William Chaloner

William Chaloner (c. 1650 – 16 March 1699) was an English counterfeiter and confidence trickster whose operations targeted the coinage and early paper currency of late seventeenth-century Britain amid the economic disruptions of the Great Recoinage of 1696.^[1]
Born in Warwickshire to a weaver's family, Chaloner apprenticed briefly before fleeing to London, where he progressed from hawking wares and pickpocketing to mastering sophisticated forgery techniques, including the gilding of base metals to mimic gold coins like guineas and the milling of edges to replicate official minting.^[1] His ventures extended to falsifying seals, Malt Lottery tickets, and Bank of England notes, yielding an estimated £30,000 in illicit gains over seven to eight years and funding a lavish existence with a Knightsbridge residence and carriage.^[2]^[1]
Chaloner supplemented coining with scams such as fabricated Jacobite plots, posing as an informer to extract bribes from authorities, and survived multiple Newgate imprisonments and trials through witness intimidation or evidentiary gaps.^[2] His downfall came via Isaac Newton, Warden of the Royal Mint from 1696, who deployed agents, conducted over 100 interrogations in disguise, and secured testimony from eight accomplices, leading to Chaloner's conviction for high treason on 3 March 1699 and public hanging at Tyburn.^[1]^[2] Newton's pursuit exemplified rigorous enforcement against a forgery epidemic that threatened national finances, prosecuting 28 criminals in total during his tenure.^[1]

Early Life and Initial Criminal Ventures

Origins and Move to London

William Chaloner was born in Warwickshire, England, in the 1650s to a poor family headed by a weaver father who struggled to discipline his wayward son.^[3]^[4] As a youth, Chaloner displayed early tendencies toward mischief and petty theft, prompting his father to apprentice him to a smith or nailmaker in Birmingham in hopes of instilling discipline and a trade.^[3]^[5] Unable to adapt to apprenticeship, Chaloner absconded from Birmingham and migrated to London on foot in the early 1680s, arriving with no prospects or skills suited to honest employment amid the city's bustling but competitive opportunities.^[1]^[5] In London, rather than pursuing legitimate work as initially intended, he gravitated toward street-level hustles, marking the start of his descent into systematic fraud and counterfeiting.^[1] This relocation positioned him in an environment rife with economic instability following the Great Fire of 1666 and monetary reforms, where his innate cunning found fertile ground for criminal innovation.^[3]

Entry into Petty Scams and Coin Clipping

Chaloner, born in the 1650s in Warwickshire to a poor weaver's family, displayed early inclinations toward deceit during his apprenticeship to a nailer in Birmingham, where he acquired basic skills in metalworking and secretly learned to produce counterfeit Birmingham groats before absconding from his master.^[6] Upon relocating to London in the late 1670s or early 1680s, he initially engaged in minor frauds, hawking cheap tin watches on the streets to gullible buyers for small profits.^[6] These petty ventures escalated when Chaloner partnered with accomplices to operate as a fraudulent quack physician, employing tricks such as feigned predictions of lost husbands or stolen goods to extract payments from the credulous populace.^[6] Seeking greater gains, he apprenticed informally with a japanner in Hatton Garden, mastering gilding techniques and the properties of base metals, which enabled him to fabricate imitation gold coins like guineas and pistoles by applying false edges and plating to deceive merchants and exchangers.^[6] This progression into coin-related crimes included clipping—shaving precious metal from genuine silver currency to amass bullion while recirculating the debased pieces—a practice he refined alongside outright counterfeiting, often recruiting and instructing associates who later faced execution for similar offenses.^[3] By the mid-1680s, Chaloner's operations had yielded sufficient illicit capital to fund larger schemes, though his methods relied on the era's lax enforcement and the prevalence of hammered coins susceptible to such tampering.^[6]

Major Counterfeiting Operations

Forgery Techniques and Workshops

Chaloner acquired his core coining skills between 1690 and 1692 in Hatton Garden, where he apprenticed under goldsmith Patrick Coffey, mastering the moulding of milled edges—a reeded design intended to deter clipping—and the creation of plausible coin imitations using moulds.^[1] He partnered with master engraver and printer Thomas Taylor to refine these methods, enabling the production of high-quality counterfeits that mimicked genuine currency.^[1] Central to his approach was a sophisticated casting technique involving the pouring of molten base metals, often alloyed with new amalgams, into high-quality brass moulds to replicate coins such as guineas, crowns, half-crowns, and French pistoles.^[7] These moulds sometimes incorporated stolen or duplicated dies from the Royal Mint, allowing for precise replication that evaded casual detection.^[7] Beyond coins, Chaloner adapted his expertise to paper forgeries, engraving copper plates to produce counterfeit Malt Lottery tickets—such as 100 fake £50 notes—and altering genuine Exchequer bills by increasing their face values through erasure and rewriting.^[8] His operations yielded over £30,000 in illicit currency, flooding markets with "Birmingham groats" and other fakes noted for their superior finish, which paradoxically heightened scrutiny when passed due to their perfection.^[7] Associates like Thomas Holloway assisted in distribution, while informers later revealed the scale of these efforts to authorities.^[8] Chaloner's workshops emphasized secrecy and scale, beginning with small setups in London but expanding to a dedicated coining factory in Egham, approximately 20 miles west of the city, to avoid urban detection.^[7] This site served as a hub for casting and assembly, leveraging rural isolation for molten metal work and mould production.^[8] Earlier Hatton Garden activities focused on skill acquisition and initial prototyping, transitioning to Egham's industrial output as Chaloner's network grew, though repeated raids forced relocations and adaptations.^[3]

Exploitation of Royal Mint Vulnerabilities

During the preparations for the Great Recoinage of 1696, which sought to replace England's degraded hammered silver coinage with durable milled coins, the Royal Mint grappled with an overwhelming influx of old coins for verification and melting, straining its capacity and enabling counterfeiters to introduce fakes into the exchange process. William Chaloner capitalized on this vulnerability by maintaining multiple underground workshops where he produced counterfeit versions of both old hammered coins—accepted at face value despite clipping—and emerging milled crowns and half-crowns, using techniques such as casting from illicit molds and stamping with forged dies that replicated the Mint's edging.^[1] These operations, active from at least 1692 with French pistoles and guineas, involved collaborators like engraver Thomas Taylor and distributor Thomas Holloway, allowing Chaloner to launder counterfeits through accomplices while the Mint focused on bulk processing rather than rigorous individual scrutiny.^[1] ^[6] Chaloner further exploited institutional weaknesses by posing as a reformer and informant, gaining purported insider knowledge of Mint procedures to refine his forgeries. In 1695, he testified before a House of Commons committee investigating coinage abuses, accusing Mint officials of corruption, incompetence, and even internal counterfeiting production, while proposing detection methods that masked his own activities.^[5] ^[7] These public broadsides, disseminated via pamphlets, aimed to erode trust in the Mint's oversight and deflect suspicion from his syndicate, which included teaching clipping techniques to others during the recoinage's chaotic implementation.^[6] By framing himself as an expert capable of exposing clippers, Chaloner not only evaded early arrests but also briefly positioned himself to influence policy, though his claims were ultimately dismissed after parliamentary review.^[6] The scale of Chaloner's output during this period—evidenced by later raids uncovering tools for thousands of counterfeit pieces—underscored the Mint's pre-Newton vulnerabilities, such as inadequate coordination among its sections and reliance on external informants prone to manipulation.^[1] His schemes persisted until intensified prosecutions under Warden Isaac Newton in 1697–1699, revealing how the recoinage's urgency had temporarily prioritized volume over security, permitting prolific fraud before systemic reforms took hold.^[7]

Political and Financial Deceptions

Fabricated Anti-Jacobite Plots

Chaloner capitalized on post-Glorious Revolution anxieties over Jacobite threats by posing as an informer, entrapping individuals into seditious activities to claim government rewards. He approached printers with Jacobite leanings, persuading them to produce dissident literature under the guise of sympathy, then promptly betrayed them to authorities, resulting in their executions and his receipt of £1,000 in one instance.^[7]^[4] In August 1693, Chaloner, alongside associate Aubrey Price, informed officials of an alleged Jacobite scheme to seize Dover Castle, offering to infiltrate the plot in exchange for payment, though the proposal failed to secure approval or reward.^[9] A similar fabricated scheme surfaced at the end of August 1697, when Chaloner and Price again alleged a Jacobite attack on Dover Castle, but authorities responded with skepticism, declining to engage.^[3] These deceptions mirrored broader informer tactics amid genuine Jacobite unrest, yet Chaloner's methods relied on manufactured evidence rather than genuine intelligence, exploiting reward systems designed to counter real threats like the 1690 Montgomery Plot.^[8] His ventures yielded intermittent gains but eroded trust, foreshadowing official scrutiny of his credibility in later frauds.^[4]

Frauds Against the Bank of England and Lotteries

Chaloner forged Bank of England £100 notes shortly after their introduction in 1695, replicating the institution's marbled paper and printing techniques to produce approximately 100 counterfeits.^[10]^[4] A forged note was detected by the Bank on 14 August 1695, prompting Chaloner to surrender his stock, inform on accomplices, and receive a £200 reward while retaining profits from the scheme, as note forgery was not yet classified as a felony until 1697.^[3]^[4] He extended these operations to other paper instruments, counterfeiting bills and notes over several years, contributing to an estimated £30,000 in total forged currency across his schemes, though specific attribution to Bank notes varied.^[2] In parallel, Chaloner targeted state lotteries, notably the Malt Lottery of 1698, by engraving copper plates to print fraudulent tickets redeemable for cash prizes or bonds between June and October.^[3]^[11] These tickets mimicked official designs, exploiting public demand for lottery participation funded by malt taxes to generate illicit revenue.^[2] His lottery manipulations culminated in an arrest on 5 October 1699 for distributing fake tickets, which provided authorities, including Mint Warden Isaac Newton, with evidence to pursue broader counterfeiting charges rather than isolating the lottery fraud.^[4]^[2]

Pursuit, Arrests, and Legal Confrontations

Prior Imprisonments and Informing Tactics

Chaloner encountered his first documented legal trouble in 1690, when he was arrested for burglary, marking his initial appearance in public records as a criminal operative in London.^[1] By the mid-1690s, his activities escalated to counterfeiting, leading to repeated arrests for forgery and related scams, during which he served brief terms for petty offenses but consistently evaded severe penalties.^[7] In 1694, authorities caught Chaloner in the act of forging Bank of England notes, yet he negotiated his way out of formal prosecution through unspecified means, likely leveraging connections or partial confessions.^[7] A similar incident occurred around May 1695, when he was accused face-to-face by an associate, Edward Coppinger, before Lord Mayor Sir Thomas Stampford, resulting in commitment to Newgate Prison; Chaloner again escaped lasting consequences by implicating others.^[12] Chaloner's primary tactic for eluding extended imprisonment involved turning informer, or "King's evidence," against accomplices in counterfeiting rings. In 1696, following an arrest for coining false money that landed him in Newgate, he secured release by betraying several partners, providing testimony that shifted blame and earned prosecutorial leniency.^[11] This pattern repeated in September 1697, when Warden Isaac Newton orchestrated his arrest for counterfeiting and confinement to Newgate; although high-ranking allies interceded for his discharge due to insufficient direct evidence, Chaloner's readiness to inform on subordinates undermined potential cases against him and preserved his operations.^[1]^[3] Such betrayals not only neutralized immediate threats but also positioned Chaloner as a valuable, if unreliable, asset to authorities seeking to dismantle broader networks, allowing him to resume frauds intermittently until Newton's persistent investigations culminated in irrefutable proof.^[13]

Isaac Newton's Role as Warden of the Mint

Isaac Newton was appointed Warden of the Royal Mint on March 19, 1696, by Charles Montagu, Chancellor of the Exchequer, with responsibilities including the enforcement of laws against counterfeiting and the oversight of the Great Recoinage of silver currency.^[14] In this capacity, Newton demonstrated intense commitment to combating coin clippers and counterfeiters, reorganizing Mint operations and personally investigating breaches of currency integrity during a period when up to one-fifth of circulating coins were estimated to be fraudulent.^[1] His role extended beyond administrative duties to active prosecution, as he compiled depositions, interrogated suspects, and pursued over two dozen criminals, including the prolific forger William Chaloner.^[15]^[1] Newton's pursuit of Chaloner intensified after the counterfeiter's 1696 letter publicly accused Mint staff of incompetence in coin production, prompting Newton to scrutinize Chaloner's operations.^[14] In September 1697, Newton orchestrated Chaloner's first arrest on counterfeiting charges and confinement in Newgate Prison, but Chaloner secured release through acquittal and influential connections.^[1] Undeterred, Newton escalated his efforts from June 1698 onward, conducting over 100 cross-examinations as a justice of the peace, interviewing more than 58 prisoners in Newgate, and deploying a network of agents, informers, and hired thief-takers to infiltrate Chaloner's workshops.^[14] He personally visited London's taverns in disguise to gather intelligence and signed hundreds of deposition records detailing Chaloner's forgery of crowns and other denominations.^[1]^[2] By early 1699, Newton's methodical accumulation of evidence, including testimony from eight witnesses—among them Chaloner's former associates—enabled a second arrest, leading to Chaloner's indictment on two counts of high treason for counterfeiting crowns in 1698 and French pistoles dating to 1692.^[1] At the trial on March 3, 1699, Newton presented the compiled case, resulting in swift conviction after brief jury deliberation.^[2] Despite Chaloner's final pleas for mercy, Newton declined to intervene, and the execution by hanging proceeded at Tyburn on March 22, 1699, marking a significant victory in Newton's campaign to safeguard the currency.^[1]^[14] This outcome underscored Newton's transformation of the Warden's office into a proactive force against organized counterfeiting, contributing to broader reforms in Mint enforcement.^[15]

Trial, Execution, and Economic Context

1699 Trial for High Treason

William Chaloner was indicted for high treason at the Old Bailey on charges of counterfeiting gold and silver coins of the realm, including guineas, pistoles, crowns, and shillings, acts deemed treasonous as they undermined the sovereign's authority embodied in the currency.^[6]^[1] As Warden of the Royal Mint, Isaac Newton had pursued Chaloner for nearly three years, conducting undercover investigations in London's underworld, interrogating over 100 individuals, and compiling evidence from informers to secure his arrest in early 1699.^[1]^[2] The prosecution focused on specific instances, such as Chaloner's coining of French pistoles around 1692 and forged crowns in 1698, supported by physical evidence like counterfeit coins and engraving plates.^[1] During the trial on March 3, 1699, Chaloner pleaded not guilty and attempted to delay proceedings by claiming insanity, a plea dismissed by the presiding justice.^[6] Newton presented eight witnesses, including accomplices and observers who testified to witnessing Chaloner produce thousands of counterfeit pistoles and guineas, as well as admissions of manufacturing shillings in August 1698; one witness detailed a servant's account of the process.^[6]^[1] Chaloner countered by accusing Newton and other Mint officials of complicity in minting abuses, but a parliamentary committee had previously investigated and rejected these claims, affirming Newton's integrity.^[6] The jury deliberated for only a few minutes before convicting Chaloner of high treason on March 3, 1699.^[1]^[2] The following day, Judge Sir Salathiel Lovell sentenced him to death, marking the culmination of Newton's determined campaign against one of England's most prolific counterfeiters.^[1] Chaloner later appealed to Newton for clemency in a desperate letter, protesting his innocence, but the plea was denied.^[2]

Hanging and Immediate Aftermath

William Chaloner was drawn on a sledge from Newgate Prison to Tyburn for his execution on March 22, 1699.^[2] Upon arrival, he initially refused the sacraments offered by a priest, protesting his innocence with "more Passion than Piety," before calming and accepting them.^[2] At the gallows, Chaloner addressed the crowd, declaring that "he was murder’d … under pretence of Law," and pulled the hood over his eyes himself.^[2] The execution proceeded by hanging, with the executioner's men pulling the ladder away, leaving Chaloner to strangle slowly in what was known as the "hangman's dance," lasting several minutes due to his inability to pay for a quicker death.^[2] Although convicted of high treason, which typically mandated drawing and quartering post-hanging, Chaloner's body underwent no post-mortem dismemberment.^[2] In the days leading to his death, Chaloner penned a desperate letter to Isaac Newton from prison, imploring mercy and intervention with the Chancellor, claiming his trial featured malicious perjured witnesses, legal irregularities such as out-of-jurisdiction testimony, and lack of corroborating evidence or precedent for conviction on bare oaths alone.^[16] He invoked divine curses on himself if the accusations were true and attributed his fate to offending Newton, signing as "Your near murdered humble servant."^[16] Newton, as Warden of the Mint, did not respond or attend the execution, treating the date as unremarkable amid his duties.^[2] Contemporary accounts, such as the pamphlet Guzman Redivivus, soon detailed Chaloner's life and crimes, framing his end as justice for serial forgery, though no widespread public unrest or economic ripple effects are recorded immediately following.^[6] His death marked the culmination of Newton's persistent investigations, which had spanned nearly three years, but elicited no special commemoration from the Warden.^[2]