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Ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes long-lasting inflammation and ulcers in the innermost lining of the large intestine (colon) and rectum.^[1]^[2]^[3] It typically begins in the rectum and may spread continuously through part or all of the colon, leading to flare-ups of symptoms interspersed with periods of remission.^[1]^[2] The most common symptoms include diarrhea often containing blood, mucus, or pus; abdominal pain and cramping; rectal pain and bleeding; urgent need to defecate; inability to defecate despite urgency (tenesmus); weight loss; fatigue; and fever.^[1]^[2] Symptoms can vary in severity, from mild cases limited to the rectum (proctitis) to extensive involvement causing more than 10 bloody bowel movements per day in severe flares.^[3]^[2] In about 25% of cases, symptoms extend beyond the digestive tract to affect the joints, eyes, skin, or liver.^[2] The exact cause of ulcerative colitis remains unknown, but it is thought to result from an abnormal immune system response that attacks the cells in the digestive tract, possibly triggered by genetic, environmental, and microbial factors.^[1]^[2] Risk factors include a family history of IBD (affecting up to 20% of patients), age of onset typically between 15 and 30 or over 60, and higher prevalence among White individuals, particularly those of Ashkenazi Jewish descent.^[1]^[2] In the United States, an estimated 1.25 million people live with the condition as of 2024, with prevalence rates of about 1 in 400 in North America and Europe.^[3]^[2]^[4] Diagnosis usually involves a combination of medical history, physical exams, blood tests, stool samples, imaging such as CT scans or MRIs, and endoscopic procedures like colonoscopy to visualize inflammation and rule out other conditions.^[2] There is no cure for ulcerative colitis, but management focuses on reducing inflammation, achieving and maintaining remission, and preventing complications such as anemia, osteoporosis, or increased risk of colorectal cancer.^[3]^[1] Treatments include medications like aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, immunomodulators, biologics, and Janus kinase inhibitors, with surgery such as proctocolectomy required in about 30% of severe cases to remove the colon and rectum.^[2]^[1]

Signs and symptoms

Gastrointestinal symptoms

Ulcerative colitis primarily manifests through gastrointestinal symptoms arising from chronic inflammation and ulceration of the colonic mucosa. The hallmark symptom is bloody diarrhea, often accompanied by mucus and pus, resulting from mucosal friability and capillary bleeding. Patients commonly experience abdominal cramping or pain, typically localized to the lower abdomen and exacerbated by bowel movements, along with a sense of urgency to defecate and tenesmus, which is the distressing feeling of incomplete evacuation despite frequent attempts. Nocturnal defecation, where individuals are awakened by the need to pass stool, further disrupts sleep and quality of life during active disease.^[1]^[5]^[6] The presentation and severity of these symptoms vary based on the extent of colonic involvement. In proctitis, limited to the rectum, symptoms are generally milder and include rectal bleeding and urgency without significant diarrhea. Left-sided colitis, extending continuously from the rectum to the splenic flexure, often leads to bloody diarrhea, cramping, and tenesmus. Extensive colitis involves inflammation beyond the splenic flexure but not the entire colon, while pancolitis affects the whole colon, resulting in more profuse bloody diarrhea, severe cramping, and systemic effects like fatigue. The continuous nature of inflammation from the rectum proximally distinguishes these patterns and correlates with symptom intensity.^[1]^[5] Severity is clinically graded using the Truelove and Witts criteria, which assess stool frequency and systemic features to guide management. Mild disease is characterized by fewer than four bloody stools per day without systemic toxicity, fever, or anemia. Moderate severity involves four to six bloody stools daily, with possible mild anemia or low-grade fever. Severe colitis features more than six bloody stools per day, accompanied by at least one systemic sign such as fever above 37.8°C, tachycardia exceeding 90 beats per minute, hemoglobin below 10.5 g/dL, or erythrocyte sedimentation rate greater than 30 mm/hour.^[7]^[5]^[8]

Severity Grade	Stool Frequency (Bloody/Day)	Systemic Signs
Mild	<4	None
Moderate	4–6	Minimal (e.g., mild anemia, low-grade fever)
Severe	>6	At least one: fever >37.8°C, tachycardia >90 bpm, Hb <10.5 g/dL, ESR >30 mm/h
Fulminant	>10	Toxicity (e.g., abdominal distension, altered mental status) with risk of megacolon

Symptom progression in ulcerative colitis follows a relapsing-remitting pattern, with acute flares of intensified diarrhea, cramping, and bleeding alternating with periods of remission that may last weeks to years. Initial presentations often involve insidious onset of mild symptoms, but flares can escalate rapidly, leading to weight loss from reduced appetite and malabsorption, as well as dehydration from fluid losses in severe diarrhea. Chronic patterns may result in persistent low-grade symptoms even between flares, contributing to ongoing nutritional deficits if untreated.^[1]^[6]^[5]

Extraintestinal manifestations

Extraintestinal manifestations (EIMs) of ulcerative colitis (UC) refer to inflammatory or immune-mediated conditions affecting organ systems beyond the colon, occurring in approximately 20-40% of patients overall. These manifestations can precede, coincide with, or follow the onset of intestinal symptoms and are driven by shared genetic, immunological, and environmental factors with UC, such as dysregulated immune responses involving T cells and cytokines. While most EIMs parallel UC disease activity and improve with control of intestinal inflammation, others progress independently, requiring separate management. Their presence influences quality of life and therapeutic decisions, with screening recommended for at-risk patients.^[9]^[10] Musculoskeletal manifestations are among the most common EIMs in UC, affecting up to 25% of patients. Peripheral arthritis, typically involving large joints such as the knees, ankles, and wrists in a pauciarticular (fewer than five joints) pattern, has a prevalence of 10-20% and directly correlates with UC flares, often resolving within weeks of intestinal symptom control. Axial arthropathy, resembling ankylosing spondylitis with sacroiliitis and spinal involvement, occurs in 5-10% of cases, is independent of bowel activity, and is strongly associated with HLA-B27 positivity, particularly in males. These conditions are managed with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or biologics targeting both UC and joint inflammation.^[9]^[10]^[11] Dermatological manifestations arise in 5-15% of UC patients and often signal active disease. Erythema nodosum presents as painful, red nodules on the shins (prevalence 3-10%), triggered by UC flares and resolving with treatment of the underlying colitis, possibly due to immune complex deposition. Pyoderma gangrenosum, a more severe ulcerative skin lesion starting as a pustule and expanding rapidly (prevalence 1-5%), affects sites like the legs and has a variable link to disease activity, with pathergy (worsening at trauma sites) common; it requires systemic immunosuppression beyond UC therapy.^[9]^[11]^[10] Ocular manifestations occur in 2-5% of UC patients, encompassing inflammation of the eye's outer layers or interior. Episcleritis, causing redness and mild discomfort, parallels UC activity and typically self-resolves with bowel treatment. Uveitis, particularly anterior uveitis with pain, photophobia, and vision blurring, is less dependent on flares (prevalence around 2-4%) and is associated with HLA-B27 in a subset of cases, necessitating urgent topical corticosteroids or systemic therapy to prevent complications like synechiae.^[9]^[10]^[11] Hepatobiliary manifestations, notably primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), affect 2-7.5% of UC patients, characterized by progressive bile duct inflammation and strictures. Unlike most EIMs, PSC evolves independently of UC activity, is more prevalent in males with extensive colitis, and requires surveillance for complications, though UC treatments do not alter its course. Liver transplantation may be needed in advanced cases.^[9]^[11]^[10] Other manifestations include oral aphthous ulcers (prevalence 4-10%), which parallel UC activity and respond to topical therapies; increased thromboembolism risk (3- to 6-fold higher, especially during flares due to hypercoagulability from inflammation); and anemia, often iron-deficiency type from chronic colonic blood loss (affecting up to 30-50% during active disease), managed with iron supplementation and UC control. These underscore the systemic nature of UC, with most tied to inflammatory flares except PSC.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Causes and risk factors

Genetic factors

Ulcerative colitis (UC) exhibits a substantial hereditary component, with first-degree relatives of affected individuals facing an approximately 10-fold increased risk of developing the disease compared to the general population. Twin studies further underscore this genetic influence, revealing concordance rates of 10-20% among monozygotic twins, in contrast to 2-5% for dizygotic twins, indicating that shared genetics play a key role while environmental factors also contribute to discordance.^[12]^[13]^[14] Several specific genes have been implicated in UC susceptibility. The HLA-DR2 allele, part of the major histocompatibility complex class II involved in antigen presentation, shows a strong association with UC. Variants in the NOD2 gene, which influence innate immune responses, confer a weaker risk in UC compared to Crohn's disease. Additionally, polymorphisms in IL10 and IL23R, genes regulating cytokine production and immune signaling, as well as ATG16L1, which affects autophagy processes, are linked to increased UC risk.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[16] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified over 240 susceptibility loci associated with inflammatory bowel disease, many of which overlap with UC and enrich pathways related to immune regulation, such as TNF signaling. These findings highlight the polygenic nature of UC, where multiple common variants contribute modestly to overall risk. Gene-environment interactions can further modify the penetrance of these genetic factors.^[18]^[19] Ethnic variations in genetic risk are notable, with UC incidence and familial aggregation being higher among individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, where first-degree relatives exhibit an odds ratio of 4-8 for the disease compared to non-Jewish populations. This elevated risk reflects founder effects and specific allelic frequencies in this group.^[20]^[21]

Environmental factors

Environmental factors play a significant role in the onset and exacerbation of ulcerative colitis (UC), with epidemiological studies highlighting modifiable lifestyle and exposure-related risks that interact with underlying genetic susceptibility to influence disease development and course. These factors include smoking, dietary patterns, surgical history, infections, medications, urbanization, early-life exposures, and air pollution, often showing distinct effects compared to Crohn's disease. Smoking exhibits a protective effect against UC, reducing the risk of disease onset by approximately 40-50% in smokers compared to non-smokers, with meta-analyses reporting an odds ratio (OR) of 0.58 (95% CI: 0.45–0.75).^[22] This protection extends to fewer disease flares and a milder clinical course in affected individuals, though the role of nicotine remains debated, as it demonstrates anti-inflammatory properties in UC models while other smoke components may contribute variably.^[23] In contrast, smoking worsens outcomes in Crohn's disease.^[24] Dietary patterns, particularly high-fat and high-sugar Western-style diets, are associated with increased UC risk, with ultra-processed food intake of five or more servings per day linked to a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.82 (95% CI: 1.22–2.72) for incident UC.^[22] Low dietary fiber intake has been implicated in higher UC onset risk as part of these imbalanced diets, though evidence is more consistent for protective effects against Crohn's disease.^[25] Appendectomy prior to diagnosis confers protection, with an OR of 0.44–0.7, reducing UC risk by 30-56% in epidemiological cohorts.^[22] Infections contribute to UC flares and potentially onset via the hygiene hypothesis, which posits that reduced early-life microbial exposure in sanitized environments increases IBD susceptibility by altering immune development. Early-life antibiotic use has been identified as a risk factor, with exposure in infancy associated with higher UC incidence in recent studies.^[22]^[26] Superinfections with Clostridium difficile are a common trigger for UC exacerbations, occurring in up to 10% of flares and associated with worse outcomes, including higher rates of colectomy.^[27]^[28] Certain medications exacerbate UC symptoms; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can induce mucosal injury and trigger disease flares, with frequent use linked to increased relapse risk in quiescent patients.^[29]^[30] Oral contraceptives slightly elevate UC risk, with an OR of 1.30 (95% CI: 1.13–1.49) observed in meta-analyses of ever-users.^[22] Urbanization correlates with higher UC incidence, with residents of industrialized areas showing an OR of 1.42 (95% CI: 1.26–1.60) compared to rural populations, potentially due to pollution and shifts in microbial exposures. Emerging evidence also links air pollution exposure to increased UC susceptibility.^[22]^[31] Breastfeeding in infancy is associated with a reduced risk of developing UC later in life.^[32]

Pathophysiology

Immune dysregulation

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is characterized by aberrant activation of both innate and adaptive immune responses in the intestinal mucosa, leading to chronic inflammation. In the adaptive arm, there is an overactive Th2 and Th17 response, with dominance of cytokines such as IL-13 and IL-17. IL-13 drives eosinophil recruitment and epithelial barrier dysfunction, while IL-17 promotes neutrophil infiltration, exacerbating tissue damage.^[33]^[34] Concurrently, regulatory T cells (Tregs), which normally suppress excessive immune activity through Foxp3-mediated mechanisms, are reduced in number and function in UC patients, particularly during active disease, contributing to unchecked inflammation.^[35]^[36] Innate immune cells, including macrophages and dendritic cells, amplify this dysregulation by producing pro-inflammatory signals that sustain Th17 differentiation.^[37] The cytokine milieu in UC reflects this imbalance, with elevated levels of pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β driving the inflammatory cascade. TNF-α, secreted by activated macrophages and T cells, induces apoptosis in epithelial cells and amplifies cytokine production, while IL-6 promotes Th17 cell differentiation and inhibits Treg function.^[38]^[39] IL-1β further stimulates innate immune activation and neutrophil recruitment. In contrast, defective signaling through the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, often due to impaired IL-10 receptor function, fails to dampen these responses, resulting in persistent inflammation as observed in genetic models and patient biopsies.^[40]^[41] Dysfunctional antigen presentation plays a central role, where breaches in the epithelial barrier expose luminal antigens to the immune system, triggering aberrant CD4+ T-cell activation. Antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, process these microbial-derived peptides and present them via MHC class II to naïve CD4+ T cells, skewing differentiation toward pathogenic Th17 and Th2 subsets.^[42]^[43] This process is compounded by autoimmunity theories, including molecular mimicry between gut microbiota components and host proteins, leading to cross-reactive immune responses, and a progressive loss of tolerance to commensal bacteria, which perpetuates the cycle of inflammation.^[44]^[45]

Intestinal barrier dysfunction

In ulcerative colitis (UC), epithelial integrity is compromised primarily through defects in the mucus layer and tight junctions, leading to heightened intestinal permeability. The mucus layer, predominantly composed of MUC2 mucin secreted by goblet cells, exhibits reduced production and altered glycosylation in UC patients, resulting in a thinner barrier that fails to adequately separate luminal contents from the epithelium.^[46] This MUC2 deficiency is evident in both active disease and remission, with goblet cell depletion further exacerbating mucin scarcity and allowing closer bacterial-epithelial contact.^[46] Concurrently, tight junction proteins such as claudins are dysregulated; for instance, claudin-2 is upregulated, promoting a "leaky" pore-forming pathway, while claudin-1 and claudin-4 expression decreases or relocates abnormally, collectively increasing paracellular permeability.^[47] These changes enable the passage of luminal antigens and bacteria, initiating and perpetuating mucosal inflammation.^[47] Microbiome dysbiosis in UC contributes significantly to barrier dysfunction by altering the microbial ecosystem that supports epithelial health. Patients with UC display reduced overall microbial diversity, with a notable decrease in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, reflecting lower abundance of protective Firmicutes such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and an enrichment in potentially pathogenic Proteobacteria.^[48] This imbalance fosters the overgrowth of adherent-invasive bacteria, including adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC), which adhere to and invade the compromised epithelium, further disrupting barrier integrity.^[48] Such dysbiosis not only impairs mucin degradation and short-chain fatty acid production—key for epithelial nourishment—but also promotes a pro-inflammatory environment that hinders barrier repair.^[48] Histological alterations in crypt architecture underscore the structural breakdown in UC, beginning distally in the rectum and extending proximally in a continuous manner. Crypt abscesses, characterized by neutrophil infiltration into crypt lumens, represent acute inflammatory responses that distort crypt architecture and contribute to epithelial erosion.^[49] Goblet cell depletion is a hallmark feature, leading to diminished mucin secretion and surface ulceration, where shallow erosions form due to unchecked bacterial proximity and inflammatory damage.^[49] These changes create focal areas of vulnerability, amplifying permeability and facilitating ongoing tissue injury.^[49] The interplay of these defects forms a vicious feedback loop wherein barrier breaches enable bacterial translocation across the epithelium, sustaining immune activation and chronic inflammation in UC. Translocated microbes and their products stimulate persistent mucosal responses, which in turn exacerbate epithelial damage and permeability, thus perpetuating the cycle.^[50] This loop amplifies downstream immune responses, though the primary drivers remain the physical and microbial barrier failures.^[50]

Diagnosis

Laboratory and clinical assessment

The diagnosis of ulcerative colitis begins with a thorough clinical history, focusing on the hallmark symptom of chronic bloody diarrhea, which typically persists for weeks to months and may be accompanied by urgency, tenesmus, and abdominal cramping.^[51] Patients often report a relapsing-remitting pattern, with episodes lasting from days to months, and a family history of inflammatory bowel disease increases suspicion, as genetic factors contribute to approximately 15-20% of cases.^[52] Extraintestinal symptoms, such as arthralgias, erythema nodosum, or episcleritis, are elicited to support the diagnosis and differentiate from isolated gastrointestinal issues.^[51] Physical examination in mild cases may reveal minimal findings, such as mild left lower quadrant abdominal tenderness due to colonic inflammation.^[51] In moderate to severe disease, signs of systemic involvement become evident, including pallor from chronic blood loss leading to anemia, tachycardia, fever, and dehydration manifested by dry mucous membranes or reduced skin turgor.^[52] These findings help gauge disease severity and prompt urgent evaluation if toxic megacolon is suspected.^[51] Laboratory assessment starts with blood tests to identify inflammation and complications. Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) serve as nonspecific markers of active inflammation, with CRP levels tending to rise more reliably in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis, although they can still indicate severe activity in UC.^[53] Anemia, typically iron-deficiency type from chronic gastrointestinal bleeding, is common, alongside thrombocytosis as an acute-phase response and hypoalbuminemia in severe cases due to protein-losing enteropathy or malnutrition.^[54]^[55] Emerging biomarkers as of 2025 include serum anti-integrin αvβ6 autoantibodies and fecal myeloperoxidase, showing high sensitivity for predicting disease outcomes, alongside microbiome-based diagnostic models for non-invasive IBD differentiation.^[56] Stool tests are essential for non-invasive evaluation. Fecal calprotectin levels exceeding 250 μg/g strongly indicate mucosal inflammation, aiding in distinguishing inflammatory bowel disease from irritable bowel syndrome and monitoring disease activity.^[57] Additionally, testing for Clostridioides difficile toxin is routine to exclude infectious causes of diarrhea, particularly in patients with recent antibiotic exposure or hospitalization.^[52] Disease activity is quantified using the Partial Mayo Score, a validated clinical index comprising three components: stool frequency (scored 0-3 based on daily bowel movements relative to baseline), rectal bleeding (0-3, from no blood to overt bleeding requiring transfusion), and physician's global assessment (0-3, incorporating overall well-being and extraintestinal features).^[58] Scores range from 0 to 9, with mild activity at 2-4, moderate at 5-6, and severe above 6, guiding the need for confirmatory endoscopy.^[59]

Endoscopic and imaging evaluation

Endoscopy serves as the gold standard for diagnosing and assessing the extent and severity of ulcerative colitis (UC), providing direct visualization of the colonic mucosa to confirm continuous inflammation starting from the rectum.^[60] Colonoscopy allows evaluation of the entire colon, revealing characteristic findings such as diffuse mucosal erythema, friability (where the mucosa bleeds easily on contact), loss of the normal vascular pattern, and superficial ulcers or erosions, which distinguish UC from discontinuous lesions seen in other conditions.^[61] In cases of acute severe UC or when full colonoscopy is deemed high-risk, flexible sigmoidoscopy is preferred as an initial procedure, limiting evaluation to the rectosigmoid region while minimizing procedural complications.^[62] The extent of colonic involvement is classified using the Montreal criteria, which categorize UC as E1 (proctitis, limited to the rectum), E2 (left-sided colitis, extending to the splenic flexure), or E3 (extensive colitis or pancolitis, involving the colon proximal to the splenic flexure).^[63] This classification is determined endoscopically and helps guide therapeutic decisions and prognosis. To quantify disease severity, the Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity (UCEIS) is widely used, scoring three descriptors: vascular pattern (0-2 points, from normal to absent), bleeding (0-3 points, from none to spontaneously bleeding), and erosions/ulcers (0-3 points, from none to large ulcers), yielding a total score from 0 (inactive) to 8 (severe).^[64] Higher UCEIS scores correlate with worse clinical outcomes and are validated for monitoring treatment response.^[65] Imaging modalities complement endoscopy, particularly for detecting complications or assessing disease in patients unable to undergo invasive procedures. Computed tomography (CT) enterography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enterography is recommended to evaluate for severe complications such as toxic megacolon, characterized by colonic dilation exceeding 6 cm, or perforations, with CT offering rapid assessment of extraluminal involvement.^[66] Ultrasound, a non-invasive option, detects bowel wall thickening greater than 4 mm and increased vascularity via Doppler, aiding in monitoring disease activity without radiation exposure.^[66] Endoscopy is typically pursued when laboratory markers, such as elevated C-reactive protein or fecal calprotectin, suggest active inflammation.^[60] Endoscopic procedures in UC carry risks, including perforation, which occurs at a higher rate (up to 0.5-1%) in patients with severe, active disease due to fragile mucosa, particularly during full colonoscopy.^[67] To mitigate this, guidelines recommend avoiding unnecessary biopsies in fulminant cases, using carbon dioxide insufflation, and opting for limited sigmoidoscopy in acute settings.^[62]

Histological and differential diagnosis

Histological diagnosis of ulcerative colitis (UC) relies on microscopic examination of colonic biopsies, which typically reveal a pattern of chronic active colitis limited to the mucosa and submucosa. Key features include cryptitis, characterized by neutrophilic infiltration of the crypt epithelium, and crypt abscesses, where neutrophils accumulate within the crypt lumens.^[68] Basal plasmacytosis, an increase in plasma cells at the base of the lamina propria, is a hallmark of chronic inflammation in UC, often present even in quiescent phases.^[69] Mucosal distortion manifests as architectural irregularities, such as branched or atrophic crypts, reflecting ongoing disease process.^[70] Notably, granulomas are absent in UC biopsies, distinguishing it from Crohn's disease.^[71] Signs of chronicity further support the diagnosis and include Paneth cell metaplasia, where Paneth cells appear in the left colon distal to their normal location, indicating prolonged epithelial injury.^[69] Increased eosinophils in the lamina propria may also be observed, contributing to the chronic inflammatory milieu, though this is not specific to UC.^[72] These features are best appreciated in untreated or active disease, with biopsies often prompted by endoscopic visualization of mucosal friability or ulceration. Differential diagnosis is crucial, as several conditions mimic UC histologically. Crohn's disease features transmural inflammation, skip lesions, and non-caseating granulomas, unlike the continuous mucosal involvement in UC.^[73] Infectious colitis, such as that caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) or amebiasis, may present with similar acute inflammation but often includes viral inclusions or parasitic organisms identifiable on special stains.^[74] Ischemic colitis typically shows hyalinized lamina propria, atrophic crypts with fibrosis, and a predilection for watershed areas, lacking the chronic plasmacytosis of UC.^[75] Segmental colitis associated with diverticulosis (SCAD) resembles UC but is confined to areas with diverticula, featuring milder chronic changes without pan-colonic involvement. Histological severity in UC is often assessed using the Nancy index, a validated scoring system ranging from 0 (no significant histological activity) to 4 (severely active disease with ulcerations extending beyond the mucosa).^[76] Grades 0-1 indicate remission or minimal activity, while grades 3-4 correlate with deep ulceration and predict clinical relapse.^[77] This index emphasizes the depth and extent of inflammation for prognostic purposes. In immunocompromised patients, special tests like immunohistochemistry for CMV are essential to rule out superimposed infection, as CMV inclusions can exacerbate UC-like histology and require targeted antiviral therapy.^[78]

Management

Pharmacological treatments

Pharmacological treatments for ulcerative colitis (UC) primarily target inflammation and immune dysregulation to induce remission in active disease and maintain it long-term, with therapy selection guided by disease severity, extent (per Montreal classification: E1 proctitis, E2 left-sided, E3 extensive), and patient factors such as comorbidities and prior responses. The 2025 ACG guidelines recommend a step-up approach starting with less aggressive agents for mild-to-moderate disease and escalating to biologics or small molecules for moderate-to-severe cases, emphasizing early use of advanced therapies over prolonged reliance on 5-aminosalicylates (5-ASA) alone in higher-risk patients, including treat-to-target with endoscopic improvement (Mayo Endoscopic Score 0 or 1).^[79]^[80] Aminosalicylates, such as mesalamine, represent first-line therapy for mild-to-moderate UC due to their anti-inflammatory effects, which inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and promote mucosal healing. Oral mesalamine at doses of 2-4.8 g/day induces remission in extensive colitis, while topical formulations (1 g/day suppositories or enemas) are preferred for proctitis or left-sided disease; combination oral and rectal therapy enhances efficacy for left-sided involvement. For maintenance, oral doses of 1.5-2.4 g/day or topical 1 g/day prevent relapse, with once-daily dosing improving adherence. Common side effects include headache and diarrhea, though rare paradoxical worsening may occur. Corticosteroids provide rapid induction of remission in moderate-to-severe flares but are not suitable for maintenance due to dependency risks. Systemic agents like prednisone (40-60 mg/day) or methylprednisolone (60 mg/day IV/oral) are used for acute severe UC, with tapering over 8-12 weeks to minimize adrenal suppression and other adverse effects such as weight gain and osteoporosis. For distal disease, topical budesonide (e.g., foam or enema) or oral budesonide-MMX (9 mg/day for 8 weeks) offers targeted anti-inflammatory action with reduced systemic exposure. Immunomodulators like azathioprine (2-2.5 mg/kg/day) or 6-mercaptopurine serve as steroid-sparing agents for maintenance in steroid-dependent patients, suppressing T-cell proliferation to sustain remission. They are not recommended as monotherapy for induction due to delayed onset (3-6 months) and are often combined with biologics. Methotrexate (25 mg/week subcutaneously) is an alternative but lacks strong evidence for UC maintenance. Key risks include bone marrow suppression, hepatotoxicity, and increased malignancy (e.g., lymphoma, skin cancer) with thiopurines, necessitating TPMT testing and monitoring. Biologic therapies target specific immune pathways for moderate-to-severe UC unresponsive to conventional agents. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors, including infliximab (5-10 mg/kg IV at weeks 0, 2, 6, then every 8 weeks), adalimumab (160/80 mg SC loading, then 40 mg every 2 weeks), and golimumab (200/100 mg or 400/200 mg SC loading, then 100 mg every 4 weeks), block TNF-alpha to reduce inflammation and induce endoscopic healing. Combination with azathioprine enhances infliximab efficacy but raises infection risk. Integrin inhibitor vedolizumab (300 mg IV at weeks 0, 2, 6, then every 8 weeks, or subcutaneous maintenance) selectively blocks gut lymphocyte trafficking. Interleukin-12/23 inhibitor ustekinumab (260 mg IV induction based on weight, then 90 mg SC every 8 weeks) and IL-23-specific agents like risankizumab (600 mg IV induction over 4 doses, then 180/360 mg SC every 8/12 weeks; FDA-approved June 2024), guselkumab (subcutaneous induction 400 mg at weeks 0, 4, and 8, then 100 mg SC every 8 weeks; FDA-approved September 2024 with SC induction update September 2025), and mirikizumab (300 mg IV at weeks 0, 4, 12, then 200 mg SC every 4 weeks or 400 mg single-injection SC monthly maintenance; FDA-approved October 2023 with maintenance update October 2025) modulate cytokine-driven inflammation.^[81]^[82]^[83] Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulators, such as ozanimod (0.92 mg oral daily after titration) and etrasimod (2 mg oral daily), inhibit lymphocyte migration from lymph nodes for induction and maintenance in moderate-to-severe UC. Biologics carry risks of infusion reactions, immunogenicity, and serious infections (e.g., tuberculosis screening required). Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors, including tofacitinib (10 mg twice daily for 8 weeks induction, then 5-10 mg twice daily maintenance) and upadacitinib (45 mg daily induction, then 15-30 mg daily; higher doses may be used after TNF failure or earlier if TNF blockers are clinically inadvisable per FDA label update October 2025), orally inhibit JAK-STAT signaling to broadly suppress proinflammatory cytokines, offering rapid onset for moderate-to-severe UC.^[84] Adverse effects include herpes zoster, infections, lipid elevations, and potential thrombosis or major cardiovascular events, with contraindications in recent thrombosis or heart failure. Treatment escalation follows a step-up model based on Montreal extent and response: mild distal disease starts with topical 5-ASA, progressing to oral/combined 5-ASA or budesonide; extensive or refractory cases advance to systemic steroids, then immunomodulators or biologics/JAK inhibitors. For primary non-response, switch therapeutic classes (e.g., TNF to vedolizumab or JAK inhibitor); therapeutic drug monitoring guides anti-TNF optimization. Combination therapy, such as tofacitinib with infliximab, may be considered for refractory disease.^[79]^[80] Overall, advanced therapies increase infection and malignancy risks, particularly with thiopurines or JAK inhibitors, requiring vigilant monitoring and vaccination updates.

Surgical interventions

Surgical interventions are considered in ulcerative colitis (UC) when medical therapy fails to control symptoms or complications arise, with approximately 25-35% of patients requiring surgery over their lifetime.^[85] Primary indications include medically refractory disease, where symptoms persist despite optimal pharmacological management; acute severe colitis leading to toxic megacolon or perforation; and the presence of dysplasia or colorectal cancer, which carries a risk of 3-10% after 20 years of disease and increases by 1-2% annually thereafter.^[86]^[85] Surgery is also indicated for fulminant colitis unresponsive to intravenous steroids within 24-48 hours or in cases of severe extraintestinal manifestations, though the latter may not fully resolve post-procedure.^[86] The preferred surgical approach is restorative proctocolectomy with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA), which involves removal of the entire colon and rectum followed by creation of a pouch from the ileum anastomosed to the anus, typically performed in two or three stages to minimize risks.^[87] In two-stage IPAA, subtotal colectomy with ileostomy is first done as a bridge procedure, followed by completion proctectomy and pouch construction; three-stage adds a delayed anastomosis for high-risk or emergent cases.^[86] Alternatives include total proctocolectomy with permanent end ileostomy for patients unsuitable for IPAA, or subtotal colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis in select cases, though the latter preserves the rectum and risks ongoing inflammation.^[88] Emergent procedures often limit to subtotal colectomy and ileostomy to stabilize patients with toxic megacolon (colon dilation >6 cm) or perforation, where mortality can reach 27-57% if untreated.^[87]^[85] Timing of surgery varies by severity: urgent intervention within 72 hours is essential for fulminant colitis or hemodynamic instability to prevent multi-organ failure, while elective procedures are planned for chronic refractory disease or dysplasia detected via surveillance colonoscopy (recommended after 8 years for pancolitis).^[86]^[87] Common complications following IPAA include pouchitis, affecting 20-50% of patients and often responsive to antibiotics, with a cumulative incidence of up to 46% at 10 years; pelvic sepsis (5-8%); small bowel obstruction; and anastomotic strictures (4-16%).^[86]^[85] Women face an increased infertility risk of about 39% due to pelvic adhesions, and overall pouch failure occurs in 5-10% of cases, potentially necessitating pouch excision or revision.^[85] Postoperative complication rates are around 30%, with mortality under 1% in elective settings.^[87] Outcomes are generally favorable, as surgery is curative for UC by eliminating diseased tissue, with IPAA achieving long-term pouch function in over 90% of patients at 10-20 years and 5-7 daily bowel movements on average.^[87] Patient satisfaction exceeds 90%, with quality of life comparable to the general population and 98% recommending the procedure, though risks of incontinence and reduced gas-stool discrimination (60-75% preserved) persist.^[86]^[85] Permanent ileostomy options provide reliable diversion but may impact body image and quality of life more significantly.^[88]

Supportive and alternative approaches

In patients with acute severe ulcerative colitis, enteral nutrition can provide complete caloric support while allowing bowel rest, and parenteral nutrition is recommended when the gastrointestinal tract is nonfunctional due to severe inflammation.^[89] During disease flares, a low-residue diet may help reduce bowel irritation and symptom severity by limiting fiber intake that could exacerbate diarrhea.^[90] Probiotics, such as the formulation VSL#3, show limited evidence for inducing clinical response and remission in mild-to-moderate cases, potentially by addressing gut dysbiosis, though results are inconsistent across studies.^[91] Iron supplementation is commonly advised for anemia, a frequent complication, to replenish stores depleted by chronic blood loss from mucosal ulceration.^[92] Individuals with ulcerative colitis on immunosuppressive therapies should receive vaccinations against pneumococcal disease and influenza prior to initiating biologics, as these patients are at higher risk of infections.^[93] Live vaccines, such as those for varicella or oral polio, must be avoided in immunosuppressed patients to prevent disseminated infections.^[94] Alternative approaches include probiotics and prebiotics aimed at restoring microbial balance, with some trials indicating modest benefits in reducing inflammation, though they are not a substitute for standard care. Herbal remedies like curcumin and boswellia have mild evidence supporting their use for maintenance therapy, potentially through anti-inflammatory effects on the colonic mucosa.^[95] Acupuncture may provide symptom relief, such as reduced abdominal discomfort, with studies showing improved quality of life and safety, but it does not induce histological remission.^[96] For infection management, antibiotics like vancomycin or fidaxomicin are used to treat Clostridioides difficile-associated diarrhea, a common trigger for flares in ulcerative colitis patients. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is an emerging option for refractory cases, with recent trials demonstrating higher remission rates when preceded by medical optimization, though it remains experimental and not routinely recommended outside trials.^[97] Abdominal pain in ulcerative colitis can be addressed with antispasmodics such as dicyclomine or hyoscyamine to relieve cramping by relaxing smooth muscle, offering targeted relief without affecting disease activity. Opioids should be avoided due to risks of dependency, constipation, and potential worsening of ileus.^[98] Integrating mental health support, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, can enhance overall coping and adherence in a holistic care model for ulcerative colitis.^[98]

Prognosis

Disease progression and remission

Ulcerative colitis typically follows a relapsing-remitting course, with most patients experiencing intermittent flares of inflammation interspersed with periods of quiescence. Approximately 70% of cases manifest as relapsing-remitting, 20% as chronic continuous activity, and 10% as a single episode without recurrence, though these patterns can evolve over time. Disease extent may progress proximally, with 10-19% of patients showing extension after 5 years and up to 28% after 10 years; for instance, among those starting with proctitis, about 15% develop pancolitis.^[99] Induction of remission with first-line therapies, such as corticosteroids or aminosalicylates, achieves clinical response or remission in 60-80% of patients with moderate-to-severe disease. Maintenance therapy, often involving aminosalicylates or immunomodulators, sustains relapse-free remission in 40-60% of patients at 1 year, though relapse risk increases without ongoing treatment, reaching up to 80% by 5 years in untreated cases.^[100]^[101] Factors influencing disease trajectory include early age at onset, which correlates with more aggressive progression and higher rates of proximal extension, and initial extensive colonic involvement, associated with increased severity and need for escalation. Smoking paradoxically exerts a protective effect in ulcerative colitis, reducing flare risk during active use, but cessation can aggravate the course, leading to higher relapse rates and worse outcomes post-quitting.^[102]^[103] Monitoring strategies emphasize non-invasive biomarkers like fecal calprotectin, which reliably predicts impending flares when levels exceed 250 μg/g and correlates with endoscopic activity to guide adjustments. A treat-to-target approach prioritizes achieving and maintaining mucosal healing, as confirmed by endoscopy, to alter the long-term course and reduce complications such as colorectal cancer risk in extended disease duration.^[104]

Associated risks and mortality

Patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) face an elevated risk of colorectal cancer (CRC), particularly those with extensive colitis involving the proximal colon. The cumulative incidence of CRC in patients with UC is approximately 0.7% (range 0.5–0.9%) at 10 years and 3% (2.5–3.5%) at 20 years after diagnosis, with higher risks in extensive colitis (standardized incidence ratio 3.95).^[105] To mitigate this risk, guidelines recommend initiating surveillance colonoscopy 8 to 10 years after the onset of symptoms in patients with left-sided or extensive colitis.^[106] Up to 70-80% of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) also have UC, and this overlap significantly increases the risk of cholangiocarcinoma, with a lifetime incidence of 10-15% in those with PSC-UC.^[107] PSC-UC patients often require liver transplantation due to progressive biliary disease and associated malignancies, which contribute substantially to disease-related mortality.^[108] Other notable risks include infections and thrombotic events. Patients with UC have approximately a 10-fold increased risk of Clostridioides difficile infection compared to the general population, with a lifetime infection rate around 10%.^[109] Additionally, the risk of venous thromboembolism is 3- to 5-fold higher during active disease flares, driven by systemic inflammation.^[110] Overall mortality in UC is near-normal, with life expectancy approaching that of the general population in modern cohorts, though excess deaths arise from complications such as surgery (1-2% perioperative mortality for colectomy), infections, and cancer. The 5-year survival rate post-diagnosis exceeds 95%.^[111] Ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA), a common surgical option for refractory UC, generally restores bowel function and improves quality of life, but long-term pouch complications like pouchitis affect 50-80% of patients and can impair functional outcomes.^[112]

Epidemiology

Global patterns

Ulcerative colitis exhibits varying incidence and prevalence rates worldwide, with pooled global estimates indicating an incidence of approximately 5.0 cases per 100,000 person-years (95% CI: 4.6–5.3) and a prevalence of 120.4 cases per 100,000 population (95% CI: 110.5–130.3), based on a systematic review of population-based studies spanning 2000–2022. These rates reflect a broad range influenced by diagnostic practices and study methodologies, typically falling between 1–20 incident cases per 100,000 person-years and 5–500 prevalent cases per 100,000 globally. In 2023, the worldwide prevalence was estimated at around 5 million cases, underscoring the disease's substantial global footprint. Temporal trends in ulcerative colitis show stabilization of incidence in high-income regions such as North America and Western Europe, where rates have plateaued after decades of increase, though prevalence continues to rise due to improved survival and aging populations. In contrast, low- and middle-income countries, particularly in Asia and Africa, report annual increases of 2–5% in both incidence and prevalence, attributed to urbanization, dietary shifts, and improved healthcare access leading to better detection. This eastward and southward expansion highlights a transition from Western-dominant patterns to a truly global disease burden. The age distribution of ulcerative colitis onset displays a bimodal pattern, with primary peaks between 15–30 years and secondary peaks between 50–70 years, reflecting potential interactions between genetic susceptibility and cumulative environmental exposures. There is a slight female predominance overall, with a prevalence ratio of approximately 1.3:1 compared to males, though incidence rates are often similar across sexes until later adulthood. The hygiene hypothesis posits that reduced early-life microbial exposures in urbanized, sanitized environments contribute to this North-South gradient, where higher incidences historically occur in northern latitudes of industrialized regions, potentially linked to lower vitamin D levels or altered immune development.

Regional differences

In North America, the prevalence of ulcerative colitis is estimated at 378 per 100,000 population in the United States (based on 2020 data), with approximately 1.25 million individuals affected.^[113] Similar rates are observed in Canada, where ulcerative colitis prevalence reached 414 per 100,000 in 2023, affecting over 160,000 people.^[114] Within these regions, prevalence is notably higher among Caucasians compared to other ethnic groups; for instance, non-Hispanic white Americans exhibit the highest rates, with standardized prevalence exceeding 800 per 100,000 for inflammatory bowel disease overall, driven largely by ulcerative colitis.^[113] In Europe, incidence rates vary geographically, with the United Kingdom reporting 10 to 20 new cases of ulcerative colitis per 100,000 person-years, translating to a crude incidence of approximately 15.7 per 100,000.^[115] Northern European countries demonstrate higher incidence than southern regions; for example, Scandinavian nations like Norway and Sweden report rates around 15 per 100,000, while Italy has a lower incidence of about 8 per 100,000.^[116] These disparities highlight a north-south gradient in disease burden across the continent. Asia has witnessed a sharp rise in ulcerative colitis cases, with prevalence in Japan increasing to 63 per 100,000 by the early 2010s and continuing to climb, reaching over 250 per 100,000 by 2023 amid broader regional trends.^[117] The disease phenotype in Asian populations tends to be milder, characterized by less extensive colonic involvement and lower rates of surgical intervention compared to Western cohorts.^[118] Prevalence remains lower in Africa and Latin America than in industrialized regions, though incidence is increasing in these areas as healthcare access improves and diagnostic capabilities expand.^[119] Globally, Ashkenazi Jews face the highest risk, with ulcerative colitis rates 2 to 4 times higher than in non-Jewish populations.^[120] In emerging regions, ulcerative colitis shows an inverse correlation with socioeconomic development indices, where lower human development is associated with reduced prevalence, though rates are rising alongside economic growth.^[121]

History

Early descriptions

The earliest potential references to conditions resembling ulcerative colitis appear in ancient medical texts, where symptoms such as chronic bloody diarrhea and abdominal pain were documented. In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates, in the Hippocratic Corpus, described non-epidemic bloody diarrhea with mucus, distinguishing it from infectious forms and attributing it to dietary or environmental factors, which aligns with modern characterizations of ulcerative colitis flares.^[122] Similarly, ancient Egyptian medical papyri, including the Ebers Papyrus from around 1550 BCE, contain prescriptions for dysentery-like illnesses involving frequent stools with blood and mucus, intestinal spasms, and inflammation, though these were not differentiated as a specific idiopathic entity.^[123] By the 19th century, clinical recognition advanced through postmortem examinations, as endoscopy was not yet available, leading physicians to rely on autopsy findings to characterize colonic pathology. Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy's Hospital in London, provided the first detailed description of idiopathic ulcerative colitis in 1859, reporting a case of a 42-year-old woman who succumbed to chronic bloody diarrhea; autopsy revealed superficial ulcers confined to the colon without evidence of infection, differentiating it from bacterial dysentery or tuberculosis.^[124] Wilks emphasized the non-infectious, inflammatory nature of the disease, terming it "ulcerative colitis" to highlight its idiopathic origins and mucosal involvement.^[125] This work was expanded in 1875 by Wilks and his colleague Walter Moxon, who described additional cases of extensive colonic ulceration and inflammation in young patients, again confirmed via autopsy, further solidifying the distinction from tuberculous or infectious colitides.^[126] Their observations, based on systematic postmortem studies, established ulcerative colitis as a discrete entity characterized by continuous mucosal inflammation starting from the rectum, paving the way for its formal clinical recognition by the early 20th century.^[127]

Therapeutic developments

The development of therapeutic options for ulcerative colitis (UC) began in the mid-20th century with the introduction of sulfasalazine in the 1940s, marking the first effective aminosalicylate (5-ASA) agent for inducing and maintaining remission in mild to moderate disease.^[128] Originally synthesized by Nana Svartz for rheumatoid arthritis, its efficacy in UC was discovered serendipitously through small clinical studies in the late 1940s, demonstrating reduced inflammation and symptom control without the need for surgical intervention in many cases.^[129] This compound laid the foundation for subsequent 5-ASA derivatives, which became first-line therapy for mild UC due to their targeted anti-inflammatory effects in the colonic mucosa.^[130] In the 1950s, corticosteroids revolutionized acute management of moderate to severe UC flares, with early trials by Truelove and Witts establishing their role in rapidly inducing remission by suppressing systemic inflammation and improving symptoms like diarrhea and bleeding.^[131] Concurrently, surgical advancements addressed refractory cases, with early work by Mark Ravitch on straight ileoanal anastomosis following proctocolectomy, first demonstrated in animal models in 1947 and applied clinically in humans by the late 1940s.^[132] The modern ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA), involving creation of an ileal reservoir anastomosed to the anus, was developed in the 1970s and 1980s and became a curative option for medically resistant UC, significantly reducing the morbidity of total colectomy.^[133] The late 20th and early 21st centuries ushered in biologic therapies targeting specific inflammatory pathways. Infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitor, received U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for moderate to severe UC in 2006, following pivotal trials showing superior induction and maintenance of remission compared to placebo, particularly in reducing colectomy rates.^[134] This was followed by vedolizumab, a gut-selective integrin antagonist, approved in 2014 for patients with inadequate response to conventional therapies, offering a safer profile with lower systemic immunosuppression risks.^[135] More recently, Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors like tofacitinib gained FDA approval in 2018 as the first oral biologic for UC, providing rapid symptom relief and mucosal healing in biologic-naive and experienced patients.^[136] Interleukin (IL)-23 pathway inhibitors further expanded options, with ustekinumab—an IL-12/23 blocker—approved for UC in 2019, demonstrating histologic-endoscopic improvement in phase 3 trials.^[137] In 2024, IL-23-specific agents risankizumab and guselkumab received FDA approvals for moderate to severe UC, with risankizumab showing superior clinical remission rates in induction and maintenance phases, and guselkumab offering both intravenous and subcutaneous regimens for flexible dosing.^[138]^[139] Evolving guidelines from the American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) and American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) in the 2020s, including the 2024 AGA living guideline, now emphasize early initiation of these high-efficacy biologics over stepwise conventional therapy to optimize long-term outcomes and prevent disease progression.^[140]

Research directions

Emerging therapies

Emerging therapies for ulcerative colitis encompass a range of investigational biologics, cell-based approaches, microbiome interventions, and small molecules advancing through clinical trials, building on foundational biologic treatments to target novel pathways like IL-23 inhibition and immune modulation.^[141] Among biologics in late-stage development, duvakitug, an anti-TL1A monoclonal antibody, has shown promising results in phase 3 trials for moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis. In the RELIEVE UCCD study presented at ECCO 2025, duvakitug achieved clinical remission rates of approximately 40% at week 14 compared to 20% with placebo, alongside higher clinical response rates of 70-81% versus 52% for placebo, demonstrating its potential as a best-in-class agent by modulating TL1A-driven inflammation.^[142] Similarly, omilancor, an oral PPARγ agonist acting as a LANCL2 modulator to promote mucosal healing and reduce inflammation, completed phase 2 trials with a placebo-adjusted clinical remission rate of 17.5% at week 12 in mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis, supporting once-daily oral dosing and tolerability.^[143] Cell therapies represent innovative frontiers, with CD19-targeted CAR-T cell therapy emerging for refractory cases. A 2025 New England Journal of Medicine case report described drug-free clinical remission and mucosal healing in a patient with multidrug-resistant ulcerative colitis following CD19 CAR-T infusion, highlighting B-cell depletion's role in resetting aberrant immunity without ongoing immunosuppression.^[144] Mesenchymal stem cell therapies, particularly umbilical cord-derived variants, have advanced to phase 2 evaluations, where intravenous delivery induced clinical remission in up to 40% of refractory patients at 2 months, leveraging anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects on the intestinal mucosa.^[145] Microbiome-based interventions include fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), which yields response rates around 50% in mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis via multi-donor colonoscopic delivery, restoring microbial diversity and reducing inflammation as shown in randomized trials.^[146] Engineered bacteria, such as inflammation-sensing Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 strains designed to deliver therapeutics locally, demonstrate safety and targeted anti-inflammatory payload release in preclinical ulcerative colitis models with potential for sustained gut-specific modulation.^[147] Small molecule advancements feature ozanimod, a sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulator approved in 2021 for moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis, which traps lymphocytes in lymph nodes to achieve clinical remission in 37% of patients at week 8 versus 19% with placebo in phase 3 trials.^[148] Mirikizumab, an IL-23p19 antagonist, progressed through phase 3 LUCENT trials, inducing clinical remission in 24.2% of patients at week 12 compared to 13.3% with placebo and maintaining it in 49.9% at week 40, offering subcutaneous dosing for long-term control.^[149] Challenges in adopting these therapies include slow biosimilar uptake for established biologics like infliximab and adalimumab, driven by physician hesitancy, patient concerns over interchangeability, and regulatory variations, despite cost savings up to 30% that could enhance access in resource-limited settings.^[150] Head-to-head trials, such as the ongoing phase 3 trial (NCT06880744) comparing risankizumab (IL-23 inhibitor) to vedolizumab (integrin antagonist) in biologic-naïve ulcerative colitis patients, aim to clarify comparative efficacy, with network meta-analyses suggesting risankizumab's superiority over ustekinumab in endoscopic remission (31% vs. 16% at week 48).^[151]

Biomarkers and prevention strategies

Biomarkers play a crucial role in the diagnosis, monitoring, and management of ulcerative colitis (UC), enabling non-invasive assessment of disease activity and response to therapy. Fecal calprotectin (FC), a neutrophil-derived protein, is widely used for distinguishing UC from irritable bowel syndrome, with a sensitivity of 85.8% and specificity of 91.7% at concentrations above 50 µg/g.^[152] It correlates strongly with endoscopic inflammation, outperforming serum C-reactive protein (CRP) in detecting mucosal activity, and levels below 150 µg/g indicate clinical remission while predicting relapse risk.^[152] CRP, an acute-phase serum protein, aids in screening for inflammation and assessing severe UC, where levels exceeding 30 mg/L alongside more than six stools per day signal acute severe disease; however, it is less sensitive in UC compared to Crohn's disease, with up to 25% of active cases showing no elevation.^[152] Emerging biomarkers offer promise for personalized UC management, particularly in predicting disease course and therapeutic outcomes. Fecal myeloperoxidase (fMPO) complements FC by forecasting severe disease progression, while serum leucine-rich alpha-2 glycoprotein (LRG) detects mucosal healing even when CRP is normal.^[152] Serological markers like anti-αvβ6 autoantibodies have shown potential in pre-diagnostic prediction, achieving an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.80 for UC up to 10 years before symptom onset.^[153] Proteomic panels, including 51 proteins, predict related inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) onset with an AUC of 0.76 up to five years prior, highlighting opportunities for early intervention.^[153] Prevention strategies for UC remain limited due to its multifactorial etiology, focusing primarily on modifiable risk factors and secondary prevention of flares and complications. Avoiding nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is recommended, as they exacerbate mucosal inflammation and increase flare risk.^[154] Unlike Crohn's disease, where smoking cessation is advised, current evidence suggests smoking may confer protection against UC onset and reduce disease severity, with meta-analyses showing lower incidence among smokers (odds ratio 0.58); however, overall health benefits of quitting outweigh this, and nicotine therapies have not proven effective for maintenance.^[155] Dietary modifications, such as increased fiber intake from fruits and vegetables, are associated with reduced UC risk (hazard ratio 0.59), though no specific regimen prevents disease initiation.^[154] In research directions, prevention efforts emphasize predictive modeling using multidimensional biomarkers to identify high-risk individuals, such as first-degree relatives, for targeted interventions. Polygenic risk scores elevate UC risk up to 3.87-fold, while microbiome risk scores predict onset with AUC >0.65 up to five years in advance.^[153] Ongoing trials explore dietary and immunomodulatory strategies in at-risk cohorts, informed by patient preferences where 82% of relatives express willingness for screening; high-risk clinics, modeled on type 1 diabetes networks, aim to validate these tools and conduct prevention studies.^[153] Vaccinations against influenza, hepatitis, and HPV are prioritized before immunosuppressive therapy to prevent infections, a key complication in UC management.^[154]

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Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory and ulcerative disease arising in the colonic mucosa, characterized most often by bloody diarrhea.Initial Presentation · Surgery · Overview Of Inflammatory...
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Ulcerative Colitis - AAFP
May 15, 2013 · Ulcerative colitis often presents with abdominal pain, diarrhea, and hematochezia. It is important to exclude infectious etiologies. Anemia and ...
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Disease monitoring in inflammatory bowel disease - PMC - NIH
In IBD, CRP has been significantly associated with other biomarkers of inflammation including ESR, thrombocytosis, anemia, and hypoalbuminemia[16]. As a ...
[51]
Ulcerative Colitis: Rapid Evidence Review - AAFP
Fecal calprotectin may be used to assess disease activity and relapse. Medications available to treat the inflammation include 5-aminosalicylic acid, ...
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The Mayo score and a non-invasive 9-point partial Mayo score are used as outcome measures for clinical trials assessing therapy for ulcerative colitis.
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Assessing IBD - badgut.org
Feb 12, 2025 · Mild Disease: 5 to 7. Moderate Disease: 8 to 16. Severe Disease: >16. Assessment for Ulcerative Colitis Activity. Partial Mayo Scoring Index.
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Diagnosis and Monitoring of Ulcerative Colitis - PMC - NIH
Classically, the Truelove and Witts' criteria have been used to assess mild versus severe disease activity. Using this criteria, mild colitis was defined at < 4 ...
[55]
Guidelines for the management of ulcerative colitis ... - NIH
1. The diagnosis of ulcerative colitis is based on clinical assessment and endoscopic evaluation of the large intestine with histopathological analysis of ...
[56]
The updated 2025 ACG guidelines to manage adult ulcerative colitis ...
Aug 19, 2025 · Response in patients with acute severe UC should be monitored using stool frequency, rectal bleeding, physical examination, vital signs, and ...Missing: blood | Show results with:blood
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The Montreal classification of inflammatory bowel disease
Table 2 Montreal classification of extent of ulcerative colitis (UC). The major drawback of the extent based classification system was clearly identified to be ...
[58]
the Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity (UCEIS) | Gut
The Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity accurately predicts overall assessment of endoscopic severity of UC.
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The Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity More Accurately ...
The Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity (UCEIS) and the Mayo endoscopic score (Mayo ES) are used to evaluate ulcerative colitis (UC) severity.
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Radiographical evaluation of ulcerative colitis - PMC - NIH
Imaging can be used non-invasively to determine the extent of involvement, severity of disease and to detect disease-related complications.
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Severe disease on endoscopy and steroid use increase the risk for ...
There appears to be a higher risk of colonoscopy-associated perforation in IBD patients with active disease and on steroids. Introduction. Inflammatory bowel ...
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Ulcerative colitis - Colon - Pathology Outlines
Mar 14, 2024 · Microscopic (histologic) description. Untreated disease characteristically shows active chronic colitis; Features of chronicity include: Crypt ...
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Histological evaluation in ulcerative colitis - PMC - NIH
Jun 18, 2014 · MICROSCOPIC FEATURES. Features of classic cases. In untreated disease, UC usually exhibits a histological pattern of chronic active colitis, ...
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Aug 22, 2023 · Histological manifestations of mucosal chronic inflammation include basal plasmacytosis, lymphoid aggregates, and a diffuse or variable ...
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Ulcerative Colitis Pathology: Overview, Epidemiology, Etiology
Jun 30, 2025 · This gross microscopic disparity also informs the histological evaluation of CD as well as quiescent UC. (So-called microscopic colitis, which ...
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Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Does One Histological Score Fit All?
Eosinophilia—Associated basal plasmacytosis: An early and sensitive histologic feature of inflammatory bowel disease. ... Assessment of Histological Remission in ...Inflammatory Bowel Diseases... · 3. Histological Mucosal... · 4. Histological Scores In...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Differential diagnosis in inflammatory bowel disease colitis: State of ...
Patients affected by Crohn's colitis often present a UC-like clinical phenotype. Blood or muco-purulent exudates with the stool can be seen in up to 40% to 50% ...
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Infectious mimics of inflammatory bowel disease - ScienceDirect.com
The classic histologic features of UC vary between pre- and post-treatment specimens. At initial presentation, UC shows diffuse continuous disease with ...
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Development and validation of the Nancy histological index for UC
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A practical guide to assess the Nancy histological index for UC - Gut
Moderate to severe: presence of an increase in chronic inflammatory cells number that are easily apparent. In this case, it defines a grade 1 of the Nancy index ...
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Cytomegalovirus and ulcerative colitis: Place of antiviral therapy - NIH
CMV reactivation needs to be diagnosed using methods that include in situ detection of viral markers by immunohistochemistry or by nucleic acid amplification ...
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Jun 18, 2024 · U.S. FDA Approves SKYRIZI® (risankizumab-rzaa) for Ulcerative Colitis, Expanding AbbVie's Portfolio Across Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Jun 18, ...
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Sep 11, 2024 · TREMFYA is now approved for the treatment of plaque psoriasis, active psoriatic arthritis and ulcerative colitis.
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Surgery for inflammatory bowel disease - PMC - NIH
Approximately 25%-35% of ulcerative colitis patients will ultimately require surgery for either a complication of the disease or inadequate control of symptoms ...
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Surgical management of ulcerative colitis - NCBI - NIH
Mortality from the operation is less than 1%. The most common complications of IPAA are pelvic sepsis, small bowel obstruction, stricture, and pouchitis (level ...Introduction · Indications for surgery · Surgical options · Special circumstances
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Surgical Principles in the Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis - PMC - NIH
Large studies show a postoperative complication rate of around 30% and a low mortality of 0.1% for this procedure. Chronic pouchitis is one of the main factors ...
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Ulcerative colitis - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic
Surgery also may be recommended if ulcerative colitis leads to complications, such as bleeding, colon rupture or cancer. The operation is called a ...
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Nutritional support therapy aids IBD patients. Enteral nutrition provides complete nutrition while parental nutrition is used when gut function is impaired.
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Try to keep your diet as expansive as possible, especially including as many tolerated plant-based foods as possible, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, ...
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The Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Patients ...
There is some evidence that certain probiotics, especially VSL#3, may be effective for achieving clinical response and remission in mild-to-moderate ulcerative ...
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Nutrition and Supplementation in Ulcerative Colitis - PMC - NIH
The Mediterranean diet has shown the most promising results in the treatment of patients with UC due to its high content of biologically active foods.
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Clinicians with fewer patients with IBD may be more likely to follow preventive health guidelines. Suboptimal vaccination rates among patients with IBD reflect ...
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[PDF] ACG-Inflammatory-Bowel-Disease-Preventive-Care-Guideline ...
Jan 10, 2017 · Patients with IBD (both ulcerative colitis and CD) should undergo screening for melanoma independent of the use of biologic therapy. (Strong ...
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Integrative Medicine for Gastrointestinal Disease - PMC
Two recent reviews examined herbal products for IBD. The best evidence is for Plantago ovata and curcumin in UC maintenance therapy and Artemisia absinthium ( ...
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Mechanism Study of Acupuncture and Acupuncture Combined With ...
Acupuncture, as a potentially effective treatment for ulcerative colitis, offers excellent safety and minimal side effects. Therefore, acupuncture is ...
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Fecal microbiota transplantation for patients with ulcerative colitis - NIH
Apr 17, 2025 · FMT is promising in inducing UC remission. Administration of medical treatments before FMT may help achieve higher remission rates.
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Pain management in patients with inflammatory bowel disease
Practically speaking, the antispasmodics used most frequently are hyoscyamine and dicyclomine. Unfortunately, though antispasmodics seem to be a reasonable ...
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Proximal extension of the disease occurred in 65 (56%) people – left sided colitis developed in 55 (85%) and pancolitis in 10 (15%) patients.
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Granulocyte and monocyte apheresis as an adjunctive therapy to ...
May 19, 2021 · The goal of treatment in ulcerative colitis (UC) is to induce and maintain remission. ... remission or response rates of up to 60%–80%.
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One-year clinical remission rates of 40% to 60% are typically reported in trials of these agents. Patients with more severe disease at baseline, such as those ...
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Progression of disease extension is a poor prognostic factor. Predictive factors include higher Mayo score, higher endoscopic score, corticosteroid use, younger ...
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Smoking cessation aggravates ulcerative colitis and improves Crohn's disease. The effects of smoking are the sum of contradictory effects of various ...
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Fecal Calprotectin: A Reliable Predictor of Mucosal Healing after ...
Fecal calprotectin <250 μg/g after medical treatment for active ulcerative colitis is a reliable marker of endoscopic mucosal healing.
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Nov 1, 1990 · The risk of colorectal cancer is increased among patients with ulcerative colitis. The magnitude of this increase in risk and the effects of the length of ...
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A Case of Concomitant Diagnosis of PSC and Cholangiocarcinoma ...
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Primary sclerosing cholangitis - Rabiee
CCA is the most common malignancy in PSC with a cumulative lifetime risk of 10–20%, and accounts for a large proportion of mortality in PSC. LT is currently the ...
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Risk of Clostridioides difficile infection in inflammatory bowel ...
Oct 24, 2024 · Studies showed that the risk of CDI was eight times higher in IBD than in non-IBD patients, and the lifetime infection rate was found around 10% ...
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Consensus Statements on the Risk, Prevention, and Treatment of ...
RESULTS: IBD patients have an approximately 3-fold higher risk of VTE compared with in- dividuals without IBD, and disease flares further increase this risk.
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Survival and cause-specific mortality in ulcerative colitis
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A Personalized Approach to Managing Patients With an Ileal Pouch ...
Quality of life after ileal pouch anal anastomosis (IPAA) surgery is generally good. However, patients can be troubled by pouch related symptoms and pouch ...<|separator|>
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The 2023 Impact of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Canada - NIH
Sep 5, 2023 · Overall, the prevalence of IBD in 2023 is estimated to be 825 per 100,000 (410 per 100,000 for Crohn's disease, and 414 per 100,000 for ...
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Incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in UK ...
Crude incidence estimates of 'IBD overall', CD and UC were 28.6 (28.2 to 28.9), 10.2 (10.0 to 10.5) and 15.7 (15.4 to 15.9)/100 000 person years, respectively.
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Trends in the prevalence and incidence of ulcerative colitis in Japan ...
May 19, 2023 · The incidence of UC in Japan has been steadily increasing since the 1960s and the estimated prevalence was 133.2 per 100,000 population in 2014, ...
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The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in Asia and Asian ...
Dec 8, 2022 · Ulcerative colitis and CD annual incidence rates increased from 0.42 to 2.70 and from 0.19 to 0.41/100,000 persons, respectively, while the IBD ...
[109]
Global evolution of inflammatory bowel disease across ... - Nature
Apr 30, 2025 · After decades of rising incidence in early industrialized regions, the prevalence of IBD has steadily climbed (Fig. 1c,d). In Olmsted County, ...
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According to experts, Crohn's disease is two to four times more prevalent among people of Ashkenazic ancestry, compared to those of non-Jewish European ancestry ...
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[SURGICAL TREATMENT OF ULCERATIVE COLITIS. HISTORY]
«Bloody» non-epidemic diarrhea was described by Hippocrates. The first detailed description was made by K. Rokitansky in 1842. In 1875, S. Wilks and W. Mason ...
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[PDF] The medical features of the Papyrus Ebers
Papyrus Ebers ... —Tumors, inflammatory abscesses, prolapsus, affections of the vessels, inflammations, obstructions, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, and pain.
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Historical origins of current IBD concepts - PMC - PubMed Central
The chronological events described for ulcer ative colitis and for Crohn's disease reveal diseases at least several centuries old.Missing: Hippocratic corpus
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[PDF] History of Ulcerative Colitis
In the 4th century BCE, the great Greek physician Hippocrates of Kos gave a description of a bloody, mucus-streaked stool [9] and, in the first century. CE, ...
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A brief history of ulcerative colitis - Hektoen International
Mar 29, 2023 · But the term “ulcerative colitis” was not coined until 1875 by two English physicians, Wilks and Moxon. In 1888, Sir William Hale White of ...
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Ulcerative Colitis - New England Journal of Medicine
Since 1875, when Wilks and Moxon1 first separated it as an entity from the larger group of specific dysenteries, many theories have been advanced regarding ...
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Sulfasalazine and 5-Aminosalicylates for Ulcerative Colitis
Sulfasalazine was first identified in 1940 as a treatment for arthritis, and was found serendipitously to be beneficial in the treatment of ulcerative colitis.
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[PDF] The History of 5-ASA Compounds and their Use in Ulcerative Colitis
Aug 14, 2013 · Almost through serendipity, sulphasalazine was found to be effective in the control of ulcerative colitis. A small study of 9 patients which ...
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Sulfasalazine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It was originally devised in the 1940s as a compound which had a special “affinity” for connective tissue and might therefore be useful in the treatment of ...
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Appropriate Use and Complications of Corticosteroids in ...
Dearing et al was the first to report the use of corticosteroids in IBD in the 1950s, showing improved appetite and reduced diarrhea. In 1955, Trulove and Witts ...
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Ileal-anal pouches: A review of its history, indications, and ...
The ileal pouch anal anastomosis (IPAA) has revolutionised the surgical management of ulcerative colitis (UC) and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
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Dec 17, 2004 - approved for ankylosing spondylitis; May 13, 2005 - approved for psoriatic arthritis; Sep 15, 2005 - approved for ulcerative colitis; May 19 ...
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May 20, 2014, Approval FDA Approves Entyvio (vedolizumab) to treat Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn's Disease ; Dec 9, 2013, FDA Advisory Committee Recommends ...
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Pfizer Announces U.S. FDA Approves XELJANZ® (tofacitinib) for the ...
May 30, 2018 · Pfizer Announces U.S. FDA Approves XELJANZ® (tofacitinib) for the Treatment of Moderately to Severely Active Ulcerative Colitis. Wednesday, May ...
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Jul 15, 2024 · Oct 21, 2019, Approval Janssen Announces ... (ustekinumab) for the Treatment of Adults with Moderately to Severely Active Ulcerative Colitis.
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U.S. FDA Approves SKYRIZI® (risankizumab-rzaa) for Ulcerative ...
Jun 18, 2024 · SKYRIZI is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis, plaque ...
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Ozanimod as Induction and Maintenance Therapy for Ulcerative Colitis
Sep 29, 2021 · Ozanimod was more effective than placebo as induction and maintenance therapy in patients with moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis.
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Feb 22, 2025 · Press Release: ECCO 2025: new duvakitug data reinforce best-in-class potential in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
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EFFICACY, SAFETY, AND TOLERABILITY OF OMILANCOR IN A ...
Jan 22, 2022 · Once a day oral dosing with omilancor was well-tolerated and induced clinical remission in a Phase II mild to moderate UC population.
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CD19 CAR T-Cell Therapy in Multidrug-Resistant Ulcerative Colitis
Sep 24, 2025 · In a patient with treatment-resistant ulcerative colitis, CD19 CAR T-cell therapy led to drug-free remission and mucosal healing, ...
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Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in ulcerative colitis treatment
Sep 2, 2024 · This study aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UMSCs) in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC)
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Findings From a Randomized Controlled Trial of Fecal ...
In the per-protocol analysis, 8 of 17 patients (47.1%) in the FMT-D group and 9 of 20 patients (45.0%) in the FMT-A group had an endoscopic response (P = .90).<|separator|>
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An Inflammation‐Targeting Engineered Probiotic Escherichia coli ...
Sep 29, 2025 · The probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) has been approved in multiple countries for the early treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC).
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Bristol Myers Squibb - U.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves ...
May 27, 2021 · The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Zeposia (ozanimod) 0.92 mg for the treatment of adults with moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis ...
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Mirikizumab as Induction and Maintenance Therapy for Ulcerative ...
Jun 28, 2023 · Mirikizumab was more effective than placebo in inducing and maintaining clinical remission in patients with moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis.
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Biosimilars versus biological therapy in inflammatory bowel disease
Apr 5, 2025 · This review sheds light on the emergence of biologics and biosimilars as alternatives in IBD management, the differences between them, challenges and risks,
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NCT06880744 | A Study to Assess the Change in Disease Activity in ...
This study will evaluate how safe and effective risankizumab is compared to vedolizumab in treating adult participants with moderate to severe UC who are naive ...
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Biomarkers in inflammatory bowel disease: a practical guide - PMC
Biomarkers can facilitate non-invasive disease assessment, with C-reactive protein and faecal calprotectin as the most widely available biomarkers in current ...C-Reactive Protein · Crp In Disease Monitoring · Novel Biomarkers
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Advancing the field of IBD prediction and prevention will require a multifaceted approach, integrating biomarker discovery, understanding patient preferences, ...
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Preventive health measures in inflammatory bowel disease - PMC
This article reviews health interventions to prevent morbidity and mortality in IBD patients with emphasis on the location where such interventions are best ...
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Apr 17, 2025 · These results indicate that smoking offers some protection against UC onset and may reduce disease severity in patients with existing UC.Missing: debated | Show results with:debated