Weierstrass functions

In mathematics, the Weierstrass functions are special functions of a complex variable that are auxiliary to the Weierstrass elliptic function.^[1] Named after the German mathematician Karl Weierstrass, they consist of the sigma function σ(z), zeta function ζ(z), and eta function η(z), defined with respect to a period lattice Λ in the complex plane. These functions play a central role in the theory of elliptic functions, analogous to how the sine, cotangent, and negative cosecant squared functions relate in trigonometric theory: the logarithmic derivative of σ is ζ, and the derivative of ζ is the elliptic ℘-function, ℘(z) = −ζ'(z).^[2] The sigma function is an entire function given by the Weierstrass product

\sigma(z;\Lambda) = z \prod_{w \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left(1 - \frac{z}{w}\right) \exp\left(\frac{z}{w} + \frac{1}{2} \left(\frac{z}{w}\right)^2 \right),

with simple zeros at the lattice points. The zeta function is its logarithmic derivative,

\zeta(z;\Lambda) = \frac{\sigma'(z;\Lambda)}{\sigma(z;\Lambda)} = \frac{1}{z} + \sum_{w \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left( \frac{1}{z - w} + \frac{1}{w} + \frac{z}{w^2} \right),

which is meromorphic with simple poles at lattice points. The eta function measures the quasi-periodicity of ζ:

\eta(w;\Lambda) = \zeta(z + w;\Lambda) - \zeta(z;\Lambda),

independent of z for w ∈ Λ. These functions facilitate the construction and analysis of elliptic functions, with applications in number theory, geometry, and physics.^[3]^[4]

Introduction and history

Historical development

The investigation of elliptic integrals, which originated in 18th-century problems such as determining the arc length of an ellipse, laid the groundwork for elliptic functions. Adrien-Marie Legendre advanced this area significantly between 1786 and 1811 by classifying elliptic integrals into three canonical forms—the first, second, and third kinds—and providing extensive tables and properties in his treatise Exercices de calcul intégral. In the late 1820s, Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi transformed the field by inverting elliptic integrals to define elliptic functions, introducing the fundamental Jacobi elliptic functions (sn, cn, dn) and establishing their double periodicity. His seminal work, Fundamenta Nova Theoriae Functionum Ellipticarum published in 1829, also developed theta functions as key tools, though these formulations relied on trigonometric analogies that introduced singularities at certain points. Karl Weierstrass, influenced by Jacobi and earlier works on Abelian integrals, pursued a rigorous unification of elliptic function theory in the 1850s and 1860s, employing infinite product representations to construct functions directly from period lattices. This lattice-based approach was motivated by the desire to treat the two periods symmetrically, using infinite products for entire functions to construct the meromorphic elliptic functions, providing a systematic, analytic foundation independent of trigonometric substitutions.^[5] Weierstrass's ideas crystallized in his lectures at the University of Berlin, beginning in the winter semester of 1862/63, where he outlined the core theory including the ℘-function and its auxiliaries. These lectures, later compiled in his Mathematische Werke (Volume 1, 1894), built on his prior publications, notably "Zur Theorie der Abelschen Functionen" (1854) and "Theorie der Abelschen Functionen" (1856) in Crelle's Journal, which applied power series expansions to hyperelliptic cases encompassing elliptic functions.^[6]^[5]

Overview and role in elliptic function theory

Weierstrass functions, comprising the sigma (σ), zeta (ζ), and eta (η) functions, are auxiliary meromorphic functions defined in relation to a complex period lattice in the theory of elliptic functions. These functions serve as essential building blocks for constructing the Weierstrass ℘-function, which is itself a doubly periodic meromorphic function with a double pole at each lattice point. By providing a systematic framework for handling periodicity and residues, they enable the development of a complete theory of elliptic functions tied to a given lattice.^[7] These functions exhibit strong analogies to the trigonometric functions of the complex plane, facilitating an intuitive understanding of their periodic behavior. Specifically, the sigma function σ(z) parallels the sine function in its oddness and entire nature with essential singularities at infinity, while the zeta function ζ(z) resembles the cotangent through its quasi-periodicity and simple poles. The eta function η(z), defined along the periods of the lattice, acts as a quasi-period constant analogous to constants in trigonometric identities, and the derived ℘(z) function mirrors the cosecant squared in its pole structure and differential relations.^[8]^[9] In the broader context of elliptic function theory, Weierstrass functions are pivotal for parameterizing elliptic curves, where the ℘-function maps the complex plane modulo the lattice to points on the curve y² = 4x³ - g₂x - g₃, offering a uniformization that connects algebraic geometry to analysis. They also underpin solutions to nonlinear differential equations, such as the Weierstrass equation (℘')² = 4℘³ - g₂℘ - g₃, which arise in classical mechanics for integrable systems like the pendulum or in quantum mechanics for spectral problems.^[7]^[8] A cornerstone of their importance is the uniqueness theorem, which asserts that every meromorphic elliptic function with respect to the period lattice can be expressed as a rational function of ℘(z) and its derivative ℘'(z). This representation theorem underscores the foundational role of Weierstrass functions in unifying the diverse classes of elliptic functions and enabling explicit computations in applications.^[9]^[7]

Fundamental concepts

Period lattice and periods

The period lattice underlying Weierstrass elliptic functions is a discrete subgroup of the complex plane \mathbb{C}, defined as \Lambda = \{ m \omega_1 + n \omega_2 \mid m, n \in \mathbb{Z} \}, where \omega_1 and \omega_2 are linearly independent complex numbers serving as fundamental periods, typically chosen such that \operatorname{Im}(\omega_2 / \omega_1) > 0 to ensure a standard orientation.^[2]^[10]^[11] This lattice forms a two-dimensional grid in \mathbb{C}, generated by integer linear combinations of the basis periods, and it captures the full set of all periods for functions associated with this structure. The choice of \omega_1 and \omega_2 is not unique; for instance, if \omega_3 = -(\omega_1 + \omega_2), then other pairs can generate the same lattice.^[2]^[11] Weierstrass elliptic functions are characterized by their doubly periodic nature with respect to this lattice: a function f satisfies f(z + \omega) = f(z) for all z \in \mathbb{C} and all \omega \in \Lambda. This periodicity implies that f repeats its values over the parallelogram spanned by \omega_1 and \omega_2, making the fundamental domain a fundamental parallelogram with area |\operatorname{Im}(\overline{\omega_1} \omega_2)|. Such functions are meromorphic and non-constant, distinguishing them from singly periodic functions like exponentials.^[2]^[10]^[11] Lattices in this context can be classified as homogeneous or inhomogeneous based on transformations preserving the structure. A homogeneous lattice arises from scaling the generators by a complex constant \lambda \neq 0, yielding \lambda \Lambda = \{ \lambda \omega \mid \omega \in \Lambda \}, which exhibits scaling invariance in the associated functions—for example, transformations that adjust the lattice while maintaining functional properties up to a multiplicative factor. In contrast, an inhomogeneous lattice results from basis changes via integer matrices of determinant \pm 1, such as replacing (\omega_1, \omega_3) with (\chi_1, \chi_3) where \chi_1 = a \omega_1 + b \omega_3 and \chi_3 = c \omega_1 + d \omega_3 with ad - bc = 1, preserving the lattice without uniform scaling. This invariance ensures that elliptic function theory is independent of the specific basis choice, up to equivalence.^[2]^[10] Common examples illustrate the geometric diversity of period lattices. A rectangular lattice occurs when \omega_2 / \omega_1 is purely imaginary and positive, forming a grid aligned with the real and imaginary axes, often used for simplicity in computations. A rhombic lattice, on the other hand, has \omega_2 / \omega_1 complex with positive imaginary part but not purely imaginary, resulting in a sheared parallelogram that tilts the grid, reflecting more general configurations in elliptic curve applications. These examples highlight how the ratio \tau = \omega_2 / \omega_1 in the upper half-plane parameterizes the moduli space of lattices.^[2]^[10]^[11]

Weierstrass invariants

The Weierstrass invariants g_2 and g_3 are scalar parameters that characterize a given period lattice \Lambda in the complex plane, arising as special values of Eisenstein series of weights 4 and 6, respectively. Specifically, they are defined by the absolutely convergent sums

g_2(\Lambda) = 60 \sum_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \omega^{-4}, \quad g_3(\Lambda) = 140 \sum_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \omega^{-6}.

These expressions stem from the Laurent series expansion of the Weierstrass \wp-function and provide absolute invariants under the action of SL(2,\mathbb{Z}) on the lattice, modulo scaling.^[2]^[12] A key quantity derived from these invariants is the modular discriminant

\Delta(\Lambda) = g_2(\Lambda)^3 - 27 g_3(\Lambda)^2,

which serves as a measure of the lattice's non-degeneracy: \Delta \neq 0 ensures that the associated Weierstrass functions yield non-degenerate elliptic curves, while \Delta = 0 corresponds to singular cases. The discriminant transforms homogeneously under lattice scaling by a complex number \lambda \neq 0, as do the invariants themselves:

g_2(\lambda \Lambda) = \lambda^{-4} g_2(\Lambda), \quad g_3(\lambda \Lambda) = \lambda^{-6} g_3(\Lambda), \quad \Delta(\lambda \Lambda) = \lambda^{-12} \Delta(\Lambda).

These homogeneity properties reflect the quasi-periodic nature of the underlying functions and facilitate normalization of the lattice.^[2]^[13] The pair (g_2, g_3) uniquely determines the isomorphism class of the elliptic curve up to scaling, with the absolute invariant j(\Lambda) providing a complete modular invariant:

j(\Lambda) = 1728 \frac{g_2(\Lambda)^3}{\Delta(\Lambda)}.

This j-invariant classifies elliptic curves over \mathbb{C} and is invariant under all lattice homothety and modular transformations, playing a central role in the moduli space of elliptic curves.^[13]

Weierstrass sigma function

Definition

The Weierstrass sigma function, denoted σ(z), associated with a period lattice Λ in the complex plane, is defined by the infinite product

\sigma(z) = z \prod_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left( \left(1 - \frac{z}{\omega}\right) \exp\left(\frac{z}{\omega} + \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{z}{\omega}\right)^2 \right) \right).

^[2] This function is entire and odd, with simple zeros at each lattice point ω ∈ Λ. It is intimately related to the Weierstrass zeta function ζ(z) and ℘-function, satisfying ζ(z) = σ'(z)/σ(z) and ℘(z) = -ζ'(z). Equivalently, ℘(z) is the negative second logarithmic derivative of σ(z):

℘(z) = -\frac{d^2}{dz^2} \log \sigma(z) = -\frac{\sigma''(z)}{\sigma(z)} + \left( \frac{\sigma'(z)}{\sigma(z)} \right)^2.

^[2] The lattice Λ is typically generated by periods 2ω₁ and 2ω₃, with ω₁ real and positive, and Im(ω₃/ω₁) > 0.

Key properties

The Weierstrass sigma function is quasi-periodic with respect to the lattice periods: for j = 1, 3,

\sigma(z + 2\omega_j) = -e^{2\eta_j (z + \omega_j)} \sigma(z),

^[2] where the eta constants are η_j = ζ(ω_j). More generally, for integers m, n,

\frac{\sigma(z + 2m\omega_1 + 2n\omega_3)}{\sigma(z)} = (-1)^{m+n+mn} \exp\left( (2m\eta_1 + 2n\eta_3)(z + m\omega_1 + n\omega_3) \right).

^[2] These properties follow from the construction of σ(z) and ensure its role in normalizing period lattices for elliptic curve theory, where one scales so that τ = ω₃ / ω₁ lies in the upper half-plane. The sigma function's zeros and exponential factors facilitate expressions for addition formulas and integrals in the theory of elliptic functions.^[2]

Weierstrass zeta function

Definition

The Weierstrass zeta function, denoted ζ(z), associated with a period lattice Λ = 2ω₁ℤ + 2ω₂ℤ in the complex plane, is defined by the convergent series expansion

ζ(z) = \frac{1}{z} + \sum_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left( \frac{1}{z - \omega} + \frac{1}{\omega} + \frac{z}{\omega^2} \right),

where the sum is taken over all nonzero lattice points ω. This series converges absolutely and uniformly on compact sets excluding the lattice points.^[14] The function is intimately related to the Weierstrass sigma function σ(z), satisfying ζ(z) = σ'(z)/σ(z), the logarithmic derivative of σ(z). Equivalently, the Weierstrass ℘-function can be expressed as the negative derivative of ζ(z):

℘(z) = -\frac{d}{dz} ζ(z).

^[15] ζ(z) is meromorphic with simple poles at each lattice point ω ∈ Λ, with residue 1, and leading Laurent term 1/(z - ω).

Key properties

The Weierstrass zeta function is an odd function, meaning ζ(-z) = -ζ(z) for all z. It is not doubly periodic but quasi-periodic with respect to the lattice periods: ζ(z + 2ωⱼ) = ζ(z) + 2ηⱼ for j = 1, 2, where the constants ηⱼ = ζ(ωⱼ) are the Weierstrass eta values associated with the half-periods ωⱼ. These eta values satisfy η₁ + η₂ + η₃ = 0, where ω₃ = ω₁ + ω₂ and η₃ = ζ(ω₃).^[16] The quasi-periodicity reflects the function's behavior under lattice translations and plays a crucial role in the theory of elliptic functions. Additionally, the Legendre relation η₁ω₂ - η₂ω₁ = πi holds (up to indexing for ω₃), ensuring consistency in the period parallelogram.^[17] In applications to elliptic curves, the zeta function appears in the expression for the invariants and facilitates the integration of the ℘-function, as ∫ ℘(z) dz = -ζ(z) + constant. Normalization of the lattice often sets ω₁ real and positive with Im(τ) > 0, where τ = ω₂/ω₁, to align with the fundamental domain.^[2]

Weierstrass eta function

Definition

The Weierstrass eta functions \eta_1 and \eta_2, associated with a period lattice \Lambda = 2\omega_1 \mathbb{Z} + 2\omega_2 \mathbb{Z} in the complex plane, are defined as \eta_j = \zeta(\omega_j) for j = 1, 2, where \zeta(z) is the Weierstrass zeta function. The zeta function is given by the series

\zeta(z) = \frac{1}{z} + \sum_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left( \frac{1}{z - \omega} + \frac{1}{\omega} + \frac{z}{\omega^2} \right).

The eta functions are constants that depend on the choice of lattice basis and satisfy the additivity property \eta(m \omega_1 + n \omega_2) = m \eta_1 + n \eta_2 for integers m, n \in \mathbb{Z}. They also obey the Legendre relations: \eta_1 + \eta_2 + \eta_3 = 0 and \eta_1 \omega_2 - \eta_2 \omega_1 = \pi i, where \omega_3 = -(\omega_1 + \omega_2) and \eta_3 = \zeta(\omega_3). This follows from the quasi-periodicity of the zeta function: \zeta(z + 2\omega_j) = \zeta(z) + 2\eta_j.^[2] The eta functions are related to the Weierstrass sigma function \sigma(z) via the zeta function, as \zeta(z) = \sigma'(z)/\sigma(z), and thus play a role in the quasi-periodicity of \sigma(z + 2\omega_j) = -\exp(2\eta_j (z + \omega_j)) \sigma(z).

Key properties

The Weierstrass eta function values possess a bilinear property with respect to integer linear combinations of the lattice basis periods \omega_1 and \omega_2. Specifically, \eta(m \omega_1 + n \omega_2) = m \eta(\omega_1) + n \eta(\omega_2) for integers m, n \in \mathbb{Z}. This additivity follows directly from the quasi-periodic nature of the associated Weierstrass zeta function and the group structure of the period lattice.^[2] Although connected to the Dedekind eta function—a modular form of weight $1/2 on the upper half-plane—the Weierstrass eta values are fundamentally lattice-specific constants that depend on the choice of basis periods rather than transforming under the modular group SL(2, \mathbb{Z}).^[2] The relation arises through the modular discriminant \Delta(\tau) = (2\pi)^{12} \eta(\tau)^{24}, where \tau = \omega_2 / \omega_1, linking the Weierstrass invariants g_2, g_3 to the Dedekind eta via \Delta = g_2^3 - 27 g_3^2. The eta values are primarily treated as constants derived from the Weierstrass zeta function, with \eta(\omega_j) = \zeta(\omega_j) in standard notation adjusted for half-periods. They can also be expressed computationally as \eta(\omega) = \lim_{z \to 0} \frac{\zeta(z + \omega) - \zeta(z)}{z}, though this form highlights their role in the local behavior near lattice points while the quasi-periodicity provides the primary evaluation. These properties play a key role in normalizing period lattices, where one typically scales so that \omega_1 is real and positive, placing \tau = \omega_2 / \omega_1 in the upper half-plane \operatorname{Im}(\tau) > 0, ensuring the eta values align with the standard fundamental domain for elliptic curve theory.^[2] This normalization facilitates comparisons across equivalent lattices and appears briefly in the quasi-period formula for the Weierstrass sigma function.

Weierstrass ℘-function

Definition

The Weierstrass ℘-function, denoted ℘(z), associated with a period lattice Λ in the complex plane, is defined by the convergent series expansion

℘(z) = \frac{1}{z^2} + \sum_{\omega \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}} \left( \frac{1}{(z - \omega)^2} - \frac{1}{\omega^2} \right),

where the sum is taken over all nonzero lattice points ω. This function is intimately related to the Weierstrass zeta function ζ(z) and sigma function σ(z), satisfying ℘(z) = -ζ'(z), where ζ(z) = σ'(z)/σ(z) is the logarithmic derivative of σ(z). Equivalently, ℘(z) can be expressed as the negative second logarithmic derivative of σ(z):

℘(z) = -\frac{d^2}{dz^2} \log \sigma(z) = -\frac{\sigma''(z)}{\sigma(z)} + \left( \frac{\sigma'(z)}{\sigma(z)} \right)^2.

The ℘-function is even, meaning ℘(-z) = ℘(z) for all z, and it is doubly periodic with fundamental periods 2ω₁ and 2ω₂, the generators of the lattice Λ = 2ω₁ℤ + 2ω₂ℤ, so that ℘(z + 2ωⱼ) = ℘(z) for j = 1, 2. It possesses double poles at each lattice point ω ∈ Λ, with residue zero and leading Laurent term 1/(z - ω)².^[2]

Key properties and differential equation

The Weierstrass ℘-function satisfies the nonlinear ordinary differential equation

(\wp'(z))^2 = 4 \wp(z)^3 - g_2 \wp(z) - g_3,

where g_2 and g_3 are the invariants of the underlying lattice. This equation captures the elliptic nature of the function, as its solutions parameterize elliptic curves in the complex plane.^[18] The right-hand side of the differential equation factors in terms of the roots e_1, e_2, e_3 of the cubic polynomial $4t^3 - g_2 t - g_3 = 0, yielding

(\wp'(z))^2 = 4(\wp(z) - e_1)(\wp(z) - e_2)(\wp(z) - e_3).

These roots satisfy e_1 + e_2 + e_3 = 0 and are distinct provided the discriminant \Delta = g_2^3 - 27 g_3^2 \neq 0. For lattices where the roots are real, they are conventionally ordered as e_1 > e_2 > e_3.^[18] The values of the ℘-function at the half-periods \omega_1, \omega_2, and \omega_1 + \omega_2 coincide with these roots: \wp(\omega_i) = e_i for i=1,2,3, where \omega_3 = \omega_1 + \omega_2, with the indexing matching the ordering based on the lattice shape. This property underscores the function's periodicity and pole structure, as the half-periods lie midway between lattice points. Near z=0, the ℘-function admits a Laurent series expansion

\wp(z) = \frac{1}{z^2} + \frac{g_2}{20} z^2 + \frac{g_3}{28} z^4 + \sum_{n=4}^\infty c_n z^{2n-2},

valid in the punctured disk $0 < |z| < d, where d is the distance to the nearest nonzero lattice point, and the higher coefficients c_n are determined recursively from the invariants. This series reflects the double pole at lattice points and the even nature of the function.^[19]

Interrelations and special cases

Relations among the functions

The Weierstrass zeta function \zeta(z) is defined as the logarithmic derivative of the sigma function \sigma(z), given by

\zeta(z) = \frac{d}{dz} \log \sigma(z) = \frac{\sigma'(z)}{\sigma(z)}.

This relation establishes a direct interconnection between these two auxiliary functions, allowing the zeta function to inherit quasi-periodic properties from the sigma function's transformation laws under lattice translations.^[2] The Weierstrass \wp-function is then obtained as the negative derivative of the zeta function,

\wp(z) = -\frac{d}{dz} \zeta(z).

This links the elliptic \wp-function to the sigma and zeta functions through successive differentiation, facilitating the expression of elliptic functions in terms of \wp and its derivative \wp'. The eta constants \eta_j enter as the quasi-periods of the zeta function, satisfying

\zeta(z + \omega_j) = \zeta(z) + \eta_j,

where \omega_1, \omega_2 are the fundamental periods of the lattice and \eta_j = \zeta(\omega_j + \delta) with appropriate adjustment for the principal part at the origin. These \eta_j ensure the consistency of the zeta function's meromorphic continuation across the complex plane.^[2] The eta constants obey the Legendre relation

\eta_1 \omega_2 - \eta_2 \omega_1 = 2 \pi i,

which arises from residue calculus applied to the zeta function over a fundamental parallelogram and underscores the topological interplay between the periods and quasi-periods. This identity is fundamental for normalizing the functions and appears in proofs of modular transformations.^[2] The \wp-function satisfies the addition formula

\wp(u + v) = -\wp(u) - \wp(v) + \frac{1}{4} \left( \frac{\wp'(u) - \wp'(v)}{\wp(u) - \wp(v)} \right)^2,

derived from the differential equation and pole structure, enabling the composition of elliptic maps without explicit reference to the sigma or zeta functions. Additionally, the sigma function relates to the \wp-function via an integral representation for its inverse: the argument z satisfies

z = \int_{\wp(z)}^{\infty} \frac{dt}{\sqrt{4t^3 - g_2 t - g_3}},

where g_2, g_3 are the invariants, providing a path-independent expression that connects the product form of \sigma(z) to the algebraic curve defined by \wp. This integral form highlights the sigma function's role in parameterizing the elliptic curve.^[13]^[20]

Degenerate cases

The degeneracy of Weierstrass elliptic functions occurs when the discriminant \Delta = g_2^3 - 27 g_3^2 = 0, causing the associated cubic equation $4y^3 - g_2 y - g_3 = 0 to have repeated roots e_i, which renders the j-invariant infinite and the corresponding elliptic curve singular.^[21] In this case, the differential equation satisfied by the \wp-function breaks down, as the roots coincide, leading to a nodal or cuspidal singularity on the curve y^2 = 4x^3 - g_2 x - g_3.^[21] Special limiting configurations include the lemniscatic case, where g_3 = 0, corresponding to a square lattice with \tau = i and j = 1728, and the equianharmonic case, where g_2 = 0, corresponding to a rhombic lattice with \tau = e^{2\pi i / 3} and j = 0.^[21] These cases exhibit enhanced symmetry but remain non-degenerate (\Delta \neq 0); however, scaling the invariants appropriately drives \Delta \to 0, yielding fully degenerate behavior where the functions reduce to rational forms.^[21] A key degeneration arises as the modular parameter \tau satisfies \operatorname{Im}(\tau) \to \infty, where the lattice \Lambda = \mathbb{Z} + \mathbb{Z} \tau becomes effectively singly periodic with period 1, transforming the elliptic functions into trigonometric ones. In this limit, the \wp-function approaches

\wp(z \mid \tau) \to \frac{\pi^2}{\sin^2 (\pi z)} - \frac{\pi^2}{3},

reflecting the double pole and the adjustment for the correct residue structure.^[22] Similarly, the Weierstrass sigma function degenerates to \sigma(z \mid \tau) \to z \prod_{n=1}^\infty \left(1 - \frac{z^2}{n^2}\right) = \frac{\sin(\pi z)}{\pi}, up to normalization by the period. The zeta function limits to \zeta(z \mid \tau) \to \pi \cot(\pi z) + \frac{\pi^2 z}{3} + \cdots, while the eta constants \eta_1 and \eta_3 approach specific values related to the cotangent periods.^[21]^[22] These degenerate limits have applications in the study of singular elliptic curves, where the function field becomes rational rather than of genus one, allowing parametrization by rational functions instead of elliptic ones; for instance, when two e_i coincide, the curve admits a birational map to \mathbb{P}^1, simplifying integrals and inversions to elementary forms.^[21]

Weierstrass functions

Introduction and history

Historical development

Overview and role in elliptic function theory

Fundamental concepts

Period lattice and periods

Weierstrass invariants

Weierstrass sigma function

Definition

Key properties

Weierstrass zeta function

Definition

Key properties

Weierstrass eta function

Definition

Key properties

Weierstrass ℘-function

Definition

Key properties and differential equation

Interrelations and special cases

Relations among the functions

Degenerate cases

References