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1-Butyne

1-Butyne, chemically known as but-1-yne or ethylacetylene, is a terminal alkyne hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C₄H₆ and structural formula CH₃CH₂C≡CH.^[1]^[2] It features a carbon-carbon triple bond between the first and second carbon atoms, rendering the attached terminal hydrogen acidic and enabling distinctive reactivity typical of terminal alkynes.^[1] This compound appears as a colorless gas with a characteristic odor and exhibits key physical properties including a boiling point of 8 °C, a melting point of -126 °C, and a density of 0.678 g/cm³ at 0 °C.^[3]^[4] Its molecular weight is 54.09 g/mol, and it has a CAS number of 107-00-6.^[2] Due to the triple bond, 1-butyne is highly reactive, participating in reactions such as hydrogenation, metathesis, and condensations, which underpin its utility in chemical processes.^[5] 1-Butyne serves as a versatile starting material in organic synthesis, particularly for constructing larger molecules in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, and as a specialty gas for instrument calibration.^[4]^[5] However, it presents significant hazards: it is an extremely flammable gas that may explode if heated under pressure, with vapors capable of causing dizziness, asphyxiation, or irritation upon inhalation or contact.^[1]^[6] Proper handling requires ventilation, protective equipment, and avoidance of ignition sources.^[6]

Properties

Physical properties

1-Butyne has the molecular formula C₄H₆ and the structural formula HC≡C-CH₂-CH₃, consisting of a linear carbon chain with a terminal triple bond between the first and second carbon atoms.^[1] At standard temperature and pressure, 1-butyne exists as a colorless gas with a characteristic acetylenic odor.^[1]^[5]

Property	Value	Conditions/Notes
Boiling point	8.1 °C	Normal boiling point^[5]
Melting point	-125.7 °C	Normal melting point^[5]
Density	0.678 g/cm³	At boiling point^[5]
Vapor pressure	1.65 bar	At 20 °C^[7]
Critical temperature	191 °C	Estimated critical point^[8]

1-Butyne exhibits low solubility in water (approximately 2.87 g/L at 25 °C), rendering it effectively insoluble for most practical purposes, but it is readily soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and acetone.^[5]^[9]

Chemical properties

1-Butyne features a characteristic carbon-carbon triple bond with a bond length of approximately 1.20 Å, arising from the sp hybridization of the involved carbon atoms, which results in a linear geometry around the triple bond.^[10] The terminal C-H bond length is about 1.06 Å, shorter than typical sp³ C-H bonds due to the higher s-character (50%) in the sp hybrid orbital.^[11] The terminal hydrogen imparts acidity to 1-butyne, with a pKa of approximately 25, significantly lower than that of alkanes (pKa ~50) because the resulting acetylide anion is stabilized by the sp-hybridized carbon.^[12] This acidity facilitates deprotonation under basic conditions. The heat of combustion for 1-butyne is -2596.8 kJ/mol in the gas phase, reflecting its high energy content from the strained triple bond.^[13] Infrared spectroscopy reveals characteristic absorptions for 1-butyne at approximately 3300 cm⁻¹ (strong, ≡C-H stretch) and 2100–2260 cm⁻¹ (weak, C≡C stretch), diagnostic of the terminal alkyne functionality.^[14] Proton NMR shows the terminal ≡C-H proton as a singlet around 2.5 ppm, deshielded relative to alkane protons but upfield compared to vinylic hydrogens; the adjacent CH₂ protons appear near 2.2 ppm (multiplet), and the CH₃ protons at about 1.0 ppm (triplet).^[15] Due to the sp hybridization, 1-butyne exhibits reactivity at the triple bond, particularly toward addition and deprotonation, but remains stable under inert atmospheric conditions away from oxidants or strong acids/bases.^[16]

Synthesis

Laboratory preparation

One common laboratory method for preparing 1-butyne involves the alkylation of acetylene, leveraging the relative acidity of its terminal hydrogen to generate an acetylide anion. Acetylene is first deprotonated using sodium amide (NaNH₂) in liquid ammonia to form the sodium acetylide intermediate.

\ce{HC#CH + NaNH2 -> HC#CNa + NH3}

This acetylide anion then undergoes nucleophilic substitution with ethyl bromide (CH₃CH₂Br) in an Sₙ2 reaction, yielding 1-butyne after workup.

\ce{HC#CNa + CH3CH2Br -> HC#CCH2CH3 + NaBr}

The reaction is typically conducted under anhydrous conditions to prevent side reactions, with yields of 70-80% achieved after purification by fractional distillation under reduced pressure.^[17] An alternative laboratory route employs double dehydrohalogenation of 1,2-dibromobutane, a vicinal dihalide precursor obtained from the bromination of 1-butene. Treatment with excess sodium amide in liquid ammonia promotes two successive E2 eliminations, removing HBr to form the triple bond.

\ce{BrCH2CHBrCH2CH3 + 2 NaNH2 -> HC#CCH2CH3 + 2 NaBr + 2 NH3}

This method requires careful control of temperature and excess base to drive the reaction to completion and minimize over-deprotonation of the product alkyne.^[18]

Industrial production

1-Butyne is produced on a small industrial scale as a specialty chemical, with output limited by its niche demand in organic synthesis and calibration gases; due to being a gas at room temperature, it is challenging to handle quantitatively in processes like alkyne metathesis.^[19] Due to low volume, it is often synthesized on demand using laboratory methods scaled up slightly. 1-Butyne occurs as a minor byproduct in C4 unsaturated fractions from hydrocarbon pyrolysis processes, such as steam cracking of naphtha, but is typically removed (e.g., via hydrogenation) during refining to produce olefins like 1-butene, rather than isolated as a product. An alternative route starts from industrially abundant 1-butene, which is brominated to 1,2-dibromobutane and undergoes double dehydrohalogenation with alcoholic KOH to produce 1-butyne.^[20] Industrial processes achieve greater than 95% purity for 1-butyne through fractional distillation to remove byproducts like 2-butyne, which arises from over-alkylation or isomerization. Yields are optimized for cost-effectiveness in low-volume operations.^[4]^[5]

Reactions

Addition reactions

1-Butyne, like other terminal alkynes, undergoes electrophilic addition reactions at the carbon-carbon triple bond, which can be sequentially reduced to alkenes or fully saturated to alkanes. These additions are driven by the high reactivity of the π-bonds in the triple bond, converting it to a double or single bond while releasing energy. The reactions typically follow Markovnikov's rule for regioselectivity in unsymmetrical cases, with the terminal alkyne's C-H bond influencing the orientation.^[21] Hydrogenation of 1-butyne with hydrogen gas can be controlled to achieve partial or complete reduction. Using Lindlar's catalyst (palladium on calcium carbonate poisoned with lead and quinoline), one equivalent of H₂ adds syn across the triple bond to yield 1-butene as the major product:

\ce{HC#CCH2CH3 + H2 ->[Lindlar's][cat.] H2C=CHCH2CH3}

This selective partial hydrogenation stops at the alkene stage due to the catalyst's deactivation, preventing over-reduction.^[22] For complete hydrogenation to butane, a more active catalyst like palladium on carbon (Pd/C) is employed with excess H₂:

\ce{HC#CCH2CH3 + 2 H2 ->[Pd/C] CH3CH2CH2CH3}

This process fully saturates the triple bond to a single bond.^[23] Halogenation involves the addition of halogens such as bromine (Br₂) to the triple bond, proceeding stepwise. With one equivalent of Br₂ in an inert solvent like dichloromethane, 1-butyne forms a mixture of (E)- and (Z)-1,2-dibromobut-1-ene via trans addition:

\ce{HC#CCH2CH3 + Br2 -> BrHC=CBrCH2CH3}

The trans stereochemistry predominates due to the anti addition mechanism involving a bridged halonium intermediate. Excess Br₂ leads to further addition, yielding 1,1,2,2-tetrabromobutane:

\ce{BrHC=CBrCH2CH3 + Br2 -> Br2HC-CBr2CH2CH3}

This geminal tetrabromide results from the second anti addition to the vinyl dibromide.^[24] Hydration of 1-butyne, catalyzed by mercuric sulfate (HgSO₄) in sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), adds water across the triple bond following Markovnikov's rule, initially forming an enol that tautomerizes to a ketone. The reaction produces butan-2-one as the major product:

\ce{HC#CCH2CH3 + H2O ->[HgSO4][H2SO4] CH3CH2C(O)CH3}

The mercury catalyst facilitates the addition by forming a vinyl mercurinium intermediate, ensuring regioselectivity where the OH adds to the internal carbon, leading to the enol CH₃CH₂C(OH)=CH₂, which rapidly tautomerizes to the methyl ketone. This method is specific for terminal alkynes to yield methyl ketones.^[21] These addition reactions are exothermic, with the conversion of the triple bond (bond energy approximately 839 kJ/mol) to a double bond (631 kJ/mol) or single bond (347 kJ/mol) releasing significant heat—more so than analogous alkene additions due to the higher π-electron density and energy in the alkyne. For instance, the hydrogenation of alkynes liberates about 240-300 kJ/mol per triple bond reduction, establishing the thermodynamic favorability.^[25]

Deprotonation and substitution

The terminal alkyne proton in 1-butyne exhibits sufficient acidity (pK_a ≈ 25) to undergo deprotonation with strong bases, generating a nucleophilic acetylide anion that enables subsequent substitution reactions.^[26] Treatment with sodium amide (NaNH₂) in liquid ammonia is a standard method, yielding sodium 1-butynide and ammonia, as shown in the equation:

\mathrm{HC \equiv CCH_2CH_3 + NaNH_2 \rightarrow Na^+ \, ^- \mathrm{C \equiv CCH_2CH_3 + NH_3}

^[26] Grignard reagents, such as ethylmagnesium bromide, can also deprotonate 1-butyne to form the corresponding magnesium acetylide, though this approach is less common due to potential side reactions with the organomagnesium species.^[27] The resulting acetylide anion serves as a potent nucleophile in SN2 alkylations with primary alkyl halides, facilitating carbon-carbon bond formation and the synthesis of longer-chain internal alkynes. For instance, sodium 1-butynide reacts with methyl iodide to produce 2-pentyne and sodium iodide:

\mathrm{Na^+ \, ^- \mathrm{C \equiv CCH_2CH_3 + CH_3I \rightarrow CH_3C \equiv CCH_2CH_3 + NaI}

^[17] This reaction is highly efficient for unhindered primary halides and is widely employed in organic synthesis to extend the carbon skeleton of terminal alkynes.^[17] Under basic conditions, the acetylide derived from 1-butyne can condense with formaldehyde to form propargylic alcohol derivatives, incorporating a hydroxymethyl group at the terminal carbon. This base-catalyzed reaction proceeds via nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl, followed by protonation, yielding pent-2-yn-1-ol (HOCH₂C≡CCH₂CH₃) as the product.^[28] Such condensations are valuable for introducing oxygen functionality adjacent to the alkyne, though yields may vary with catalyst choice and conditions.^[28] 1-Butyne participates in alkyne metathesis reactions catalyzed by molybdenum alkylidyne complexes, allowing the exchange of its ethyl group with those from other alkynes to form new internal alkynes. These catalysts, often featuring tripodal silanolate or amide ligands, operate under mild conditions (e.g., room temperature in toluene) with low loadings (1 mol%) and enable selective redistribution without significant polymerization of the terminal alkyne.^[29] This process has emerged as a powerful tool for alkyne remodeling in complex molecule synthesis.^[29]

Applications

Organic synthesis

1-Butyne serves as a versatile terminal alkyne building block in organic synthesis, enabling the construction of enynes and extended carbon chains essential for pharmaceuticals, materials, and fragrances. Its reactivity stems from the acidic terminal hydrogen, which facilitates metal-catalyzed couplings and nucleophilic additions. A primary application is the Sonogashira coupling, where 1-butyne undergoes Pd/Cu-catalyzed reaction with aryl halides to form conjugated internal alkynes. Longer alkynes are prepared through iterative alkylation of 1-butyne, involving deprotonation with a strong base like sodium amide to generate the acetylide anion, followed by reaction with primary alkyl halides; for example, treatment with ethyl bromide affords 1-hexyne, which can be extended further for polymer precursors or natural product analogs such as pheromones.^[30] In pharmaceutical synthesis, 1-butyne acts as an intermediate for active pharmaceutical ingredients. A representative example in fragrance production involves deprotonation of 1-butyne and reaction with ethylene oxide to form 3-hexyn-1-ol, which is selectively hydrogenated to cis-3-hexen-1-ol, a green leafy note used in perfumes and flavors.^[31]

Analytical uses

1-Butyne is employed as a reference standard in gas chromatography for establishing retention times of C4 alkynes during the analysis of petrochemical samples, where its elution behavior helps identify unsaturated hydrocarbons in complex mixtures.^[32]^[33] In mass spectrometry, it provides a molecular ion peak at m/z 54, along with distinctive fragmentation patterns that enable the identification and calibration of alkyne compounds in analytical workflows.^[34] As an infrared spectroscopy reference, 1-butyne exhibits characteristic absorption bands for terminal alkynes, such as the ≡C-H stretch near 3300 cm⁻¹ (strong) and the C≡C stretch in the 2100–2260 cm⁻¹ range (weak to variable), which are used to detect and quantify terminal alkynes in mixtures.^[35]^[36] These analytical applications occur predominantly on a laboratory scale in research settings for instrument validation and trace alkyne detection in fuels, with limited adoption in industrial processes due to its specialized role.^[37]

Safety and hazards

Health and flammability risks

1-Butyne is classified as an extremely flammable gas under GHS criteria, posing significant fire and explosion risks due to its low flash point of -61 °C and ability to form explosive vapor-air mixtures.^[38] The lower and upper explosive limits in air are 2.5% and 80% by volume, respectively, indicating a wide range where ignition can occur.^[38] Heating may lead to explosive polymerization or container rupture, exacerbating these hazards.^[39] As a simple asphyxiant in its gaseous state, 1-butyne can displace oxygen in confined spaces, leading to symptoms such as dizziness, headache, and loss of consciousness at high concentrations.^[40] Inhalation may also cause respiratory irritation, while contact with the liquefied form can result in frostbite, skin irritation, or serious eye damage.^[40] Acute toxicity data indicate low overall hazard, with no classification for carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or reproductive toxicity.^[38]

Handling and storage

1-Butyne, a flammable compressed gas, requires careful handling in laboratory and industrial settings to prevent ignition, explosion, or exposure risks. It should be manipulated in well-ventilated areas, such as fume hoods, using explosion-proof equipment and non-sparking tools to minimize static discharge and spark hazards.^[41] Personal protective equipment (PPE) including safety goggles, chemical-resistant gloves, and flame-retardant clothing is essential to protect against skin contact, eye irritation, and potential ignition of clothing.^[42] Ground all equipment and transfer lines to prevent static sparks during handling.^[41] For storage, 1-butyne is typically kept in pressurized cylinders secured upright with valve protection caps in place, in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight, heat sources, oxidizers, and ignition sources.^[41] Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52 °C, and storage at 2-8 °C is recommended to maintain stability.^[42] Cylinders must be stored in approved, segregated areas in accordance with local regulations, ensuring they are firmly secured to prevent falling or damage.^[41] In case of fire involving 1-butyne, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide (CO₂), or alcohol-resistant foam extinguishers; do not use water jets unless the leak can be safely stopped, as it may spread the fire.^[41] For spills or leaks, evacuate the area, eliminate ignition sources, ventilate thoroughly, and stop the leak if safe using spark-proof tools; contain large spills with dikes for disposal.^[38] First aid measures include moving exposed individuals to fresh air for inhalation incidents, rinsing skin or eyes with water, and warming frostbitten areas gradually with lukewarm water while seeking medical attention.^[41] Regulatory classification designates 1-butyne as a UN 2452 (ethylacetylene, stabilized) hazardous material under DOT hazard class 2.1 (flammable gas), requiring compliance with transportation and storage regulations for compressed flammable gases.^[42]

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