of algebra, which factors polynomials as finite products over their roots, by extending the representation to entire functions through infinite products that converge appropriately.^[3]^[4] It reveals the deep structure of entire functions by tying their global behavior directly to the locations and multiplicities of their zeros. The factorization is unique in the sense that the zeros and their multiplicities are uniquely determined by f(z), though the entire function g(z) and the exponents p_n (which control convergence) allow for some flexibility in the representation.^[3]^[4]

Historical Development

The Weierstrass factorization theorem emerged in the mid-19th century as a rigorous advancement in complex analysis, building on foundational contributions from earlier mathematicians. Augustin-Louis Cauchy's development of the residue theorem in the 1820s and 1830s provided essential tools for understanding singularities and integrals of analytic functions, laying groundwork for later infinite product representations. Similarly, Bernhard Riemann's 1851 habilitation thesis and his 1859 paper on the distribution of prime numbers introduced concepts of analytic continuation and infinite products over zeros, such as for the Riemann zeta function, though without full rigor on convergence. These works influenced Karl Weierstrass, who sought to establish uniform convergence as a cornerstone for function theory during his studies of elliptic functions starting in the 1830s.^[2]^[5] Weierstrass formulated the theorem in the 1870s, integrating it into his broader research on elliptic functions and the need for precise control over infinite products to ensure analyticity. His approach addressed whether an entire function could be constructed from a prescribed sequence of zeros, extending the finite case of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra to infinite settings while emphasizing uniform convergence to avoid pathologies. This formulation was presented in his lectures at the University of Berlin, where he held a professorship from 1864 onward, and became a key element of his teaching on analytic functions in the 1880s.^[6]^[7] The theorem received formal publication in Weierstrass's 1876 paper, "Zur Theorie der eindeutigen analytischen Funktionen," in the Abhandlungen der Mathematischen Classe der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, which detailed the convergence criteria for infinite products of entire functions. Much of his work, including elaborations on the factorization, circulated through student notes from Berlin lectures and was posthumously compiled and edited in the 1890s by former students like Lazarus Fuchs and Otto Biermann. Recognized as a foundational result, the theorem solidified the theory of entire functions and enabled advancements like Jacques Hadamard's 1893 application to the analytic continuation of the Riemann zeta function, marking its enduring impact on modern complex analysis.^[8]^[9]^[2]

Prerequisites in Complex Analysis

Entire Functions and Their Zeroes

An entire function is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic everywhere in the complex plane \mathbb{C}.^[10] This means it is complex differentiable at every point in \mathbb{C}, with no singularities in the finite plane. Examples include all polynomials, such as z^2 + 1, which are holomorphic by virtue of being sums of powers of z, as well as transcendental functions like the exponential function \exp(z) and the sine function \sin(z), both of which admit power series expansions convergent everywhere in \mathbb{C}.^[11] A fundamental property of non-constant entire functions is given by Picard's little theorem, which states that such a function omits at most one value in the complex plane; that is, its range covers all of \mathbb{C} except possibly one point.^[12] For instance, \exp(z) never attains the value 0, illustrating the exceptional case, while \sin(z) takes every complex value infinitely often. This theorem underscores the richness of the range of entire functions, contrasting with the more restricted behavior of functions holomorphic only on bounded domains. The zeros of a non-constant entire function are isolated points in \mathbb{C} and each has finite multiplicity.^[13] Specifically, if f is entire and f(a) = 0 for some a \in \mathbb{C}, then there exists a disk around a containing no other zeros, and the multiplicity m at a is the smallest positive integer such that f^{(m)}(a) \neq 0, or equivalently, f(z) = (z - a)^m g(z) where g is holomorphic at a and g(a) \neq 0. For the zero at z = 0, the multiplicity m satisfies f(0) = f'(0) = \cdots = f^{(m-1)}(0) = 0 but f^{(m)}(0) \neq 0. Since the complex plane is unbounded, zeros may accumulate only at infinity, meaning any sequence of distinct zeros must tend to the point at infinity. Weierstrass observed that the zeros of an entire function, including their multiplicities and locations, uniquely determine the function up to multiplication by another entire function that has no zeros.^[1] This insight forms the basis for representing entire functions through their zero sets, allowing the isolation of the "zero structure" from the "exponential" or growth-determining part.

Infinite Products and Convergence

In complex analysis, an infinite product of the form \prod_{n=1}^\infty (1 + u_n(z)), where each u_n(z) is a holomorphic function, is defined through its partial products P_N(z) = \prod_{n=1}^N (1 + u_n(z)). The infinite product converges at a point z_0 if the limit \lim_{N \to \infty} P_N(z_0) exists and is nonzero, provided no partial product vanishes; otherwise, it diverges to zero or is undefined if any factor is identically zero.^[14] In the complex domain, convergence is typically considered on open sets, with the product defining a holomorphic function where the partial products converge uniformly on compact subsets.^[3] A key condition for convergence is absolute convergence, which occurs when \sum_{n=1}^\infty |u_n(z)| converges for each z in the domain. This implies the convergence of the original product, as the partial products of $1 + |u_n(z)| bound the magnitude and ensure the limit is finite and nonzero.^[14] Absolute convergence is particularly useful in the complex plane because it guarantees holomorphy in regions where the series converges uniformly.^[1] For products constructed over the zeros \{a_n\} of an entire function, Weierstrass introduced a specific convergence criterion tied to the exponent of convergence \rho = \inf \{ \lambda > 0 : \sum_{n=1}^\infty 1/|a_n|^\lambda < \infty \}, which measures the density of the zeros. The simple infinite product \prod_{n=1}^\infty (1 - z/a_n) converges uniformly on compact subsets of \mathbb{C} if \sum_{n=1}^\infty 1/|a_n| < \infty, which holds when the exponent of convergence \rho < 1. If \rho \geq 1, then exponential adjustments via Weierstrass elementary factors of positive genus are necessary to ensure convergence.^[4] To ensure convergence when the basic product fails, exponential factors are incorporated, such as \exp\left( \sum_{k=1}^p z^k / k \right) in the primary factors, which counteract the divergence of the logarithmic terms and allow the product to define an entire function for appropriate p \geq \lfloor \rho \rfloor. These exponentials adjust the growth to match the zero distribution without introducing extraneous zeros.^[1]^[3] The resulting infinite products for entire functions converge uniformly on every compact subset of the complex plane, enabling the application of Weierstrass's theorem to represent functions with prescribed zeros as holomorphic limits of the partial products. This uniform convergence preserves analyticity and allows the product to be entire.^[3]^[4]

Building Blocks of the Factorization

Elementary Weierstrass Factors

The elementary Weierstrass factors form the foundational components for constructing factorizations of entire functions with prescribed zeros. These factors are entire functions designed to introduce a single simple zero at a specified point while maintaining controlled growth elsewhere, particularly near the origin. They were introduced by Karl Weierstrass to ensure the convergence of infinite products in the factorization theorem.^[3] The simplest elementary factor is defined as E_0(z) = 1 - z. This is an entire function with a simple zero at z = 1 and no other zeros in the complex plane. For n \geq 1, the general elementary factor is given by

E_n(z) = (1 - z) \exp\left( \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{z^k}{k} \right).

This function is also entire and possesses a simple zero precisely at z = 1, with no additional zeros. To incorporate a zero at an arbitrary point a \neq 0, one considers E_n(z/a), which shifts the zero to z = a while remaining entire and free of other zeros.^[3] A key property ensuring the utility of these factors in infinite products is their controlled behavior for small z. Specifically, for |z| \leq 1 and n \geq 0,

|E_n(z) - 1| \leq |z|^{n+1}.

This growth lemma demonstrates that E_n(z) approximates 1 closely when |z| is small, with the approximation improving as n increases, thus preventing the introduction of extraneous singularities or rapid growth in products. The bound holds because the exponential term compensates for the logarithmic singularity in the naive factor $1 - z, keeping the deviation from 1 bounded by a higher-order term in z.^[3] The choice of n for each factor E_n(z/a_k) in a product is determined by the convergence exponent of the zero sequence \{a_k\}, defined as the infimum of \rho \geq 0 such that \sum 1/|a_k|^{\rho + \epsilon} < \infty for all \epsilon > 0. Typically, n is selected as the smallest integer greater than or equal to this exponent (often rounded up to the genus of the sequence), which minimizes the overall growth of the resulting product while ensuring uniform convergence on compact sets. This selection balances the need for rapid decay near each zero with the requirement that the factors do not grow too quickly at infinity.^[3]

Canonical Products

The canonical product, also known as the Weierstrass canonical product, is an infinite product constructed from elementary Weierstrass factors to encode a prescribed sequence of zeros \{a_n\}_{n=1}^\infty in the complex plane, where the a_n have no finite accumulation point. It is defined as

P(z) = \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}\left(\frac{z}{a_n}\right),

where E_p(u) = (1 - u) \exp\left( \sum_{k=1}^p \frac{u^k}{k} \right) for p \geq 1 (and E_0(u) = 1 - u) denotes the elementary Weierstrass factor of order p, and the integers p_n \geq 0 are chosen to ensure convergence.^[1]^[4] The genus p of the zero sequence \{a_n\} is the smallest non-negative integer such that \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{|a_n|^{p+1}} < \infty. This integer p is closely related to the exponent of convergence \rho of the sequence, defined as the infimum of all \lambda > 0 for which \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{|a_n|^\lambda} < \infty, with p the smallest non-negative integer such that p ≤ ρ < p + 1.^[4]^[1] The sequence \{p_n\} is selected based on the genus p or the exponent \rho to guarantee absolute and uniform convergence of the product on compact subsets of \mathbb{C}; a common choice is p_n \leq \max(p, n) for all n, ensuring \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{|a_n|^{p_n + 1}} < \infty while minimizing the growth of the factors. This selection balances convergence with efficiency, as higher p_n improve convergence but increase the order of the resulting product.^[15]^[4] The canonical product P(z) is an entire function of order at most p + 1, with simple zeros precisely at the points a_n (assuming distinct a_n) and no other zeros. If the sequence includes a zero of multiplicity m at the origin, it is incorporated as a factor z^m.^[1]^[15] Canonical products for a given zero sequence are unique up to the choice of genus p and the specific sequence \{p_n\}, as different selections yield products differing by an entire function without zeros. The minimal genus choice provides the "standard" canonical product of that genus.^[4]^[15]

Statement and Proof of the Theorem

Formal Statement

The Weierstrass factorization theorem states that if f is a non-constant entire function on the complex plane, with a zero of order m \geq 0 at z = 0 (where m = 0 if f(0) \neq 0) and simple zeros at the points a_n (n = 1, 2, \dots) with |a_n| \to \infty as n \to \infty (no finite accumulation point), then there exist an entire function g(z) and non-negative integers p_n (chosen sufficiently large to ensure convergence) such that

f(z) = z^m e^{g(z)} \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}\left( \frac{z}{a_n} \right),

where the elementary Weierstrass factors are defined by E_0(u) = 1 - u and, for p \geq 1,

E_p(u) = (1 - u) \exp\left( u + \frac{u^2}{2} + \cdots + \frac{u^p}{p} \right).

^[3]^[16] The sequence \{a_n\} accounts for multiplicities, and the product converges uniformly on compact subsets of \mathbb{C} provided the p_n are selected based on the growth of the zeros, such as p_n \geq \lfloor \log n \rfloor or determined by the genus of the canonical product.^[16] If f(0) \neq 0, then m = 0, and the factorization simplifies to f(z) = e^{g(z)} \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}(z/a_n).^[3] More generally, the theorem extends to allow a non-zero constant multiple, so f(z) = c z^m e^{g(z)} \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}(z/a_n) for some c \in \mathbb{C} \setminus \{0\}.^[1] The factorization is unique up to the choice of the sequence \{p_n\} and the entire function g(z); if a canonical product of minimal genus is fixed, then g(z) is unique modulo addition of a constant (which corresponds to multiplying by a constant factor via the exponential).^[17]

Construction and Proof Outline

The proof of the Weierstrass factorization theorem begins by addressing any zero of the entire function f(z) at the origin. Suppose f(z) has a zero of order m \geq 0 at z = 0; then, f(z) can be expressed as f(z) = z^m h(z), where h(z) is another entire function with h(0) \neq 0. This step isolates the origin's contribution, allowing the remaining analysis to focus on zeros away from the origin.^[1] Next, the zeros of h(z), denoted a_n (counted with multiplicity and excluding the origin, with |a_n| \to \infty as n \to \infty), are used to construct a canonical product \Pi(z) that incorporates these zeros exactly. The canonical product is formed as \Pi(z) = \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}(z/a_n), where E_{p_n}(\zeta) = (1 - \zeta) \exp\left( \sum_{j=1}^{p_n} \frac{\zeta^j}{j} \right) are the elementary Weierstrass factors, and the integers p_n \geq 0 are chosen sufficiently large (e.g., p_n = n-1) to ensure convergence of the infinite product to an entire function with simple zeros at each a_n. This construction relies on the convergence of the product on compact subsets of \mathbb{C}, guaranteed by the condition \sum_{n=1}^\infty |a_n|^{-(p_n+1)} < \infty.^[3]^[4] With \Pi(z) defined, consider the quotient \phi(z) = h(z) / \Pi(z). At each zero a_k of h(z), \Pi(z) has a corresponding zero of the same order, so \phi(z) has a removable singularity there. By the Riemann removable singularity theorem, \phi(z) extends to an entire function. Moreover, \phi(z) has no zeros, as the construction of \Pi(z) precisely cancels all zeros of h(z).^[16]^[1] Since \phi(z) is entire and zero-free, it admits a holomorphic logarithm: \log \phi(z) = g(z) for some entire function g(z), implying \phi(z) = e^{g(z)}. Thus, h(z) = \Pi(z) e^{g(z)}, and substituting back yields the factorization f(z) = z^m \Pi(z) e^{g(z)}. The choice of p_n in the Weierstrass factors controls growth to handle convergence, often via auxiliary exponential terms or adjusted exponents rather than Blaschke products, which apply in bounded domains.^[4]^[3]

Variants and Generalizations

Hadamard Factorization Theorem

The order \rho of an entire function f is defined as \rho = \limsup_{r \to \infty} \frac{\log \log M(r)}{\log r}, where M(r) = \max_{|z|=r} |f(z)|.^[17] This quantity measures the growth rate of f, with \rho < \infty indicating finite order. For instance, polynomials have order 0, as their growth is bounded by a constant times r^d for some degree d, leading to \log \log M(r) growing slower than any positive multiple of \log r.^[1] The exponential function e^z has order 1, since M(r) \approx e^r on the positive real axis, yielding \log \log M(r) \sim \log r.^[1] The genus g of an entire function with zeros \{a_n\} (counting multiplicities, excluding zero) is the smallest nonnegative integer such that \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{|a_n|^{g+1}} < \infty.^[1] For functions of finite order \rho, the genus satisfies g \leq \rho \leq g+1.^[16] This condition ensures the convergence of the associated infinite product in the factorization. The Hadamard factorization theorem refines the Weierstrass theorem for entire functions of finite order \rho. It states that if f is an entire function of finite order \rho with a zero of multiplicity m at the origin and other zeros \{a_n\}, then f(z) = z^m e^{P(z)} \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_p\left(\frac{z}{a_n}\right), where P(z) is a polynomial of degree at most \rho, p is the genus (with p = \lfloor \rho \rfloor or p = \lfloor \rho \rfloor + 1 as needed), and E_p(u) = (1 - u) \exp\left( u + \frac{u^2}{2} + \cdots + \frac{u^p}{p} \right) is the Weierstrass elementary factor of genus p.^[1]^[18] Unlike the general Weierstrass factorization, where the exponential factor e^{g(z)} allows g(z) to be any entire function, the Hadamard version restricts g(z) to a polynomial, reflecting the controlled growth imposed by finite order.^[1] This makes the theorem particularly applicable to functions like e^z (where the product is absent and P(z) = z) and \sin z (order 1, with zeros at integer multiples of \pi and genus 1).^[1]

Factorization for Meromorphic Functions

The Weierstrass factorization theorem extends naturally to meromorphic functions on the complex plane by incorporating poles through ratios of infinite products. Specifically, any meromorphic function f(z) with zeros at points \{a_n\} (counted with multiplicity) and poles at points \{b_m\} (also with multiplicity) can be expressed as

f(z) = e^{g(z)} \frac{z^k \prod_{n=1}^\infty E_{p_n}\left(\frac{z}{a_n}\right)}{\prod_{m=1}^\infty E_{q_m}\left(\frac{z}{b_m}\right)},

where g(z) is an entire function, k \in \mathbb{Z} accounts for the order at the origin, and the E_p are Weierstrass elementary factors chosen to ensure convergence.^[19] This representation arises because meromorphic functions are quotients of entire functions, each of which admits a Weierstrass factorization for its zeros.^[3] The Mittag-Leffler theorem serves as the dual to the Weierstrass theorem in this context, providing a partial fraction decomposition for meromorphic functions with prescribed poles and principal parts. It asserts that for a sequence of distinct poles \{a_k\} with no limit point in the domain and specified Laurent principal parts S_k(z) at each a_k, there exists a meromorphic function f(z) such that near each a_k, f(z) - S_k(z) is holomorphic.^[20] This theorem complements the product-based Weierstrass approach by focusing on additive constructions via series of rational functions, enabling the explicit handling of pole behaviors in meromorphic factorizations.^[19] Convergence adjustments for the pole sequences \{b_m\} mirror those for zeros, requiring that the products \prod E_{q_m}(z/b_m) converge uniformly on compact sets. This is achieved by selecting integers q_m such that \sum_m (r / |b_m|)^{q_m + 1} < \infty for every r > 0, analogous to the zero case, ensuring the overall ratio defines a meromorphic function.^[19] For rational functions, which are meromorphic on the Riemann sphere, the factorization is finite, highlighting how zeros and poles determine the global structure. This connects to uniformization theory, where such factorizations underpin representations of Riemann surfaces via quotients of universal covers.^[19] Modern extensions of the Weierstrass theorem to several complex variables face challenges due to non-isolated zeros, requiring more general ideals or sheaves rather than simple products; similarly, classical treatments are incomplete for quasianalytic classes beyond the analytic category, where preparation theorems fail.^[21]^[22]

Examples and Applications

Classical Factorizations

The Weierstrass factorization theorem finds one of its most celebrated applications in the explicit representation of the sine function as an infinite product over its zeros. The function \sin(\pi z) is an entire function of order 1, with simple zeros precisely at the integers z = n for n \in \mathbb{Z}. Its factorization takes the form

\sin(\pi z) = \pi z \prod_{n=1}^\infty \left(1 - \frac{z^2}{n^2}\right),

where the product is a canonical product of genus 0 constructed using the elementary Weierstrass factors E_0(u) = 1 - u. This matches the general form of the theorem, as the exponential factor is absent (i.e., e^{g(z)} with g(z) = 0), and convergence of the product follows from the exponent sum \sum 1/n^2 < \infty, confirming the genus 0 structure for this order-1 entire function.^[23] A closely related example is the cosine function, which shares the same order 1 but can be derived directly from the sine factorization by the identity \cos(\pi z) = \sin(\pi (z + 1/2))/\sin(\pi z/2) or through its own zero set at half-odd integers. The explicit product is

\cos(\pi z) = \prod_{n=0}^\infty \left(1 - \frac{4z^2}{(2n+1)^2}\right),

again utilizing genus-0 factors E_0 over the zeros z = (2n+1)/2, with no polynomial or exponential prefactor needed beyond normalization. The paired terms ensure convergence via \sum 1/(2n+1)^2 < \infty, aligning with the theorem's construction for entire functions of finite order without essential singularities at infinity.^[23] The reciprocal Gamma function $1/\Gamma(z) provides another classical illustration, as it is entire of order 1 with simple zeros at the non-positive integers z = -n for n = 0, 1, 2, \dots. Its Weierstrass factorization incorporates an exponential adjustment for convergence and is given by

\frac{1}{\Gamma(z)} = z e^{\gamma z} \prod_{n=1}^\infty \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right) e^{-z/n},

where \gamma is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. Here, the canonical product uses genus-1 factors E_1(u) = (1 - u) e^u, necessary because the exponent sum for genus 0 diverges (\sum 1/n = \infty), but converges for genus 1 (\sum 1/n^2 < \infty); the linear exponential e^{\gamma z} serves as the required polynomial factor of degree at most the genus. This form exemplifies the theorem's flexibility in handling divergent zero sequences through higher-genus elementary factors.^[23]

Applications in Mathematical Analysis

The Weierstrass factorization theorem plays a crucial role in the analytic continuation of functions with natural boundaries or branch points by enabling the representation of related entire functions through their zeros, facilitating the extension of domains. For instance, in the study of the Riemann zeta function, the completed function ξ(s), which is entire of order 1, admits a Hadamard product expansion over its non-trivial zeros, allowing for the analytic continuation of ζ(s) beyond its initial domain of convergence and aiding in the investigation of zero distributions.^[24] This product form underscores the theorem's utility in bridging local zero behavior to global analytic properties, though ζ(s) itself is meromorphic rather than entire.^[1] In number theory, the theorem extends to the factorization of completed L-functions associated with Dirichlet characters or modular forms, which are entire functions of finite order, providing insights into their zero structures and arithmetic properties. For primitive Dirichlet L-functions, the Weierstrass-Hadamard factorization yields a product over zeros that reflects the function's order and genus, supporting analytic proofs of prime number theorems in arithmetic progressions.^[25] Similarly, L-functions attached to cusp forms, such as those arising from elliptic modular forms, benefit from this representation to analyze growth rates and functional equations, linking complex analysis to modular arithmetic.^[26] Applications in physics leverage the theorem for factorizing scattering matrices in quantum systems, where entire functions model transmission amplitudes. In quantum field theory on two-dimensional spaces, factorizing S-matrices with prescribed poles and zeros via Weierstrass products constructs exact solutions for integrable models, such as those with deformed symmetries. For resonant nanostructures, the theorem expresses the scattering matrix in terms of spectral singularities, optimizing resonant effects by controlling zero placements without altering the overall analytic structure.^[27] These uses highlight the theorem's role in ensuring unitarity and causality through precise zero-pole configurations.^[28] Computational aspects of the theorem involve numerical evaluation of infinite products to verify convergence and approximate entire functions, particularly in high-precision contexts where direct summation is inefficient. Algorithms for truncating Weierstrass products, guided by growth estimates of the exponentiating factor, enable stable computations for functions like the gamma function's reciprocal, with error bounds derived from the theorem's canonical factors.^[29] Such methods are essential for verifying theoretical predictions in spectral theory, though challenges arise from slow convergence near accumulation points of zeros.^[30] The theorem influences transcendental number theory by providing growth estimates from factorizations that contradict assumptions of algebraicity for certain values. In proofs of transcendence for elliptic function values, the Weierstrass sigma function's product form yields precise order bounds, enabling comparisons with algebraic growth to establish irrationality or transcendence via Lindemann-type arguments extended to quasi-periodic settings.^[31] This approach, refined in works on values of the sigma function at algebraic points, uses the theorem's exponential factor to derive lower bounds on linear forms in transcendents.^[32] Modern extensions adapt the theorem to several complex variables through local preparation results, though global factorization is obstructed by non-isolated zeros; Oka's coherence theorems complement this by ensuring sheaf-theoretic extensions of local Weierstrass divisions.^[33] In p-adic analysis, an analogue preparation theorem factorizes power series over p-adic integers into Weierstrass polynomials times units, preserving convergence in rigid analytic spaces and applying to resultants in non-Archimedean number theory.^[34] These generalizations maintain the theorem's core insight into zero structures while accommodating non-standard topologies.^[35]

References

[1]
[PDF] Weierstrass and Hadamard Factorization of Entire Functions
An entire function of finite order means that it has an order of growth which is a positive number. Hadamard's Factorization Theorem. Let ρ0 be the order of ...Missing: textbook | Show results with:textbook
[2]
[PDF] VII.5. The Weierstrass Factorization Theorem
Sep 8, 2017 · This was first accomplished by. Weierstrass who introduced “elementary factors” which have a simple zero at a given point and is nonzero ...
[3]
[PDF] Chapter 4 - Entire Functions - HKUST Math Department
We shall extend Weierstrass factorization theorem to an arbitrary region. Theorem 4.5.1. Let G be a region and {aj} ⊂ G is a sequence of points without a limit ...Missing: textbook | Show results with:textbook
[4]
[PDF] On some historical aspects of Riemann zeta function, 2 - HAL
Nov 20, 2013 · ... Weierstrass' entire function factorization theorem has had further remarkable applications in many other pure and applied mathematical ...
[5]
[PDF] On some historical aspects of Riemann zeta function, 1 - HAL
the history of entire function factorization theorem which, amongst others, sees involved the figures of Gauss, Weierstrass, Mittag-Leffler, Betti, Dini.
[6]
[PDF] Infinite Products and Mittag-Leffler Expansion - Ksenia Lepikhina
May 1, 2018 · Weierstrass published his paper on the theory of analytic functions in 1876, one year after Mittag-Leffler studied with him.
[7]
The development of the concept of uniform convergence in Karl ...
Dec 23, 2020 · This paper will mainly focus on the connection between the (verbal and symbolic) form and the mathematical content.
[8]
[PDF] Karl Weierstrass' Bicentenary - arXiv
The introductory course included the concept of a number and function with the help of power series, continuity and differentiability, analytic continuation, ...
[9]
Sinkievich GI Karl Weierstrass' Bicentenary // Kwartalnik Historii ...
Aug 9, 2025 · ... Weierstrass' article entitled “Toward the. theory of single-valued analytical functions” with this and other results was published. in 1876. W ...
[10]
[PDF] IV.3. Zeros of an Analytic Function
Nov 10, 2023 · Definition. An entire function is a function analytic in the entire complex plane. Entire functions are sometimes called integral functions.
[11]
[PDF] lectures on the theory of entire functions - Uni-DUE
May 26, 2014 · We agree below that the sequence of zeros of an entire function is always enumerated in this way. In this case it is called the ordered sequence ...
[12]
[PDF] The Picard Theorems via Geometry - Dartmouth Mathematics
Aug 25, 2015 · Theorem 1.15 (The Little Picard Theorem). Let f be an entire function whose range omits at least two points. Then f is constant. Ok, time to pay ...
[13]
None
### Definitions and Lemmas on Zeros of Holomorphic Functions
[14]
[PDF] Math 242 Notes 12: Infinite products
1 is a sequence of complex numbers, we say that the infinite product. ∞. ∏. 1 pn converges if there is an N ≥ 1 such that the sequence of finite products n.
[15]
[PDF] 12. Weierstrass and Hadamard products
Feb 3, 2021 · The hard part of the proof (below) of Hadamard's theorem is essentially that of [Ahlfors 1953/1966], with various rearrangements. A somewhat ...
[16]
[PDF] the weierstrass/hadamard factorization of an entire function
These notes are drawn closely from chapter 5 of Princeton Lectures in Anal- ysis II: Complex Analysis by Stein and Shakarchi.Missing: textbook | Show results with:textbook
[17]
[PDF] XI.2. The Genus and Order of an Entire Function.
Nov 4, 2017 · Epn (z/a) is an entire function with zeros only at the points an and the multiplicity of a zero is given by the number of times it is repeated ...
[18]
[PDF] XI.3. Hadamard's Factorization Theorem.
Nov 4, 2017 · Theorem XI.3.4. Hadamard's Factorization Theorem. If f is an entire function of finite order λ then f has finite genus µ ≤ λ. Therefore, f.
[19]
246B, Notes 1: Zeroes, poles, and factorisation of meromorphic ...
Dec 23, 2020 · The zeroes and poles of a rational function {f} describe the behaviour of that rational function, as well as close relatives of that function.
[20]
[PDF] VIII.3. Mittag-Leffler's Theorem.
Sep 2, 2017 · Note. In the Weierstrass Factorization Theorem (Theorem VII.5.14) an analytic function with given zeros is written as a limit of a product ...
[21]
Weierstrass factorization theorem in several variables - MathOverflow
Nov 6, 2012 · Weierstrass theorem for polynomials says that there exists a polynomial with prescribed zeros. In several dimensions, zeros are never isolated.Using Weierstrass's Factorization Theorem - MathOverflowA doubt regarding the extended form of the Weierstrass factorization ...More results from mathoverflow.net
[22]
Note on the Weierstrass Preparation Theorem in Quasianalytic ...
Mar 18, 2013 · We show that if the Weierstrass Preparation Theorem holds in such a ring then all elements of it are germs of analytic functions. . Subjects: ...
[23]
Functions of One Complex Variable I | SpringerLink
This book is intended as a textbook for a first course in the theory of functions of one complex variable for students who are mathematically mature enough.
[24]
[PDF] Riemann-Hadamard product for ζ(s)
Oct 24, 2021 · General factorization of entire functions in terms of their zeros is due to Weierstrass [ref?]. Sharper conclusions.
[25]
[PDF] Computational Number Theory in Relation with L-Functions - Hal-Inria
Sep 27, 2018 · The Weierstrass–Hadamard factorization theorem is the following: Theorem 12.1 Let F be a holomorphic function of order ρ, set p = ⌊ρ⌋, let (an)n ...
[26]
[PDF] MAT540 Topics in Number Theory: L-functions and Modular Forms
which converges by Weierstrass factorization theorem. Regarding sin(πx) as ... A central theorem in the theory of Dirichlet L-functions is the Siegel–Walfisz.
[27]
Optimization of resonant effects in nanostructures via Weierstrass ...
Jul 10, 2013 · However, the aim of this study is to demonstrate how the Weierstrass factorization helps to analyze the resonant properties of nanostructures.
[28]
Analysis of s-t symmetric classical S-matrices - arXiv
Feb 25, 2025 · Thanks to the Weierstrass factorization theorem, such a function can always be constructed, even when the S-matrix has infinitely many poles.
[29]
[PDF] 1. Weierstrass Product Formula
If h(z) is entire and has no zeros, then h(z) = eg(z)for some entire function g(z). Proof. One way to see the proof is to draw a picture of the range of h, ...
[30]
[PDF] Weierstrass and Hadamard products
Sep 15, 2019 · It remains to show that the entire function g(z) in the leading exponential factor is of degree at most h + 1, by showing that its (h + 1)th ...
[31]
[PDF] Elliptic Functions and Transcendence - HAL
Jul 24, 2009 · Hermite, Lindemann, and Weierstrass The first transcendence result for a number related to the exponential function is Hermite's theorem on the ...
[32]
[PDF] Proofs of Transcendence
This proved that π is transcendental as eπi = −1 is algebraic. In 1885 Weierstrass expanded this result into what is known as the Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem.
[33]
[PDF] Notes for Analysis and Geometry of Several Complex Variables ...
Jun 30, 2020 · meromorphic functions are ratios of holomorphic functions. • Riemann ... (4; Weierstrass) If a sequence of holomorphic functions on open D ⊆ Cm ...<|separator|>
[34]
[PDF] The Weierstrass preparation theorem and resultants of p-adic power ...
In this article, we consider a similar question for p-adic power series. Let K be a finite extension of Qp, or more generally a finite totally ramified ...Missing: modern Oka analysis
[35]
[PDF] p-ADIC ANALYSIS, p-ADIC ARITHMETIC Contents Lecture 1 2 ...
Compare the above corollary with the Weierstrass factor- ization theorem, valid over C. Paper topics. The aim is to give a 5-10 page exposition and a 30-45.