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Antisialagogue

An antisialagogue is a pharmacological agent, typically an antimuscarinic drug, that reduces or inhibits the production and flow of saliva by antagonizing acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors in salivary glands.^[1]^[2] These agents counteract the effects of sialagogues, which stimulate salivation, and are commonly exemplified by atropine, glycopyrronium (glycopyrrolate), and hyoscine (scopolamine).^[1]^[3] Antisialagogues are primarily indicated in palliative care to manage noisy breathing, known as the "death rattle," in terminally ill patients unable to clear excessive salivary or bronchial secretions, with glycopyrronium reducing saliva production by approximately 50% within six hours of administration.^[1] They also find application in procedural settings, such as dental treatments, endotracheal intubations, and fiberoptic procedures, where a dry oral or nasal field is required to improve visibility, minimize bleeding risks, and facilitate interventions like restorative dentistry in supine positions.^[2] Administration routes include intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous, with onset varying from 3–5 minutes for intravenous glycopyrrolate to 40–60 minutes for intramuscular forms, typically dosed at 0.2–0.4 mg for adults.^[1]^[2] Clinically, these medications carry risks including tachycardia, thickened respiratory secretions, and enhanced absorption of local anesthetics, necessitating caution in patients with cardiovascular conditions like coronary artery disease.^[2] Evidence for their efficacy in death rattle management is mixed, with prophylactic use of hyoscine showing greater reduction in symptoms compared to reactive administration in studies involving over 100 patients, though formal FDA approval remains limited.^[1]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

An antisialagogue is a pharmacological agent that reduces the rate of saliva production by the salivary glands, thereby decreasing overall salivary flow.^[1] These agents are primarily antimuscarinic compounds that inhibit the secretory activity of the glands, often through competitive antagonism at muscarinic receptors.^[2] In physiological terms, saliva production involves parasympathetic stimulation of acinar cells in the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, leading to fluid secretion for lubrication, digestion, and oral health maintenance; antisialagogues counteract this by suppressing glandular secretion, resulting in a drier oral environment.^[1] Reduced saliva flow can lead to a more acidic oral pH and disrupted microbial balance, increasing risks such as dental caries and infections, but is targeted for specific clinical needs where excess secretions are problematic.^[4]^[5] Antisialagogues function in opposition to sialagogues, which are substances that stimulate and increase salivary flow to promote secretion.^[6] The primary emphasis in medical contexts remains on pharmacological agents for controlled saliva suppression.^[1]

Etymology

The term "antisialagogue" derives from the Greek prefix anti-, meaning "against" or "opposed to," combined with "sialagogue," which itself breaks down into sialo-, from the Greek sialon denoting "saliva," and -agogue, from agōgos signifying "leading" or "promoting."^[7] This composition reflects the agent's function in counteracting the promotion of salivary flow. The root term "sialagogue," referring to substances that stimulate saliva production, first appeared in medical literature around 1783, originating from New Latin sialagogus and entering English via French or Latin borrowings in early pharmacology texts.^[7] "Antisialagogue" evolved as its direct antonym in 19th-century medical writings to designate saliva-suppressing agents, building on the established nomenclature for salivary regulators.

Mechanism of Action

Pharmacological Basis

Antisialagogues primarily belong to the class of anticholinergics, which exert their effects by blocking parasympathetic stimulation of the salivary glands through competitive antagonism of acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors, with negligible impact on nicotinic receptors.^[1] This inhibition disrupts the normal neural control of salivation, leading to reduced glandular secretion.^[8] The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), released from postganglionic parasympathetic nerve endings, plays a central role in stimulating saliva production by binding to muscarinic receptors—predominantly the M3 subtype—on the acinar and ductal cells of salivary glands. This binding activates G-protein-coupled signaling pathways, increasing intracellular calcium levels and triggering fluid and electrolyte secretion. Antisialagogues counteract this process by preventing ACh from accessing these receptors, thereby diminishing the parasympathetic drive that accounts for the majority of resting and stimulated salivary flow.^[8] The M3 receptors, in particular, exhibit high sensitivity to cholinergic stimulation, while M2 receptors modulate this response, contributing to the overall inhibitory efficacy of these agents.^[1] These pharmacological actions target the major salivary glands, including the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, where effects vary in potency based on differences in receptor density, gland composition, and innervation. For example, the parotid gland, which produces serous saliva, and the submandibular gland, with its mixed serous-mucous output, respond to anticholinergic blockade, though the sublingual gland's mucous-dominant secretion may show relatively less pronounced reduction under certain conditions.^[8] The dose-response relationship is characterized by progressive inhibition of salivation with increasing doses, achieving substantial reductions (e.g., up to 50% of baseline secretion) at higher levels, but this escalates systemic risks such as cardiovascular changes or central nervous system effects due to broader muscarinic blockade.^[1]

Receptor Interactions

Antisialagogues primarily exert their effects through blockade of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, with the M3 subtype serving as the dominant target in salivary acinar cells to inhibit acetylcholine (ACh)-induced fluid secretion.^[9] This competitive antagonism prevents ACh from binding to M3 receptors on the basolateral membrane of acinar cells, thereby disrupting the G-protein-coupled signaling cascade that activates phospholipase C, increases intracellular calcium, and stimulates chloride and fluid efflux into the ductal lumen.^[10] In human and animal models, M3 receptor activation accounts for the majority of parasympathetic-mediated salivary flow, making its blockade central to antisialagogue action.^[11] While M3 receptors predominate, other subtypes contribute to salivary regulation, with M1 receptors playing a supportive role in fluid secretion, particularly in submandibular and parotid glands, and M2 receptors showing limited involvement primarily in presynaptic modulation on parasympathetic nerves.^[12] Selective antagonists demonstrate that combined M1 and M3 blockade achieves near-complete inhibition of secretion, whereas isolated M3 antagonism substantially reduces flow in rodent models.^[13] M1 receptors, co-localized with M3 on secretory cells, enhance the response at lower stimulation frequencies, but their contribution diminishes under high cholinergic drive where M3 dominates.^[14] The binding affinity of antisialagogues varies by agent, enabling competitive antagonism at cholinergic synapses with differing selectivity profiles that influence peripheral versus central effects. For instance, atropine exhibits equipotent binding across M1-M5 subtypes (Ki ≈ 1-2 nM), providing broad blockade but risking central nervous system penetration.^[15] In contrast, glycopyrrolate, a quaternary ammonium compound, displays higher affinity for M1 (Ki ≈ 0.3 nM) over M3 (Ki ≈ 1.5 nM) receptors, favoring peripheral actions due to poor blood-brain barrier crossing, while scopolamine shows moderate selectivity for M1/M3 with greater central affinity (Ki ≈ 0.4-2 nM).^[16] This selectivity arises from structural interactions at the orthosteric binding pocket, where antagonists stabilize an inactive receptor conformation, with dissociation rates determining duration of blockade—slower for long-acting agents like glycopyrrolate.^[17] Antisialagogues demonstrate minimal interaction with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, confining their effects to muscarinic sites on parasympathetic postganglionic fibers innervating salivary glands.^[9] This specificity arises from the distinct pharmacological profiles of muscarinic (G-protein coupled) versus nicotinic (ion channel) receptors, ensuring targeted inhibition of glandular secretion without disrupting nicotinic-mediated transmission in skeletal muscle or autonomic ganglia.^[18]

Therapeutic Applications

Surgical Premedication

Antisialagogues play a crucial role in surgical premedication by reducing salivary and respiratory tract secretions, thereby minimizing the risk of aspiration during anesthesia induction and intubation. This primary purpose helps maintain a clear airway and prevents complications associated with excess secretions, such as obstruction or inhalation into the lungs.^[19]^[20] The use of antisialagogues in anesthesia dates back to the 19th century, when agents like atropine were employed to counteract the profuse salivation induced by early inhalational anesthetics such as ether and chloroform. Clinicians began injecting atropine or scopolamine prior to ether administration in the latter half of the 1800s to dry secretions and improve surgical conditions. Similarly, routine atropine premedication was recommended before chloroform anesthesia following experimental evidence in animals that it mitigated vagal effects and salivation.^[21]^[22] In contemporary practice, antisialagogues are typically administered intravenously or intramuscularly 30 to 60 minutes preoperatively, with dosing calibrated to achieve a dry operative field while avoiding excessive tachycardia from vagal blockade. For example, atropine is commonly given at 0.5 to 1 mg intravenously or 1 mg intramuscularly in adults, adjusted lower in pediatrics (e.g., 0.02 mg/kg) to balance antisialagogue effects with cardiovascular stability.^[23]^[20] Evidence supports the role of antisialagogues in reducing postoperative complications, including laryngospasm, by decreasing pharyngeal secretions that can trigger reflex closure of the vocal cords during emergence from anesthesia. Atropine, in particular, has been shown to lower the incidence of laryngospasm through its antisialagogue action, with studies indicating improved airway management outcomes. While not always mandated in modern guidelines, their use aligns with traditional recommendations from anesthesiology literature to enhance safety in procedures involving general anesthesia.^[24]^[1]

Palliative and End-of-Life Care

In palliative and end-of-life care, antisialagogues are primarily indicated for managing death rattle, a common symptom characterized by noisy breathing due to accumulated oropharyngeal secretions in terminally ill patients, particularly in hospice settings where patients are often too weak to clear their airways.^[1] This condition affects approximately 23-50% of dying individuals and is associated with significant distress for families and caregivers, though it typically does not cause discomfort to the patient themselves.^[25]^[26] Dosing protocols emphasize ease of administration and minimal invasiveness, with subcutaneous and oral routes preferred to facilitate symptom control without excessive burden on the patient or care team. Common agents include glycopyrronium (0.2-0.4 mg subcutaneously every 4-6 hours, titrated to effect) and hyoscine (scopolamine) hydrobromide (0.4 mg subcutaneously or orally every 4 hours, adjusted to reduce secretions while avoiding oversedation).^[1]^[26] These regimens are initiated upon onset of audible secretions and continued as needed, often in continuous subcutaneous infusion for sustained relief in the final hours to days of life.^[25] Antisialagogues are recommended in established palliative care frameworks, including the World Health Organization's guidelines for essential medicines in symptom management and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Palliative Care Guidelines, which endorse their use for terminal secretions in advanced cancer patients as part of comprehensive end-of-life symptom control.^[27] The NCCN specifically advises anticholinergics such as glycopyrrolate or scopolamine for treating unclearable death rattle, alongside non-pharmacologic measures like patient repositioning.^[28] Clinical outcomes demonstrate that antisialagogues improve patient and family comfort by reducing audible secretions, with studies reporting efficacy in 70-80% of cases; for instance, subcutaneous hyoscine provides a response in about 80% of treated patients, while overall success rates for real (salivary) death rattle exceed 90% with agents like scopolamine.^[26]^[25] These interventions align with the goal of prioritizing comfort in the dying process, though evidence underscores the importance of individualized titration to balance secretion reduction against potential anticholinergic side effects.^[1]

Management of Pathological Salivation

Pathological salivation, or sialorrhea, is a common symptom in various neurological and medication-related conditions, including Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, post-stroke hypersalivation, and drug-induced hypersalivation such as that caused by clozapine.^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32] In these contexts, antisialagogues, primarily from the anticholinergic class, are utilized to inhibit excessive salivary gland secretion through blockade of muscarinic receptors.^[29]^[30] For chronic management, oral formulations such as glycopyrrolate (typically 1 mg three times daily) or transdermal scopolamine patches are preferred routes of administration to provide sustained control over saliva production.^[33]^[34] These pharmacological interventions are often integrated with non-pharmacological behavioral therapies, including speech therapy and oral-motor exercises, to promote better swallowing coordination and saliva management.^[35]^[36] This multimodal approach addresses both the physiological overproduction of saliva and the functional impairments contributing to drooling. Clinical trials have established the efficacy of these treatments in reducing sialorrhea severity; for instance, a randomized, double-blind crossover study in Parkinson's disease patients demonstrated a significant decrease in mean sialorrhea scores from 4.6 to 3.8 with oral glycopyrrolate compared to placebo (p=0.011), with 39% of participants achieving at least a 30% improvement.^[33] Similar benefits have been observed in cerebral palsy, where glycopyrrolate led to substantial drooling reduction in over 90% of pediatric cases.^[37] These reductions alleviate associated complications like skin irritation and social stigma, thereby enhancing quality of life among neurology patients.^[38]^[39] Ongoing patient monitoring is essential to achieve an optimal balance between sialorrhea control and the prevention of excessive oral dryness (xerostomia), with regular clinical assessments of salivary flow and oral health recommended to adjust dosing as needed.^[40]^[41]

Examples of Antisialagogues

Natural and Plant-Derived Agents

Natural and plant-derived antisialagogues primarily consist of tropane alkaloids extracted from members of the Solanaceae family, such as atropine and scopolamine from Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) and hyoscyamine from Hyoscyamus niger (henbane). These compounds have been utilized for their anticholinergic properties, which include suppressing salivary gland secretions.^[42] The isolation of these alkaloids occurred in the 19th century, marking a shift from crude plant extracts to more refined preparations. Atropine was first isolated in 1833 by Geiger and Hesse from A. belladonna and H. niger, while scopolamine was separated in 1880 by Ladenburg from Scopolia carniolica, though it is also present in A. belladonna. Hyoscyamine, a precursor to atropine (which is its racemic form), was similarly isolated around this period from henbane. These alkaloids were incorporated into tinctures, such as tincture of belladonna or hyoscyamus, for their antisialagogue effects, often administered to reduce excessive salivation in various preparations.^[44]^[45] The potency of these natural agents varies significantly due to factors like plant age, harvest time, and environmental conditions, leading to inconsistent alkaloid concentrations across batches. This variability complicates dosing and increases the risk of toxicity from impure or adulterated sources, as the plants contain other potentially harmful compounds alongside the active alkaloids.^[42]^[46] Today, natural plant-derived antisialagogues have largely been supplanted by synthetic versions for pharmaceutical applications due to standardization and safety concerns, though they persist in some herbal infusions and traditional remedies, where levels are regulated to mitigate toxicity risks.^[47]^[44]

Synthetic Anticholinergics

Synthetic anticholinergics represent a class of laboratory-developed muscarinic receptor antagonists designed to provide precise control over salivary and respiratory secretions, offering improved pharmacological predictability compared to their natural counterparts. These agents are engineered for enhanced specificity and reduced systemic side effects, making them suitable for clinical applications requiring targeted antisialagogue activity.^[48] A prominent example is glycopyrrolate, a quaternary ammonium compound first approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the early 1960s for peptic ulcer treatment but widely adopted for its potent antisialagogue properties. As a synthetic derivative, glycopyrrolate effectively inhibits salivary gland secretion by competitively blocking muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, with clinical use extending to perioperative settings for reducing oral secretions. Its quaternary structure limits gastrointestinal absorption and blood-brain barrier penetration, conferring greater selectivity for peripheral effects and minimizing central nervous system disturbances that can occur with tertiary amines like atropine.^[49]^[50]^[48]^[50] Another key synthetic agent is ipratropium bromide, developed as an inhaled anticholinergic primarily for bronchodilation but recognized for its role in diminishing respiratory tract secretions. Administered via nebulization, ipratropium reduces mucus production in the airways, as demonstrated in procedures like bronchoscopy where it significantly lowered secretion volume and associated patient discomfort. This quaternary ammonium compound exhibits high selectivity for muscarinic receptors in the respiratory epithelium, avoiding substantial systemic absorption when inhaled.^[51]^[52] These synthetic anticholinergics offer advantages such as standardized dosing and formulation consistency, enabling reliable therapeutic outcomes without the variability inherent in plant-derived extracts. Glycopyrrolate, for instance, provides a longer duration of action than atropine, with antisialagogue effects persisting up to seven hours following administration, which supports its use in sustained secretion control. This extended profile, combined with its five- to six-fold greater potency on peripheral tissues, enhances efficacy in scenarios demanding prolonged but controlled inhibition.^[53]^[54]^[55] Injectable formulations of glycopyrrolate, available for intravenous or intramuscular delivery, allow for rapid onset and precise titration, typically achieving peak effects within minutes for acute antisialagogue needs. Oral solutions and tablets further expand its utility for chronic management, while ipratropium is predominantly offered as an inhalation aerosol or solution. All synthetic antisialagogues like these require a prescription and are subject to regulatory oversight to ensure safe dispensing and monitoring.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[51]

Adverse Effects and Contraindications

Common Side Effects

Antisialagogues, primarily anticholinergic agents such as atropine and glycopyrrolate, commonly induce xerostomia, or dry mouth, due to their inhibition of salivary gland secretion, leading to oral discomfort characterized by a sticky or burning sensation in the mucosa.^[1]^[59] This dryness increases the risk of dental caries by reducing the protective effects of saliva against acid and bacteria, particularly in the cervical regions of teeth, and can contribute to dysphagia by impairing bolus formation and swallowing ease.^[59]^[60] Systemic effects from these agents include blurred vision resulting from mydriasis and cycloplegia, which minimally affects accommodation with glycopyrrolate but can be more pronounced with atropine; constipation due to decreased gastrointestinal motility; and urinary retention, which is particularly prevalent in elderly patients owing to baseline prostate enlargement or weakened bladder muscles.^[1]^[61] These side effects arise from the peripheral muscarinic receptor blockade inherent to anticholinergic mechanisms.^[1] The incidence of these effects is dose-dependent, with higher doses elevating risks; for instance, tachycardia occurs more frequently with atropine than with glycopyrrolate, which provides greater cardiovascular stability, while constipation and urinary retention occur commonly in some cohorts, such as pediatric patients treated for sialorrhea.^[1]^[61]^[30] Management of common side effects emphasizes supportive measures, including maintaining hydration through frequent sips of water to alleviate oral dryness and prevent complications, and using sugar-free lozenges to stimulate residual saliva production and reduce discomfort.^[59]^[60] Most effects, especially medication-induced xerostomia and related symptoms, are reversible upon discontinuation of the antisialagogue.^[60]^[59]

Serious Risks and Contraindications

Antisialagogues, primarily anticholinergic agents such as atropine and glycopyrrolate, carry significant risks of severe central nervous system effects, including delirium and confusion, particularly with drugs like atropine and hyoscine that readily cross the blood-brain barrier.^[1] These effects can manifest as agitation, hallucinations, or acute delirium, especially in vulnerable patients, and may progress to a central anticholinergic syndrome in cases of overdose or high-dose administration.^[23] Additionally, these agents can exacerbate angle-closure glaucoma by inducing mydriasis and elevating intraocular pressure, potentially precipitating acute attacks.^[48] Anhidrosis induced by antisialagogues impairs thermoregulation, increasing the risk of heatstroke or heat prostration, particularly in hot environments or during fever, due to reduced sweating.^[62] Contraindications for antisialagogues include narrow-angle glaucoma, where they are strictly avoided to prevent intraocular pressure spikes; myasthenia gravis, as they can worsen muscle weakness by blocking cholinergic transmission; obstructive uropathy, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia, leading to urinary retention; and unstable cardiovascular conditions in acute hemorrhage, where they may induce tachycardia or exacerbate arrhythmias.^[1]^[48] Other absolute contraindications encompass gastrointestinal obstructions like paralytic ileus or severe ulcerative colitis, hypersensitivity to anticholinergics, and acute hemorrhage with hemodynamic instability.^[62] Drug interactions with antisialagogues are primarily additive with other anticholinergic medications, such as tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazines, or antihistamines, intensifying effects like dry mouth, constipation, and cognitive impairment.^[48] In palliative care settings, caution is advised when combining with opioids, as this may heighten risks of severe constipation, urinary retention, and central nervous system depression.^[63] Special populations require particular vigilance: antisialagogues should be avoided in infants due to heightened susceptibility to hyperexcitability and tachycardia from even standard doses.^[62] In elderly patients, especially those with dementia, these agents should be strongly discouraged or avoided owing to elevated risks of delirium, cognitive decline, and complications like bowel obstruction or heatstroke, as highlighted in geriatric prescribing guidelines such as the American Geriatrics Society Beers Criteria (updated 2023).^[64]^[65]^[66] Regarding pregnancy, limited human data are available and no clear risks have been identified; animal studies have shown no teratogenic effects for glycopyrrolate, though use is generally limited to situations where benefits outweigh potential risks.^[67]^[68]

History

Early Recognition and Natural Remedies

The recognition of substances with antisialagogue properties dates back to ancient civilizations, where plants from the Solanaceae family were empirically employed for their drying effects on bodily secretions. In ancient Greek and Roman medicine, Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna, was documented by Dioscorides in his 1st-century AD work De Materia Medica as a remedy for pain and inflammation, with its tropane alkaloids providing unintended antisialagogue benefits by reducing oral and respiratory secretions during therapeutic applications. These plants were also incorporated into ritualistic preparations, such as ointments applied to the skin, which induced hallucinogenic states accompanied by dry mouth, a side effect later understood as stemming from anticholinergic activity. Belladonna's use extended to contexts involving poisoning, where small doses were explored as potential counters to certain toxins, though primarily it served as a potent poison itself in ancient warfare and assassinations.^[45] During the medieval period, herbalists in Europe and the Islamic world expanded on these ancient applications, particularly with Hyoscyamus niger, or henbane, which was valued for its ability to diminish salivary and bronchial secretions in treating respiratory conditions like coughs and asthma. Medieval texts, including those influenced by Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, described henbane in fumigants and decoctions to alleviate excessive mucus production, leveraging its antispasmodic and drying qualities to ease breathing in ailments such as bronchitis. This empirical use was widespread among apothecaries, who prepared henbane-based remedies for both medicinal and ceremonial purposes, often blending folklore with observation to manage symptoms of respiratory distress.^[69]^[45] A pivotal advancement occurred in the 19th century with the isolation of atropine, the primary active alkaloid in belladonna, achieved in 1831 by German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein, though formally published in 1833 alongside work by Philipp L. Geiger and O. Hesse. This milestone enabled more precise extraction from belladonna and henbane, marking the transition from crude herbal extracts to semi-purified forms suitable for early medical experimentation, including preliminary applications in anesthesia to control salivary secretions and prevent aspiration. Despite this progress, pre-modern antisialagogue use remained hampered by the plants' inherent toxicity, which caused variable potency due to inconsistent alkaloid concentrations in wild specimens, leading to overdoses manifesting as delirium or convulsions; reliance on folklore often overshadowed emerging pharmacological insights, resulting in erratic dosing and high risks of adverse effects.^[45]^[70]

Modern Development and Clinical Adoption

In the mid-20th century, the development of synthetic anticholinergics marked a significant advancement in antisialagogue therapy, building on the foundational use of natural alkaloids like atropine. Glycopyrrolate, a quaternary ammonium compound, was introduced as a preoperative medication in the 1960s for its potent antisecretory effects without central nervous system penetration, offering a safer alternative to tertiary amines such as atropine and scopolamine that could cross the blood-brain barrier and cause delirium.^[48] This shift addressed limitations in earlier agents, enabling more targeted reduction of salivary and respiratory secretions in clinical settings.^[1] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved injectable glycopyrrolate in 1961 for perioperative use, including as an antisialagogue to inhibit salivary secretions and prevent bradycardia during anesthesia.^[48] Subsequent formulations expanded its applications: an oral solution (Cuvposa) was approved in 2010 specifically for chronic severe drooling in pediatric patients with neurologic conditions like cerebral palsy, demonstrating a 50% reduction in saliva production at doses of 4-8 mg over 6 hours.^[71] Atropine, long-established since the 19th century, retained FDA approval for similar perioperative indications, while scopolamine saw broader adoption outside the U.S. for its longer duration, though glycopyrrolate emerged as preferred due to its pharmacokinetic profile—onset in 1 minute intravenously and duration of 2-4 hours.^[1]^[48] Clinical adoption of these agents has been prominent in anesthesiology, where glycopyrrolate is routinely used as premedication to dry secretions and facilitate intubation, with studies confirming its superiority over atropine in onset and reduced tachycardia risk.^[48] In neurology, glycopyrrolate gained traction for managing sialorrhea in conditions such as Parkinson's disease and developmental disabilities; a double-blind, dose-escalation trial in 2000 involving children with cerebral palsy reported significant drooling reduction in 81% of participants at the highest tolerated dose (mean 0.11 mg/kg per dose), with manageable side effects.^[72] Palliative care guidelines, including those from the Association for Palliative Medicine, endorse antisialagogues for terminal "death rattle," with prophylactic hyoscine butylbromide reducing the incidence from 60.5% to 5.9% in a 2018 randomized trial of 132 patients, though glycopyrrolate showed better tolerability in head-to-head comparisons.^[1]^[73] Despite off-label uses, these developments have standardized antisialagogue therapy, prioritizing quaternary agents to minimize adverse effects while enhancing patient comfort across specialties.^[1]

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Low- to very low-quality evidence from 3 studies with 78 patients showed that anticholinergic drugs are more effective than placebo in reducing the frequency ...
[36]
Use of glycopyrrolate and other anticholinergic medications for ...
Glycopyrrolate was used by 37 of 41 respondents, with significant improvement in drooling noted in the vast majority (95%) of cases as indicated by a five-point ...Missing: management | Show results with:management
[37]
Real-World Observational Analysis of Clinical Characteristics and ...
Aug 17, 2024 · Chronic sialorrhea is a condition characterized by excessive drooling, often associated with neurological and neuromuscular disorders such as Parkinson's ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
Full article: Sialorrhea in Parkinson's disease: prevalence, impact ...
Jul 3, 2019 · It shows fewer central nervous system side-effects than other anticholinergics as it is not centrally acting. It should be used with care in ...Healthy Salivation · Assessment Of Saliva Flow · Pharmacological
[39]
Sialorrhea: A Management Challenge - AAFP
Jun 1, 2004 · Anticholinergic medications, such as glycopyrrolate and scopolamine, are effective in reducing drooling, but their use may be limited by side ...
[40]
Anticholinergic adverse effects and oral health
Aug 7, 2023 · Pharmacists have a critical role in monitoring the use of anticholinergic medication and preventing adverse effects on oral health.Anticholinergic Burden And... · Increased Risk Of... · Prevention And Intervention...
[41]
Beauty of the beast: anticholinergic tropane alkaloids in therapeutics
Sep 16, 2022 · Naturally occurring TAs include atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, cocaine and calystegine. The concentration of TAs in the plant is dependent ...
[42]
Tropane Alkaloid - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Atropine and scopolamine act as competitive antagonists at mAChRs, binding to ... isolated in the middle of the nineteenth century . Cocaine, a central ...
[43]
Beauty of the beast: anticholinergic tropane alkaloids in therapeutics
Sep 16, 2022 · A year later, Geiger and Hesse published the isolation of atropine from Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus niger [52]. Fifty years later, ...
[44]
Tropane Alkaloids: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Biosynthesis and ...
Feb 22, 2019 · Hyoscyamine and scopolamine are extracted from the Duboisia plants being cultivated on large plantations in Queensland, Australia [1]. Climate ...
[45]
Anticholinergic Plants - California Poison Control System
Dec 21, 2008 · One hundred Jimsonweed seeds contain up to 6 mg atropine; ingestion of this amount can cause significant anticholinergic toxicity and can be ...
[46]
Atropine and scopolamine occurrence in spices and fennel infusions
Highest contamination levels detected in fennel, cloves and coriander. •. Transfer ratios to herbal infusions: 64–88% for atropine and 47–57% for scopolamine.
[47]
Glycopyrrolate - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 19, 2025 · Clinicians use this medication to inhibit salivary and respiratory secretions, achieve antisialagogue effects, and prevent reflex bradycardia ...
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[PDF] 022571Orig1s000 - accessdata.fda.gov
Jul 28, 2010 · Glycopyrrolate has been approved in the U.S. since 1961 as. Robinul and Robinul Forte tablets for the treatment of peptic ulcers (NDA 12-827) ...
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Pharmacology, toxicology and clinical safety of glycopyrrolate
May 1, 2019 · The clinical use of the anticholinergic glycopyrrolate dates back to the early 1960s when it was first approved in the U.S. Since then, ...Missing: synthetic antisialagogue history
[50]
Ipratropium: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action - DrugBank
Ipratropium is an anticholinergic drug used in the control of symptoms related to bronchospasm in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
[51]
(PDF) Nebulized Ipratropium bromide protects against tracheal and ...
Results: Nebulized ipratropium bromide prior to bronchoscopy could reduce airway secretions and patient discomfort (P = .02; P < .001, respectively), but not ...
[52]
Glycopyrronium - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Several studies have demonstrated that glycopyrrolate is superior to atropine because its anticholinergic effects are more prolonged, lasting several hours.
[53]
The pharmacology of atropine, scopolamine, and glycopyrrolate
Feb 7, 2015 · Compared with atropine and scopolamine, glycopyrrolate is a more potent antisialogogue (effects persisting for up to 7 h) and has a longer ...
[54]
Comparative effects of glycopyrrolate vs. atropine combined with ...
Oct 2, 2025 · Glycopyrrolate has a stronger and longer-lasting peripheral anticholinergic effect, being 5–6 times more potent than atropine and having a ...Missing: profile injectables
[55]
[PDF] GLYRX-PF (glycopyrrolate - accessdata.fda.gov
GLYRX-PF (glycopyrrolate injection), for intravenous or intramuscular use. Initial US Approval: 1975. -----------------------------INDICATIONS AND ...
[56]
Glycopyrrolate Injection: Package Insert / Prescribing Info - Drugs.com
Sep 28, 2025 · Glycopyrrolate Injection, USP is a synthetic anticholinergic agent. Each 1 mL contains glycopyrrolate, USP 0.2 mg, water for injection, USP qs, pH adjusted, ...Missing: antisialagogues | Show results with:antisialagogues
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Cuvposa (glycopyrrolate) FDA Approval History - Drugs.com
Cuvposa FDA Approval History ; FDA Approved: Yes (First approved July 28, 2010) ; Brand name: Cuvposa ; Generic name: glycopyrrolate ; Dosage form: Oral Solution
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Xerostomia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Mar 24, 2023 · Initial management includes patient education, like regular water sipping and avoiding tobacco smoking, and local measures, such as artificial ...Missing: reversible | Show results with:reversible
[59]
A Review on Xerostomia and Its Various Management Strategies - NIH
The symptomatic relief or control of oral dryness includes hydration (frequent sipping of water), discontinuation or reduction in xerogenic medications, and ...
[60]
Basic and Clinical Pharmacology of Autonomic Drugs - PMC
Glycopyrrolate (Robinul) is a quaternary, water-soluble compound, which limits its distribution to brain. As an antisialagogue, it is preferred over atropine ...
[61]
[PDF] glycopyrrolate injection - accessdata.fda.gov
Adverse reactions to anticholinergics include xerostomia (dry mouth); urinary hesitancy and retention; blurred vision and photophobia due to mydriasis (dilation ...
[62]
Drug Interactions in Palliative Care - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Drug-drug interactions (DDI) are a significant cause of adverse drug events (ADE) in palliative care. This activity will highlight the mechanism of action.Missing: antisialagogue | Show results with:antisialagogue
[63]
Glycopyrrolate Tablets: Package Insert / Prescribing Info - Drugs.com
Jun 19, 2025 · Increased Risk of Anticholinergic Adverse Reactions in Geriatric Patients: Complications include urinary retention, bowel obstruction, heat ...
[64]
Potentially Inappropriate Medication Use in Older Adults with ...
The Beers Criteria is a widely accepted and commonly used tool to identify PIMs for older adults, including those with ADRD [11, 12]. It specifies the following ...
[65]
[PDF] 210997Orig1s000 210997Orig2s000 - accessdata.fda.gov
Jun 6, 2018 · Teratogenic Effects – Pregnancy Category B. Reproduction studies with glycopyrrolate were performed in rats at a dietary dose of approximately ...
[66]
Glycopyrrolate Use During Pregnancy - Drugs.com
Feb 25, 2025 · Advice and warnings for the use of Glycopyrrolate during pregnancy. FDA Pregnancy Category B - No proven risk in humans.Missing: atropine | Show results with:atropine
[67]
Black henbane and its toxicity – a descriptive review - PMC
The methanolic extraction of BH seeds has shown acute and chronic analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in animal models (Begum et al., 2010 ▶).
[68]
[PDF] THE HISTORY OF ATROPINE - RANZCO Eye Museum
German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein produced the first isolated form of atropine in pure crystalline form. The History of Atropine: 4th Century B.C.. Greek ...
[69]
Clinical Review Report: Glycopyrrolate Oral Solution (Cuvposa) - NCBI
Thus, anticholinergic drugs that reduce salivary flow are the most frequently used type of drug. The anticholinergic drugs most commonly used are atropine, ...
[70]
Treatment of Sialorrhea With Glycopyrrolate: A Double-blind, Dose ...
Conclusions Glycopyrrolate is effective in the control of excessive sialorrhea in children with developmental disabilities. Approximately 20% of children given ...
[71]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565962/