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Dehydrohalogenation

Dehydrohalogenation is an elimination reaction in organic chemistry in which a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom are removed from adjacent carbon atoms in an alkyl halide substrate, typically forming an alkene product and a hydrogen halide byproduct.^[1] This β-elimination process involves the loss of HX (where X is Cl, Br, or I) from the α-carbon bearing the halogen and the β-carbon providing the hydrogen.^[2] The reaction is most commonly promoted by treatment with a strong base, such as an alkoxide ion (RO⁻) or hydroxide ion (HO⁻), under conditions that favor elimination over substitution.^[3] Dehydrohalogenation can proceed via two primary mechanisms: the concerted, bimolecular E2 pathway, which is favored by strong bases and secondary or tertiary alkyl halides, and the stepwise, unimolecular E1 pathway, which involves carbocation intermediates and is promoted by weaker bases or polar protic solvents.^[4] In the E2 mechanism, bond breaking and formation occur simultaneously in a single transition state, leading to anti-periplanar geometry in the transition state for optimal orbital overlap.^[5] This reaction holds significant importance in synthetic organic chemistry as one of the primary methods for preparing alkenes from readily available alkyl halides, enabling the construction of carbon-carbon double bonds essential for pharmaceuticals, materials, and natural product synthesis.^[3] The regioselectivity follows Zaitsev's rule, favoring the more substituted (thermodynamically stable) alkene, though conditions like bulky bases can promote the less substituted Hofmann product.^[6] Competition with nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 or SN2) is common, particularly with primary alkyl halides, necessitating careful control of base strength, solvent, and temperature to optimize yields.^[7]

General Principles

Definition and Scope

Dehydrohalogenation is an elimination reaction in which a hydrogen halide (HX, where X denotes a halogen such as chlorine, bromine, or iodine) is removed from a substrate, typically yielding unsaturated compounds like alkenes, alkynes, or other functionalities with carbon-carbon multiple bonds. This process is fundamental in synthetic chemistry for introducing unsaturation into molecular frameworks.^[3] The scope of dehydrohalogenation extends across organic and inorganic domains. In organic contexts, it primarily involves substrates such as alkyl halides and vinyl halides, enabling the conversion of saturated to unsaturated hydrocarbons. In inorganic chemistry, the reaction applies to coordination compounds, where it facilitates ligand modifications or metal-hydride formations, and to ionic salts, often under basic conditions to generate reactive intermediates. Unlike dehydration, which eliminates water (H₂O) from alcohols or similar compounds to form alkenes, dehydrohalogenation specifically targets HX removal, preserving distinct mechanistic and substrate requirements.^[8]^[9]^[3] Historically, dehydrohalogenation was first systematically explored in the 1850s using alcoholic KOH on alkyl bromides, with pioneering contributions from chemists like Alexander Butlerov, whose structural theories influenced subsequent developments. This early work laid the groundwork for regioselectivity rules, such as Zaitsev's rule established in the 1870s by Butlerov's student Aleksandr Zaitsev, and has since evolved into versatile modern synthetic strategies. A key prerequisite for the reaction is the availability of a β-hydrogen atom relative to the halogen-bearing carbon, ensuring proper alignment for elimination and underscoring its utility in organic synthesis for controlled unsaturation. Mechanisms often proceed via concerted E2 or carbocation-mediated E1 pathways, depending on conditions.^[10]

Reaction Mechanisms

Dehydrohalogenation reactions primarily proceed via two fundamental mechanisms: the bimolecular E2 elimination and the unimolecular E1 elimination. The E2 mechanism is a concerted, one-step process involving the simultaneous abstraction of a β-hydrogen by a base and departure of the halide leaving group, resulting in the formation of an alkene.^[11] This pathway exhibits second-order kinetics, with the rate depending on both the substrate and base concentrations: rate = k[RX][B⁻].^[12] In the transition state, partial bonds form between the base and hydrogen, and between the α- and β-carbons, while the C-H and C-X bonds weaken concurrently.^[13] The general equation for the E2 mechanism is:

\text{R-CH}_2\text{-CHX-R' + B: } \rightarrow \text{R-CH=CH-R' + BH}^{+} + \text{X}^{-}

where B: represents the base, X is the halogen, and R/R' are alkyl substituents.^[11] This mechanism predominates under conditions favoring bimolecular processes, such as with strong bases. In contrast, the E1 mechanism is a stepwise, two-stage process initiated by the unimolecular ionization of the alkyl halide to form a carbocation intermediate, followed by deprotonation of a β-hydrogen.^[11] It follows first-order kinetics, rate = k[RX], independent of base concentration, and is common in polar protic solvents where carbocation stabilization occurs.^[13] Rearrangements, such as hydride or alkyl shifts, can arise due to the planar, achiral nature of the carbocation.^[11] A typical scheme for a tertiary halide is:

\text{(CH}_3\text{)}_3\text{C-X } \rightarrow \text{ (CH}_3\text{)}_3\text{C}^{+} + \text{X}^{-} \rightarrow \text{ (CH}_3\text{)}_2\text{C=CH}_2 + \text{HX}

This pathway is typical for tertiary halides or under conditions with weak bases.^[13] The choice between E2 and E1 mechanisms is influenced by several factors, including base strength, solvent polarity, temperature, and substrate structure. Strong, non-bulky bases like ethoxide promote E2, while weak bases or nucleophiles favor E1 in polar solvents that stabilize ions.^[11] Primary halides typically undergo E2 due to unfavorable carbocation formation, whereas tertiary halides lean toward E1.^[13] Higher temperatures generally enhance elimination over substitution, shifting equilibrium toward E1 or E2.^[11] Stereochemistry plays a critical role, particularly in E2 eliminations, which require anti-periplanar geometry between the β-hydrogen and leaving group for optimal orbital overlap in the transition state.^[14] This leads to anti elimination, producing specific alkene stereoisomers; syn elimination is rare and occurs only under constrained conditions.^[13] In cyclic systems, such as cyclohexyl halides, the diaxial conformation is necessary, enforcing stereospecificity—cis isomers react faster than trans due to easier attainment of the required geometry.^[11] E1 eliminations lack such stereospecificity, as the carbocation allows attack from multiple directions.^[14] Regioselectivity in both mechanisms is governed by Zaitsev's rule, which predicts the major product as the more substituted (thermodynamically stable) alkene, due to greater hyperconjugation and inductive stabilization in the transition state for E2 or the carbocation for E1.^[11] For instance, dehydrohalogenation of 2-bromobutane yields predominantly 2-butene over 1-butene.^[13] Bulky bases can invert this, favoring Hofmann products (less substituted alkenes) via steric hindrance.^[11] Kinetic isotope effects provide mechanistic insight, particularly for E2, where replacing hydrogen with deuterium at the β-position results in a primary isotope effect (k_H/k_D ≈ 6-7), indicating C-H bond cleavage in the rate-determining step.^[12] This arises from the higher zero-point energy of C-H bonds compared to C-D, lowering the activation energy difference (ΔE_a ≈ 5 kJ/mol) and slowing deuterated reactions.^[12] In E1, secondary isotope effects are observed, as deprotonation follows carbocation formation.^[12]

Dehydrohalogenation of Alkyl and Vinyl Halides

Formation of Alkenes

Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides serves as a key method for synthesizing alkenes through base-promoted elimination of hydrogen halide (HX). This process involves treating alkyl halides with strong bases in alcoholic solvents to favor the bimolecular E2 pathway, which is concerted and requires anti-periplanar alignment of the leaving groups. Typical conditions include alcoholic potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium ethoxide (NaOEt) at temperatures of 60–100°C, where the solvent reduces the base's nucleophilicity to minimize competing substitution reactions.^[10]^[15] A representative equation for the reaction is the dehydrohalogenation of 2-bromobutane:

\ce{CH3-CHBr-CH2-CH3 + ^-OH ->[alcoholic KOH, 60-100°C] CH3-CH=CH-CH3 + H2O + Br^-}

The product, 2-butene, forms as a mixture of (E)- and (Z)-stereoisomers, with the thermodynamically more stable (E)-isomer predominating in equilibrated conditions. This elimination illustrates the scope for secondary alkyl halides, where the reaction efficiently generates internal alkenes.^[16]^[10] Regioselectivity in alkene formation follows Zaitsev's rule, which predicts that the major product is the more highly substituted alkene due to its greater thermodynamic stability from hyperconjugation and inductive effects. For instance, treatment of 2-bromobutane with alcoholic KOH yields 2-butene as the major product (approximately 80%) and 1-butene as the minor product (20%). However, using bulky bases such as potassium tert-butoxide (t-BuOK) in tert-butanol shifts selectivity toward the less substituted Hofmann product, as steric bulk hinders approach to the more crowded β-hydrogen on the carbon adjacent to more alkyl substituents. This allows synthetic control over product distribution in cases with multiple β-hydrogens.^[15]^[16]^[17] The reaction's scope encompasses primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl halides, with reactivity increasing in that order owing to enhanced transition-state stabilization by alkyl groups. Primary halides predominantly undergo substitution (SN2) as a side reaction under these conditions, while secondary and tertiary halides favor elimination, though tertiary ones may proceed via competing E1 pathways if the base is weak. To optimize alkene yields, conditions are adjusted to suppress substitution, such as using concentrated bases like NaOH or KOH in ethanol, which enhance elimination ratios to over 90% for secondary halides. Industrially, this method contributes to alkene production, particularly for targeted syntheses where alkyl halides are readily available precursors.^[10]^[15]^[18]

Formation of Alkynes

The formation of alkynes through dehydrohalogenation involves the double elimination of hydrogen halide from vicinal dihalides (where halogens are on adjacent carbons) or geminal dihalides (where both halogens are on the same carbon). This process proceeds via two successive E2 elimination reactions, the first generating a vinyl halide intermediate and the second yielding the triple bond.^[19]^[20] The reaction requires excess strong base, typically sodium amide (NaNH₂) in liquid ammonia, to drive both eliminations to completion, as the vinyl halide intermediate is less reactive than alkyl halides due to the sp²-hybridized carbon.^[19]^[21] A representative equation for the conversion of 1,2-dibromoethane (a vicinal dihalide) to acetylene illustrates the process:

\mathrm{BrCH_2CH_2Br + 2 NaNH_2 \rightarrow HC \equiv CH + 2 NaBr + 2 NH_3}

^[19] For geminal dihalides, such as 1,1-dibromopropane (CH₃CH₂CHBr₂), treatment with excess NaNH₂ yields propyne (CH₃C≡CH).^[20]^[19] In cases forming terminal alkynes, an additional equivalent of base is often needed because the product is deprotonated by NaNH₂ to form the acetylide anion, which must be neutralized (e.g., via aqueous workup) to isolate the neutral alkyne.^[19]^[22] This method is particularly valuable for laboratory synthesis of both terminal and internal alkynes from readily available dihalides, offering a controlled route to these compounds that historically supported early acetylene production and remains key in organic synthesis for pharmaceuticals and materials.^[19]^[21]

Thermal Processes

Thermal dehydrohalogenation refers to the pyrolysis of alkyl and vinyl halides at high temperatures, typically 400–800 °C, to eliminate hydrogen halide and form unsaturated hydrocarbons without requiring a base. This process operates through a unimolecular molecular elimination mechanism involving a concerted four-centered cyclic transition state, where the C–H and C–X bonds break simultaneously to yield an alkene and HX. Unlike base-promoted eliminations, thermal processes favor this non-ionic pathway due to the gas-phase conditions and elevated temperatures that promote homolytic or heterolytic bond cleavage.^[23]^[24] A classic example is the gas-phase pyrolysis of ethyl chloride, which decomposes to ethylene and hydrogen chloride:

\ce{CH3CH2Cl ->[~600^\circ\mathrm{C}] CH2=CH2 + HCl}

This reaction follows first-order kinetics, with rates independent of pressure down to 0.2 mm Hg and temperatures ranging from 402–521 °C, confirming the unimolecular nature and minimal surface involvement. Similar thermal decompositions apply to other primary alkyl chlorides and bromides, yielding corresponding alkenes cleanly under controlled conditions.^[25]^[26] Industrially, thermal dehydrohalogenation is central to vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) production, where 1,2-dichloroethane (EDC) undergoes pyrolysis in tubular furnaces at around 500 °C to produce VCM and HCl, with conversions of about 50% and selectivities over 98%. This contrasts with catalytic cracking in petroleum refining, which uses acid catalysts at lower temperatures (450–550 °C) to break C–C bonds in hydrocarbons for olefin production, whereas thermal halide cracking relies on heat alone for C–H and C–X elimination, often integrated into balanced ethylene-chlorine processes.^[27]^[28] Despite its utility, thermal dehydrohalogenation demands high energy inputs to achieve activation energies of 40–60 kcal/mol, leading to operational costs and equipment stress. Side products, including coke, char, and higher hydrocarbons from radical chain reactions or over-cracking, reduce yields and necessitate frequent maintenance, such as decoking. In comparison to base-mediated methods, thermal processes offer lower selectivity for specific alkenes, as secondary radical pathways and multiple β-hydrogen options produce a wider product distribution, though they avoid salt byproduct issues.^[29]^[30]^[23]

Dehydrohalogenation in Other Organic Reactions

Epoxide Synthesis

Dehydrohalogenation of halohydrins provides a versatile route to epoxides through base-promoted intramolecular elimination of hydrogen halide from β-halo alcohols, forming a three-membered oxirane ring. This process is particularly valuable in organic synthesis due to its ability to generate epoxides under mild conditions from readily available halohydrin precursors, which are often prepared via electrophilic addition to alkenes. Common bases such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide facilitate the reaction by deprotonating the hydroxyl group, enabling nucleophilic displacement.^[31]^[32] A representative example is the conversion of 1-chloropropan-2-ol to propylene oxide:

\ce{Cl-CH2-CH(OH)-CH3 + OH- ->[base] \overset{\ce{CH3}}{\underset{|}{\ce{CH-CH2}}} + H2O + Cl-}

In this reaction, the base generates the alkoxide from the alcohol, which then undergoes intramolecular nucleophilic attack on the carbon bearing the chlorine, displacing chloride and closing the ring. The mechanism proceeds via an SN2-like pathway at the carbon-halogen bond, requiring anti-periplanar alignment of the oxygen and halogen for efficient backside attack. This intramolecular elimination contrasts with intermolecular dehydrohalogenations by favoring ring formation over alkene production.^[31]^[32]^[33] The stereochemistry of the transformation retains the configuration at both carbon centers involved, preserving the relative spatial arrangement of substituents from the halohydrin precursor. This outcome arises because the SN2 inversion at the halogen-bearing carbon effectively mirrors the prior anti addition in halohydrin formation, resulting in overall syn stereochemistry for the epoxide relative to the original alkene. For instance, trans alkenes yield racemic trans epoxides, while cis alkenes produce meso cis epoxides.^[34]^[32] Suitable substrates include chlorohydrins and bromohydrins, with primary halides preferred to minimize elimination side products and ensure clean SN2 reactivity; secondary or tertiary halides may lead to competing E2 pathways. In unsymmetrical cases, regioselectivity favors attack at the less substituted carbon-halogen bond, directing the epoxide oxygen toward the more substituted position. Industrially, this method was pivotal in the early production of ethylene oxide via dehydrochlorination of ethylene chlorohydrin with lime (Ca(OH)₂) or NaOH, a process commercialized in 1914 and used until the 1930s when direct oxidation supplanted it, though it remains relevant for propylene oxide synthesis.^[31]^[32]^[35] Epoxides produced via this dehydrohalogenation serve as critical intermediates in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, such as antiviral drugs and beta-blockers, and polymers like polyurethanes and epoxy resins, where the ring strain enables regioselective ring-opening reactions. The method's synthetic importance lies in its compatibility with chiral halohydrins for enantioselective epoxide synthesis, enhancing its utility in asymmetric synthesis.^[31]^[34]

Isocyanide Synthesis

The carbylamine reaction, also known as the Hofmann isocyanide synthesis, is a classic method for producing isocyanides (R-NC) through the treatment of primary amines with chloroform and a base, involving multiple dehydrohalogenation steps.^[36] The overall reaction can be represented as:

\mathrm{RNH_2 + CHCl_3 + 3\, KOH \to R-NC + 3\, KCl + 3\, H_2O}

This process was first reported by August Wilhelm von Hofmann in 1867, who observed the formation of foul-smelling isocyanides from aniline and chloroform under basic conditions. The reaction's discovery highlighted the unique reactivity of haloforms and laid the foundation for isocyanide chemistry in organic synthesis.^[36] The reaction is typically conducted using alcoholic KOH as the base, with heating to reflux, often in a well-ventilated setup due to the characteristic foul odor of the isocyanide products.^[37] It is specific to primary amines, as secondary and tertiary amines do not yield isocyanides under these conditions, making it a valuable qualitative test for distinguishing primary amines in analytical chemistry.^[36] For example, the test involves heating a small sample of the amine with chloroform and ethanolic KOH; a positive result is indicated by the evolution of a pungent, unpleasant smell.^[37] Mechanistically, the reaction proceeds via the generation of dichlorocarbene as a key intermediate, followed by two successive dehydrohalogenations. The first step is the base-promoted dehydrohalogenation of chloroform:

\mathrm{CHCl_3 + KOH \to :CCl_2 + KCl + H_2O}

The electrophilic dichlorocarbene then adds to the nucleophilic nitrogen of the primary amine, forming an intermediate dichloromethylamine:

\mathrm{:CCl_2 + RNH_2 \to RNH-CHCl_2}

Subsequent dehydrochlorination steps, facilitated by excess base, eliminate two equivalents of HCl to yield the isocyanide:

\begin{align*} &\mathrm{RNH-CHCl_2 + KOH \to RN=CHCl + KCl + H_2O} \\ &\mathrm{RN=CHCl + KOH \to R-NC + KCl + H_2O} \end{align*}

This sequence underscores the role of dehydrohalogenation in both carbene generation and the transformation of the amine adduct to the final product.^[36]

Dehydrohalogenation in Inorganic Chemistry

Coordination Compounds

In coordination compounds, beta-dehydrohalogenation refers to elimination processes in organometallic complexes where a hydrogen and halogen are removed from adjacent carbons in an alkyl ligand, often facilitated by the metal center. A key variant is beta-hydride elimination, where a hydrogen from the beta position migrates to the metal, forming a metal-hydride species and an alkene, with the halogen potentially influencing the pathway through competition or assistance. This process is common in d^8 square-planar complexes of platinum and palladium, requiring a vacant coordination site for the migration to occur.^[38] The mechanism typically begins with reversible dissociation of a ligand (e.g., phosphine) to generate a three-coordinate intermediate, followed by rate-determining beta-hydride transfer in a syn fashion, yielding a metal-hydride-alkene adduct that can further dissociate. In cases involving beta-halogen substituents, such as in alkyl-metal halides like M-CH2-CH2-X, the elimination can proceed via beta-hydride migration to form M-H + CH2=CH2 + X^-, or compete with beta-X elimination to give M-X + CH2=CH2, depending on ligand electronics and sterics. For square-planar complexes, the process is often irreversible under thermal conditions due to the stability of the resulting alkene. Similar behavior occurs in [Pt(PPh3)2(CH3)(CH2CH(R))]^+ enolate or alkyl complexes, which decompose at 95°C in toluene to form methane or propene via beta-hydride elimination, with rates influenced by the cis ligand and beta substitution (e.g., kinetic isotope effect k_H/k_D = 3.2). In palladium systems, beta-elimination is exemplified in (beta-haloalkyl)palladium intermediates during catalysis, where electron-rich ligands like PPh3 favor beta-X over beta-H pathways at room temperature.^[39] These eliminations typically require thermal conditions (e.g., 70-100°C) or ligand assistance to modulate rates and prevent premature decomposition; added phosphines (7.5-15 mM) stabilize complexes and control reversibility. In catalysis, such as olefin polymerization initiators, beta-hydride elimination serves as a chain-transfer step, limiting polymer molecular weight, while in cross-coupling reactions like the Heck or Suzuki processes, it is essential for product release, with beta-X variants enabling selective C(sp3)-C(sp2) bond formation by avoiding unwanted alkenes. The general equation for beta-hydride elimination in a square-planar complex is:

\ce{M-CH2-CH3 ->[thermal] M-H + CH2=CH2}

This differs from organic E2 dehydrohalogenation, which requires a strong base and is concerted with anti-periplanar geometry; in metal-mediated versions, the coordination sphere dictates stereochemistry (often syn), and the process is intramolecular without external nucleophiles, enabling reversibility and integration into catalytic cycles.^[38]

Ionic and Organometallic Systems

In ionic compounds, dehydrohalogenation reactions often occur reversibly in salts featuring acidic cations hydrogen-bonded to halometallate anions, such as protonated amines paired with tetrahalometallate species. These processes involve the cleavage of N–H (or analogous C–H) bonds in the cation and M–X bonds in the anion, liberating HX gas and yielding a neutral base alongside a neutral metallate fragment. A representative equilibrium is depicted as [R₃NH]⁺ [MX₄]⁻ ⇌ R₃N + HX + MX₃, where R is an alkyl group and M is a metal like Al or a transition metal, with the reaction driven by thermal or mechanochemical stimuli in solid-state or melt conditions.^[8] For instance, in chloroaluminate systems like triethylammonium tetrachloroaluminate ([Et₃NH]⁺ [AlCl₄]⁻), the equilibrium shifts toward dehydrohalogenation under heating, releasing HCl and forming Et₃N + AlCl₃, reflecting the tunable acidity of these melts based on AlCl₃ stoichiometry.^[8]^[40] Hydrogen-bonded halometallates exemplify this behavior, where the second-sphere coordination between the protonated cation (e.g., [B–H]⁺) and the halometallate anion ([X–MXₙ]⁻) facilitates elimination: [B–H]⁺ ··· [X–MXₙ]⁻ ⇌ B + HX + MXₙ. These reactions are reversible through gas-solid chemisorption of HX, even in non-porous materials, enabling dynamic structural transformations from outer-sphere adducts to inner-sphere coordination complexes involving metals like Cu(II), Zn(II), Co(II), Pt(II), Pd(II), or Hg(II) with halides Cl or Br.^[8] The reversibility stems from the weak hydrogen bonding and the thermodynamic favorability of HX formation, with activation energies lowered by the proximity of the donor and acceptor sites; for example, thermal treatment at moderate temperatures (around 100–200 °C) induces dehydrohalogenation, while exposure to HX vapor promotes the reverse hydrohalogenation.^[8] In organometallic contexts beyond discrete coordination complexes, dehydrohalogenation manifests through thermal elimination processes, notably β-hydride elimination in Grignard reagents (RMgX). Under heat, these species undergo decomposition where a β-hydrogen from the R group migrates to the magnesium, forming an alkene and HMgX: e.g., EtMgCl → C₂H₄ + HMgCl. This pathway dominates thermal stability limits, with decomposition onset around 100–150 °C depending on the alkyl chain, contrasting with oxidative or hydrolytic routes.^[41] Sigma-bond metathesis can also contribute in mixed systems, exchanging ligands without redox changes, though elimination prevails in pure Grignard heating. These bulk ionic or melt-like behaviors differ from molecular coordination compounds by emphasizing equilibrium-driven equilibria in extended lattices rather than isolated ligand-metal interactions.^[8]^[41] Such reversible dehydrohalogenations find applications in precursor synthesis for coordination compounds, where hydrogen-bonded salts serve as starting materials for mechanochemical or thermal conversion to first-sphere complexes, offering solvent-free routes with high atom economy. The thermodynamics favor reversibility due to comparable bond strengths (N–H/M–X ~ 100–150 kJ/mol vs. H–X ~ 400 kJ/mol, balanced by entropy from gas evolution), enabling control over reaction direction via temperature or pressure. While primarily synthetic, these processes inform designs for hydrogen storage materials by analogy to reversible HX uptake/release in metal-halide frameworks, though direct implementations remain exploratory.^[8]^[8]

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“Marriage” of Inorganic to Organic Chemistry as Motivation for a ...
Sep 20, 2024 · Alternatively, an initial slow attack of the dichlorocarbene C atom by the weak nucleophile, but present in huge excess being the reaction ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
ethyl isocyanide - Organic Syntheses Procedure
Ethyl isocyanide has been obtained by treating ethylamine and chloroform with potassium hydroxide, by pyrolyzing the complex between ethyl isothiocyanate and ...
[37]
Pt-Mechanistic Study of the β-Hydrogen Elimination from ... - NIH
Mechanistic studies of β-hydrogen elimination from transition metal alkyl complexes have shown that the process is fastest when the complex possesses an open ...
[38]
[PDF] JH PhD Doc - Queen's University Belfast
HCl ... AlCl3 + [AlCl4]- ⇄ [Al2Cl7]-. Equation 1.2-5. 2 ... acidity by FTIR spectrum of [Et3NH]Cl – AlCl3 χAlCl3 =0.60 with added salts and pyridine as a.
[39]
Halide-free Grignard reagents for the synthesis of superior MgH 2 ...
The thermal decomposition mechanism of Grignard reagents is believed to occur along the β-elimination of hydrogen [25,26]; and the energy required to break ...<|separator|>