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1444

1444 was a year in the marked principally by the on November 10, when Sultan II's army defeated a multinational Christian crusading force comprising Hungarian, Polish, Wallachian, and other contingents led by King and , resulting in heavy Christian losses including the death of Władysław and halting immediate threats to consolidation in the . This engagement, part of the , represented one of the last major coordinated European efforts to counter advances toward , with the superiority in numbers and tactics, including effective use of infantry and artillery, proving decisive despite the crusaders' initial successes. Earlier in the year, on March 2, the League of Lezhë was formed by Albanian noblemen under Gjergj Kastrioti (), initiating organized resistance against incursions in Albania that would persist for decades. The Truce of Tours, signed on 28 May 1444 between England and France, temporarily suspended hostilities in the , though it failed to endure. Notable births included on January 24, who would later rule as Duke of Milan known for his patronage of the arts amid tyrannical governance. Significant deaths encompassed Władysław III in the Varna debacle and Flemish painter around April 26, whose innovative works influenced early Netherlandish art.

Events

Diplomatic and Political Developments

In , the Truce of Tours, signed on 28 May 1444 between and , marked a temporary halt to hostilities in the . The agreement, negotiated by envoys of of and VII of , established a one-year cessation of fighting and included a marriage alliance between Henry VI and , niece of Charles VII's consort , to promote reconciliation. Provisions also stipulated the handover of certain territories, such as , to by April 1445, though extensions were sought amid English reluctance. While initially viewed as a step toward enduring peace, the truce enabled to reorganize its military and administrative control in and other contested regions, ultimately weakening 's continental position. In , the , concluded on 12 June 1444 between the and the Kingdom of Hungary, temporarily resolved ongoing border conflicts. Sultan Murad II, facing internal pressures including a revolt by the , agreed to evacuate Ottoman forces from Hungarian-claimed territories such as and , pay a 100,000-florin indemnity, and release Christian captives. The treaty stemmed from negotiations initiated in and was championed by Hungarian regent János Hunyadi to secure frontiers amid Ottoman expansion. Ratified later that summer, it reflected pragmatic diplomacy but proved fragile; on 4 August 1444, at , King Władysław III of Hungary and Poland, urged by Cardinal Julian Cesarini, publicly repudiated the agreement and any prior or future pacts with Muslim powers to mobilize a crusade against the Ottomans. This reversal prioritized religious and expansionist aims over the treaty's territorial gains, setting the stage for renewed confrontation. Elsewhere, like engaged in routine diplomatic maneuvering to navigate politics as a buffer between and , exemplified by Marquis Gianfrancesco Gonzaga's alliances until his death in . No major interstate treaties emerged in during 1444, though ongoing papal efforts to assert authority over fragmented principalities underscored persistent fragmentation.

Military Conflicts and Campaigns

The represented the foremost military endeavor of 1444, uniting Christian forces from in an attempt to repel incursions into the and alleviate pressure on the . Initiated after Hunyadi's Long Campaign of 1443–1444 had yielded provisional gains against positions, the crusade disregarded the , ratified in June 1444 between and the Ottomans, under papal dispensation citing unfulfilled crusade vows. The alliance, spearheaded by King Władysław III Jagiello of and alongside regent , assembled forces totaling 15,000 to 20,000 combatants, drawn primarily from Hungarian, Polish, Czech, and Wallachian contingents numbering 3,000 to 4,000 , supplemented by Bulgarian insurgents. Advancing eastward along the in autumn, the crusaders secured preliminary victories, including the repulsion of garrisons, before reaching the vicinity of . , diverting troops from campaigns against the Karamanid Beylik in , mobilized an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 soldiers, encompassing Rumelian sipahis, Anatolian auxiliaries, and the disciplined infantry. The confrontation unfolded on November 10, 1444, on terrain south of , where crusader wagon forts anchored the center against assaults. Initial phases favored the , as Hunyadi's forces shattered the left flank comprising Anatolian troops, prompting a disorderly flight. However, Władysław's impulsive charge targeting the reserves exposed his wing, resulting in his decapitation amid the melee; display of the king's head precipitated panic and disintegration of the allied formation. Hunyadi orchestrated a covered withdrawal under covering fire from artillery and archers, averting total annihilation, though casualties mounted with the deaths of , voivode , and numerous nobles. This triumph entrenched their Balkan dominion, forestalling Christian resurgence and facilitating the 1453 conquest of , while underscoring the logistical and coordinative frailties of crusade mobilizations. The defeat elevated Hunyadi's stature in , influencing subsequent defensive strategies, yet it signified the terminus of substantial papal-led offensives against expansion in the medieval era. Concurrently, peripheral conflicts such as the persisted in the , pitting the Swiss Confederation against Habsburg forces in alpine skirmishes, though devoid of pivotal engagements that year.

Other Regional Events

Portuguese maritime exploration advanced along the West African coast in 1444, as explorers sponsored by pushed southward. Dinis Dias reached the mouth of the , becoming the first European since antiquity to navigate there, which facilitated access to sub-Saharan trade networks rich in gold, ivory, and enslaved people transported via trans-Saharan routes. In , recurrent flooding struck central regions in 1444, contributing to the pattern of meteorological disasters that periodically inundated medieval , exacerbating agricultural disruptions and local economic strain amid a cooling phase.

Births

Political and Military Figures

(24 January 1444 – 26 December 1476) succeeded his father, Francesco Sforza, as the fifth Duke of in 1466, ruling a key Italian city-state during the . His reign emphasized military alliances, such as with and against Venice's rivals, while internally he fostered arts patronage, commissioning works from artists like Leonardo da Vinci's early influences, though his rule was marred by reports of personal cruelty, including executions of rivals and heavy taxation to fund lavish courts. Galeazzo's assassination on 26 December 1476 by disaffected nobles in stemmed from widespread resentment over his despotic tendencies and moral excesses, as documented in contemporary accounts. John de Mowbray, 4th (18 October 1444 – 14 January 1476), was an English nobleman whose vast holdings made him one of the realm's premier peers, inheriting the dukedom in 1461 after his father's death at the Second Battle of St Albans.) As a staunch Yorkist, he commanded forces at key engagements in the Wars of the Roses, including the in 1461, where his troops contributed to Edward IV's decisive victory, earning him restoration of the Norfolk title and appointment as Knight of the Garter. Mowbray's political influence extended to mediating factional disputes, though his early death from illness at age 31 left his estates contested, passing to his infant son.

Artists, Scholars, and Intellectuals

Donato Bramante (c. 1444 – 11 April 1514), born near in the , was an Italian painter and architect whose early works included frescoes in the church of San Giovanni Evangelista in , later transitioning to architecture with designs for the Tempietto and initial plans for the new in under . Rudolphus Agricola (1443/44 – 27 October 1485), born Roelof Huysman near in the , was a Dutch humanist scholar, philosopher, musician, and educator who studied classics in , promoted Ciceronian Latin in , and authored De inventione dialectica, influencing the transition from medieval to through emphasis on and . Felino Sandeo (24 February 1444 – 6 September 1503), born in Felina near , , was an Italian canon lawyer who taught at the , served as bishop of and , and wrote extensively on ecclesiastical law, including commentaries on papal decretals that addressed issues like and clerical privileges during the late medieval church. Nilakantha Somayaji (14 June 1444 – c. 1544), born in Trikkantiyur near in , , was a and of the Kerala school who composed Tantrasangraha (c. 1500), introducing an accurate model of planetary latitudes and an infinite series approximation for the trigonometric sine function, refining earlier Indian astronomical computations for solar, lunar, and planetary positions.

Deaths

Artists and Craftsmen

(c. 1375/78–1444), the painter also identified as the Master of Flémalle, died in on or around April 26, 1444. As a foundational figure in , Campin advanced oil techniques for achieving unprecedented realism in domestic interiors and religious scenes, influencing pupils like through his workshop. His attributed works, such as the Mérode Altarpiece, exemplify innovations in perspective and symbolic detail that bridged Gothic traditions with emerging naturalism. No other prominent sculptors, goldsmiths, or architects are recorded as dying in 1444, though the era's guild records from cities like and document lesser-known artisans whose deaths went unchronicled in surviving ledgers.

Political and Religious Figures

Władysław III (1424–1444), King of from 1434 and and from 1440, died on November 10, 1444, during the in , where his crusading army was defeated by forces led by Sultan . His death at age 20 marked the failure of the , aimed at halting expansion into , and led to a succession crisis in . (c. 1370–1444), an Italian humanist scholar and statesman who served as Chancellor of the from 1427 until his death, died on March 9, 1444. Bruni is noted for his historical works, including the History of the Florentine People, and for pioneering the division of history into ancient, medieval, and modern periods. (1380–1444), an Italian Franciscan friar and preacher influential in promoting devotion to the , died on May 20, 1444, in , . Known for his revivalist sermons that drew massive crowds and addressed social issues like and , he was canonized in 1450 for his role in 15th-century religious reform. Several bishops also died in 1444, including Francesco Billi, Bishop of , and Percivallo de Balma, Bishop of Belley, though their deaths received less contemporary notice compared to secular rulers.

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