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Antagonism

Antagonism refers to feelings of opposition and hate, typically manifesting as hostility or conflict between individuals, groups, or forces.^[1] The English term first appeared in the early 18th century, ultimately derived from the Greek antagōnizesthai, meaning "to struggle against," via the Late Latin antagonista.^[2] In its broadest sense, antagonism encompasses mutual resistance or rivalry, as seen in natural antagonisms between communities that exacerbate underlying rivalries.^[1] In psychology, antagonism is conceptualized as the low end of the Agreeableness dimension in personality models, encompassing traits such as immorality, combativeness, grandiosity, callousness, and distrustfulness.^[3] These traits orient individuals toward self-interest over cooperation, often leading to interpersonal problems like domineering behavior and low empathy.^[4] Antagonistic personalities are prone to reactive aggression, particularly under provocation, and are linked to broader "dark" traits including hostility and irritability.^[5]^[6] In pharmacology, antagonism describes the interaction where one substance inhibits the effects of another, most commonly through receptor binding.^[7] Antagonists bind to receptors without activating them, thereby blocking agonists from producing their physiological response; this can be competitive (reversible and surmountable with higher agonist doses) or non-competitive (irreversible or less specific).^[7]^[8] Such mechanisms are fundamental to drug design, as in the use of H2-receptor antagonists to counteract histamine's effects on gastric acid secretion.^[9] Beyond these domains, antagonism appears in biology, such as in olfactory receptor neurons where competitive processes enable odor mixture detection; in chemistry, where one substance counteracts the effects of another; and in social sciences, where it denotes conflictual interactions like group rivalries or political opposition; as well as in literature, referring to oppositional forces or characters in narratives.^[10]^[11] These varied applications highlight antagonism's role as a core dynamic in opposition, whether physiological, interpersonal, or societal.

Overview

Definition

Antagonism refers to a relationship or phenomenon in which two or more entities oppose, counteract, or diminish each other's actions, effects, or interactions, resulting in conflict, inhibition, or subadditive outcomes.^[12] This core idea encompasses active opposition between conflicting forces, tendencies, or principles, often leading to reduced overall effectiveness or harmony compared to isolated instances.^[13] Key to understanding antagonism are concepts of oppositional dynamics in actions, effects, or interactions, where the presence of one entity interferes with another's function. It is distinctly contrasted with synergy, in which combined effects are additive or superadditive, exceeding the sum of individual contributions; antagonism, by contrast, produces results less than expected under additivity, such as when one agent's influence neutralizes or weakens another's.^[14] Historically, antagonism has been applied across scientific and humanistic disciplines to describe such oppositional phenomena. In the sciences, it frequently denotes reduced combined efficacy, as seen in interactions where entities yield less impact together than separately.^[14] In the humanities, it characterizes hostility, rivalry, or adversarial relations, such as in social or political conflicts where incompatible goals foster enmity.^[15] Specific applications appear in areas like chemistry, biology, and psychology.^[12]

Etymology

The term "antagonism" derives from the Late Greek antagōnismós, a noun formed from the verb antagōnízesthai ("to struggle against" or "to compete with"), which combines the prefix antí- ("against") and agṓn ("contest," "struggle," or "gathering for a contest").^[16]^[17] This Greek root reflects the idea of opposition or rivalry, originally associated with athletic or dramatic contests in ancient contexts. The word entered English through French antagonisme or directly from its Greek and Late Latin forms, with the Latin antagonismus serving as an intermediate influence in scholarly transmission.^[16] The first recorded use of "antagonism" in English dates to 1716, initially denoting a state of mutual opposition or conflict, often in abstract or figurative senses.^[12] Early applications appeared in medical and physiological discussions during the 19th century, where it described counteracting forces or actions within the body, such as the interplay of stimulants and sedatives. By the 19th century, the term expanded significantly through scientific literature into chemistry and biology, where it came to signify inhibitory interactions between substances or organisms, building on its core notion of opposition.^[16]^[18] Related terms include "antagonist," which entered English in the 1590s from French antagoniste or Late Latin antagonista, originally meaning "one who contends with another" in contexts like sports, drama, or battle, and later extending to opponents in various fields.^[19] This linguistic family underscores the enduring theme of rivalry and counteraction across languages and disciplines.

In Chemistry

Chemical Antagonism

In chemistry, chemical antagonism refers to a phenomenon in which two or more chemical agents interact such that their combined effect is less than the sum of their individual effects, exhibiting subadditivity. This interaction typically arises from direct chemical reactions or bindings that diminish the activity, potency, or efficacy of one or both agents. Unlike additive or synergistic effects, antagonism results in a net reduction in the expected outcome, often observed in contexts like toxicity, reactivity, or catalytic processes. Key principles of chemical antagonism include the masking of active components by inactive substances, where one agent adsorbs or complexes with another to prevent its interaction with the target environment. For instance, activated charcoal can bind organic toxins, rendering them inert and reducing their bioavailability. Another principle involves direct chemical interference, such as neutralization reactions where an antagonist forms an inactive product with the primary agent, thereby lowering its reactivity or toxicity. This reduction in potency occurs through mechanisms like precipitation, chelation, or decomposition, ensuring the combined system yields a diminished response compared to isolated exposures.^[20]^[14] Early observations of chemical antagonism emerged in 19th-century toxicology, particularly through studies on poison mixtures and their antidotes. Pioneering work by Mathieu Orfila in his 1814 treatise Traité des poisons highlighted cases where specific chemical agents counteracted poisons by forming non-toxic compounds, such as employing alkaline substances to neutralize acidic toxins like mineral acids. These investigations laid foundational principles for understanding how chemical interactions could mitigate harmful effects in mixtures, influencing subsequent developments in analytical chemistry and risk assessment.^[21]

Mechanisms and Examples

Chemical antagonism manifests through distinct mechanisms that diminish the activity or toxicity of interacting substances by altering their chemical form or availability. A fundamental process is chemical inactivation, wherein one agent directly neutralizes the reactivity of another via a binding reaction, producing a less harmful product; for example, chelating agents like EDTA form stable complexes with heavy metals such as lead or mercury, preventing their participation in deleterious reactions.^[22] Another key mechanism involves adsorption or precipitation, which reduces bioavailability by sequestering the active agent onto surfaces or converting it into insoluble forms that limit dissolution and interaction; this is evident in environmental remediation where phosphates precipitate heavy metals like cadmium, curtailing their uptake in soils or water.^[23] Additionally, pH alterations affect solubility and ionization states, thereby modulating agent efficacy; for instance, increasing pH can precipitate acidic toxins or shift weak bases to less soluble forms, as seen in neutralizing industrial effluents to control metal ion mobility.^[24] Illustrative examples underscore these mechanisms' practical implications across fields. In toxicology, selenium exemplifies heavy metal antagonism by countering arsenic toxicity through sequestration into non-toxic seleno-arsenicals like [(GS)₂AsSe]⁻, which facilitate biliary excretion and reduce tissue accumulation, alongside boosting antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase to counteract arsenic-induced oxidative damage; rodent studies confirm that selenite doses around 3 mg/kg body weight significantly protect hepatic and renal functions from arsenite exposure.^[25] In agriculture, pesticide mixtures often display antagonism, such as the pairing of 2,4-D and diclofop-methyl, where 2,4-D induces cytochrome P450 enzymes that accelerate diclofop-methyl degradation, resulting in subpar control of rigid ryegrass; similarly, glufosinate combined with clethodim yields over 50% reduced efficacy against goosegrass due to interference in uptake or translocation mechanisms.^[26]^[27] Industrial applications highlight antagonism in materials science, particularly alloy design for corrosion mitigation. In superalloys used in high-temperature environments like turbine engines, oxygen and sulfur exhibit antagonistic adsorption behaviors: oxygen fosters protective oxide passivation layers on metals like nickel, enhancing resistance, while sulfur competitively blocks these sites, promoting dissolution; thermodynamic analyses of adsorption enthalpies guide alloy formulations—favoring elements with stronger oxygen affinity over sulfur—to preempt synergistic hot corrosion, thereby extending component lifespan in oxidative-sulfidic conditions.^[28] Quantitatively, these interactions are evaluated via dose-response curves, which plot effect magnitude against concentration to reveal subadditive outcomes in antagonism. For two agents, individual curves establish baseline responses, but their combination yields a curve positioned below the additive expectation line—indicating the net effect is weaker than the sum of solitary impacts—thus providing a graphical measure of reduced potency without invoking additive synergy.^[14]

In Biology

Ecological Antagonism

In ecology, antagonistic interactions refer to interspecific relationships where at least one species experiences a reduction in fitness while the other gains a benefit, resulting in outcomes that are either positive-negative or negative-negative for the involved organisms.^[29] These interactions are fundamental to community structure, as they impose selective pressures that influence survival, reproduction, and resource allocation among species. Unlike mutualistic or neutral associations, antagonism often leads to direct harm, such as consumption or resource depletion, shaping the distribution and abundance of organisms within ecosystems. Key types of ecological antagonism include predation, herbivory, parasitism, and interspecific competition. Predation occurs when a predator captures and consumes a prey organism, benefiting the predator's nutrition and growth at the prey's expense, as seen in the relationship between wolves and deer populations where predation regulates prey numbers.^[29] Herbivory, a specialized form of predation, involves herbivores feeding on plant tissues without necessarily killing the plant, such as elephants browsing on acacia trees, which harms the plant's growth but provides energy to the herbivore; plants often evolve defenses like thorns or chemical toxins in response.^[29] Parasitism entails a parasite deriving nutrients from a host, impairing the host's health and fitness, exemplified by ticks attaching to mammals to feed on blood, potentially weakening the host and altering its behavior.^[29] Interspecific competition arises when two species vie for the same limited resources, leading to reduced fitness for both, such as Darwin's finches competing for seeds on the Galápagos Islands, which can result in resource partitioning or exclusion of one species.^[29] Antagonistic interactions play a pivotal role in evolutionary processes by driving natural selection through ongoing arms races between species. For instance, predator-prey dynamics foster adaptations like enhanced speed in prey or improved hunting strategies in predators, influencing genetic variation and trait evolution over generations.^[30] In terms of population dynamics, these interactions generate fluctuations in abundances, such as cyclical oscillations in host-parasite systems, where rapid evolution can alter interaction strengths and stabilize or destabilize populations on ecological timescales.^[30] Furthermore, antagonism contributes to biodiversity maintenance by promoting coexistence; for example, parasites can prevent any single species from dominating a community, while competition encourages niche differentiation, enhancing overall species diversity in ecosystems.^[29]^[30]

Microbial Antagonism

Microbial antagonism refers to the process by which one microorganism inhibits or suppresses the growth, reproduction, or survival of another microorganism, typically through the production of antimicrobial compounds or competitive interactions. This phenomenon plays a crucial role in microbial ecology, particularly in phytopathology, where it helps control plant diseases by limiting the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria or fungi.^[31]^[32] Key mechanisms of microbial antagonism include the production of antibiotics, such as penicillin secreted by the fungus Penicillium notatum to inhibit bacterial growth, as first observed by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Other mechanisms encompass nutrient competition, where one microbe deprives another of essential resources like iron or carbon; the release of toxins or bacteriocins that directly target rival cells; and spatial exclusion in biofilms, where antagonistic microbes occupy niches to prevent pathogen colonization. These interactions often involve contact-dependent systems, such as type VI secretion systems in Gram-negative bacteria, which deliver toxins to neighboring cells.^[33]^[34]^[35] In applications, microbial antagonism is harnessed for biocontrol in agriculture, exemplified by Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces antimicrobial compounds to suppress bacterial plant pathogens like Erwinia carotovora through quorum-sensing interference, reducing disease virulence without broad-spectrum chemical pesticides.^[36] Additionally, in the human gut microbiome, antagonistic interactions among commensal bacteria contribute to colonization resistance, preventing pathogen overgrowth by competing for adhesion sites and producing inhibitory metabolites, thereby maintaining microbial balance and host health.^[37]^[38]

In Pharmacology

Drug Antagonism

In pharmacology, drug antagonism refers to the phenomenon where one drug or substance inhibits or diminishes the biological response elicited by another drug, known as the agonist, by interfering with its mechanism of action. This interaction typically occurs at the molecular level, such as by binding to the same receptor site or pathway without triggering the expected physiological effect, thereby preventing or reducing the agonist's influence on cellular processes.^[39] For instance, an antagonist may occupy a receptor to block the agonist's access, leading to a net decrease in the therapeutic or physiological response.^[40] Key concepts in drug antagonism include the antagonist's ability to bind to biological targets, such as receptors or enzymes, without activating them, which contrasts with agonists that initiate signaling cascades.^[41] This binding results in a reduction of the agonist's efficacy, potentially altering therapeutic outcomes by lowering the intensity or duration of effects, such as decreased muscle contraction or hormone signaling.^[42] In clinical settings, understanding antagonism is crucial for managing polypharmacy, where multiple medications increase the risk of unintended antagonistic interactions that can compromise treatment efficacy and patient safety.^[43] The historical development of drug antagonism traces back to early 20th-century research that laid the foundation for receptor theory. In the 1900s, studies demonstrated how substances like atropine could antagonize the effects of acetylcholine on smooth muscle and glandular secretions, providing early evidence of specific receptor-mediated blockade. Pioneering work by pharmacologists such as John Newport Langley and A.J. Clark quantified these interactions, showing dose-dependent antagonism and influencing the evolution of modern pharmacodynamics.^[44] These discoveries highlighted antagonism's role beyond simple chemical subadditivity, emphasizing targeted biological interference.

Types of Antagonism

Drug antagonism in pharmacology is classified into several main types based on the underlying mechanisms by which the antagonist opposes the action of an agonist. These include competitive, non-competitive, physiological, and pharmacokinetic antagonism, each characterized by distinct interactions at the molecular, physiological, or dispositional levels.^[42] Competitive antagonism occurs when the antagonist binds reversibly to the same receptor site as the agonist, thereby preventing the agonist from activating the receptor; this effect can be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist, which shifts the dose-response curve to the right without altering the maximum response. A classic example is naloxone, which competitively binds to mu-opioid receptors to reverse the effects of opioids like morphine, allowing higher doses of the agonist to restore its activity if needed.^[45]^[42] Non-competitive antagonism involves the antagonist binding to a different site on the receptor (allosteric site) or forming an irreversible bond, which reduces the efficacy of the agonist without competing directly for the binding site; consequently, increasing agonist concentration does not fully reverse the antagonism, as the maximum response (E_max) is diminished. Phenoxybenzamine exemplifies this type, acting as an irreversible, non-selective antagonist at alpha-adrenergic receptors by forming a covalent bond, thereby blocking norepinephrine's vasoconstrictive effects in conditions like pheochromocytoma.^[42]^[46] Physiological antagonism arises when two drugs produce opposing physiological effects through different receptors or mechanisms, without direct interaction at the same site, effectively counteracting each other's actions. For instance, epinephrine acts as a physiological antagonist to histamine during anaphylaxis by stimulating beta-2 adrenergic receptors to cause bronchodilation and vascular stabilization, opposing histamine's bronchoconstriction and vasodilation mediated via H1 receptors.^[42]^[47] Pharmacokinetic antagonism refers to the antagonist altering the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of the agonist, thereby reducing its concentration at the site of action without directly affecting receptor interactions. A representative example is activated charcoal, which adsorbs toxins or drugs in the gastrointestinal tract, preventing their systemic absorption and mitigating toxicity from overdoses of substances like acetaminophen or theophylline.^[42]^[48]

Psychological Antagonism

In psychology, antagonism is defined as the low end of the agreeableness dimension within the Big Five personality model (also known as the Five-Factor Model), representing a core trait domain characterized by interpersonal hostility and low concern for others.^[4] Individuals high in antagonism typically exhibit traits such as callousness (little regard for others' feelings), distrust or cynicism toward people, grandiosity (inflated self-importance), and combativeness (a tendency toward irritability and hostility).^[6]^[49] This dimension contrasts with high agreeableness, which involves traits like empathy, trust, and cooperation, and antagonism is consistently identified across major personality frameworks as a fundamental aspect of maladaptive interpersonal functioning.^[50] Antagonism manifests in self-centered behaviors, where individuals prioritize their own interests over others', often leading to argumentativeness and exploitative interactions.^[51] A hallmark is low empathy, resulting in diminished emotional responsiveness to others' needs and frequent interpersonal distress, as antagonistic individuals may provoke conflicts through manipulative or aggressive actions.^[52] These patterns are linked to reactive aggression, where hostility escalates in response to perceived slights, contributing to strained relationships and social isolation.^[4] Research measures antagonism using validated scales like the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5), a 220-item self-report tool that assesses it as one of five higher-order pathological domains, with facets including manipulativeness, deceitfulness, and grandiosity rated on a 0-3 Likert scale.^[53]^[54] Elevated antagonism strongly associates with personality disorders, particularly antisocial personality disorder, where it correlates with exploitative and aggressive behaviors, as well as psychopathy and narcissism.^[50]^[55] From an evolutionary perspective, antagonism may have adaptive roots in social competition, facilitating intrasexual rivalry by enabling individuals to deter or dominate competitors for resources like mates or status in ancestral environments.^[56]

Sociological Antagonism

Sociological antagonism refers to the hostility or conflict that emerges from opposing interests between social classes or groups, often resulting in structural tensions within society.^[57] This concept underscores how differences in access to resources, power, and opportunities foster ongoing rivalries that shape social organization and change.^[58] In sociological theory, such antagonisms are viewed as inherent to stratified societies, where dominant groups maintain advantages at the expense of subordinates, perpetuating cycles of inequality.^[59] A foundational theory of sociological antagonism is Karl Marx's notion of class antagonism, which posits that history is driven by conflicts between the bourgeoisie, who control the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labor.^[58] Marx argued that this antagonism arises from exploitation in capitalist systems, where surplus value extracted from workers' labor creates irreconcilable interests, ultimately leading to revolutionary change as the proletariat recognizes its collective power.^[60] Extensions in conflict theory, such as Max Weber's analysis, broaden this to include status groups—communities bound by shared lifestyles, prestige, or honor—whose competitions over social closure and recognition generate additional layers of antagonism beyond purely economic class divides.^[61] Weber emphasized that these status-based conflicts intersect with class and party politics, complicating social dynamics and often intensifying inequalities through exclusionary practices.^[62] Examples of sociological antagonism abound in historical and contemporary contexts, such as labor strikes where workers challenge capitalist control over wages and conditions, as seen in the 19th-century European uprisings that exemplified proletarian resistance.^[58] Ethnic rivalries also illustrate this, particularly when status groups mobilize around cultural identities to secure resources, leading to tensions that reinforce class divides, such as in colonial-era conflicts where indigenous populations opposed settler elites.^[63] These antagonisms play a central role in social movements, fueling demands for reform or revolution that aim to dismantle unequal structures, while simultaneously perpetuating inequality when dominant groups co-opt or suppress them.^[64] In modern applications, globalization has induced new forms of class antagonisms by exacerbating disparities between transnational elites and marginalized workers, as capital mobility undermines local labor protections and heightens competition across borders.^[65] For instance, neoliberal policies have sparked protests against offshoring and austerity, reflecting renewed bourgeoisie-proletariat tensions on a global scale.^[66] These dynamics highlight how antagonism continues to drive social movements toward addressing inequality in an interconnected world.^[67]

In Literature

Narrative Antagonism

Narrative antagonism refers to the fundamental dynamic of opposition between forces within a story, where conflicting elements generate tension and propel the plot forward through sustained conflict. This opposition typically manifests as a clash between the protagonist's objectives and hindering elements, whether personified or abstract, serving as the engine of narrative progression. Scholars describe it as the structural opposition that underscores the protagonist's struggle, distinguishing it from mere disagreement by its capacity to disrupt equilibrium and demand resolution.^[68]^[69] In narrative structure, antagonism is essential for building dramatic tension, as it compels characters to confront obstacles that test their resolve and reveal deeper themes. It can take internal forms, such as a protagonist's internal flaws or psychological barriers, or external ones, like societal pressures or environmental adversities, each contributing to the story's arc by escalating stakes and fostering growth or downfall. This conflict contrasts sharply with moments of harmony, often culminating in resolution where the opposition is overcome or integrated, thereby providing cathartic closure to the narrative. Without such antagonism, stories risk stagnation, as the absence of opposition diminishes the impetus for change and emotional investment.^[70]^[71] The concept traces its roots to Aristotelian drama, where opposition in tragedy imitates serious actions through plot complications that evoke pity and fear, laying the groundwork for conflict as a mimetic device central to dramatic form. In Aristotle's framework, this antagonism arises from reversals and recognitions in the plot, ensuring the narrative's unity and magnitude. Over time, antagonism has evolved in modern literature to embrace moral ambiguity, where oppositional forces are no longer purely villainous but layered with ethical complexity, reflecting nuanced human motivations and challenging binary notions of right and wrong. This shift allows for deeper exploration of gray areas in character dynamics, enhancing reader engagement through cognitive and affective dissonance.^[72]^[73]

The Antagonist's Role

In literature, the antagonist is defined as a character, group, force, or idea that opposes the protagonist, creating opposition through rivalry, obstruction, or conflict that drives the narrative forward.^[74] This opposition manifests as antagonism by challenging the protagonist's goals, values, or existence, often serving as the primary source of tension in the story.^[69] The antagonist fulfills several key functions in literary works, acting as a foil to highlight the protagonist's traits and as a catalyst for their growth, transformation, or downfall. As a foil, the antagonist's contrasting qualities—such as cunning versus naivety—illuminate the protagonist's strengths and weaknesses, deepening character development and thematic exploration.^[74] For instance, in William Shakespeare's Othello, Iago embodies manipulative antagonism as a villainous type, exploiting Othello's insecurities through deception to incite jealousy and tragedy, thereby catalyzing the protagonist's emotional and moral descent.^[75] In this role, antagonists also propel the plot by initiating conflicts that test the protagonist's resolve, often leading to climactic confrontations that resolve narrative antagonism.^[69] Antagonists appear in various types, including villainous figures, anti-heroic counterparts with ambiguous motives, and symbolic entities representing broader societal or internal forces. Systemic antagonists, such as the oppressive regime in Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, illustrate institutional antagonism, where the Republic of Gilead obstructs the protagonist Offred's autonomy through totalitarian control, embodying collective opposition rather than an individual foe.^[76] Internal antagonists, common in psychological novels, manifest as the protagonist's own flaws or inner turmoil, such as meddlesome tendencies in Jane Austen's Emma, where Emma Woodhouse's arrogance creates self-inflicted rivalry that hinders her personal growth.^[74] These types underscore how antagonists not only obstruct but also mirror the protagonist's struggles, fostering thematic depth in exploring human antagonism.^[69]

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[PDF] Personality Inventory for DSM-5 - American Psychiatric Association
Each item on the measure is rated on a 4-point scale. The response categories for the items are 0=very false or often false; 1=sometimes or somewhat false; 2= ...
[53]
Connecting DSM-5 Personality Traits and Pathological Beliefs - NIH
The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5, Krueger et al., 2012) is a 220-item measure of the 25 primary traits and 5 higher-order domains of the proposed DSM- ...
[54]
Q&A with Josh Miller on antagonism - Psychwire
Antagonism is the low pole of the basic trait of Agreeableness from the big five personality models. These basic traits run from high (e.g., trust ...
[55]
The Evolution of Prosocial and Antisocial Competitive Behavior and ...
Intrasexual competition is based on competition between same gender members. It evolved primarily with the ability to deter, subdue, and/or inhibit competitors.
[56]
Class Antagonism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Class antagonisms refer to the conflict arising from differing material interests between classes, particularly in a capitalist society, where the proletariat ...Missing: interdisciplinary | Show results with:interdisciplinary
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MARXISM AND CLASS CONFLICT - University of Hawaii System
One of the most powerful sociological explanations of social conflict is that of Karl Marx, who posited a class struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie.
[58]
Class Conflict - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Class conflict refers to the struggle between different social classes, primarily the proletariat and bourgeois, arising from their opposing material ...
[59]
Class Antagonism, Exploitation and the Labour Theory of Value - jstor
It is a key hypothesis of Marxian historical theory that the working class will eventually emancipate itself in a process of class struggle against ...
[60]
Weber on class, status- groups and politics; historical context and ...
Oct 10, 2025 · This article outlines a main theme in Weber's works by using a conceptualisation of class, social status and party. Weber's understanding of ...
[61]
The Empirical Validity of the Conflict Tradition - jstor
Weber's underlying theory of status groups is that the means of emotional production affect the organization of interest groups as communities, and serve as ...
[62]
A Crash Course in Class Analysis - Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung
Dec 27, 2022 · For example, divisions along religious, ethnic, or national lines within the working class have often been deeper than would be expected with “ ...
[63]
Conflict Theory in Sociology - Simply Psychology
Oct 10, 2023 · Conflict Theory sees society as a struggle between groups competing for power and resources. It focuses on how inequalities in wealth, status, and power create ...
[64]
[PDF] jessop-globalization-and-the-national-state.pdf - Lancaster University
Dec 5, 2003 · through with many class antagonisms and struggles. Thus the national state remains responsible for maintaining social cohesion in a class ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[65]
Social Theory and Globalization: The Rise of a Transnational State
the study of "national" societies and the nation-state, are brought int focus by the universalizing tendencies and transnational structural.
[66]
Deepening the divide: Does globalization increase the polarization ...
Oct 22, 2023 · In this study, I examine whether globalization increases the attitudinal divide between education groups, with education being one of the main characteristics ...Missing: induced | Show results with:induced
[67]
Engaging the Dark Side: Exploring Identification with Morally ...
Aug 30, 2021 · Antagonists—characters who oppose the goals of the protagonist(s) (Magliano et al., Citation2005)—are largely missing from this scholarship. To ...
[68]
(PDF) An Analysis on Functions of Antagonists in Narratives
Jul 18, 2019 · In this study I will question antagonists' importance in folk narratives, and I will create an original classification on the functionality of the antagonist.
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Protagonist and antagonist | Research Starters - EBSCO
An antagonist is often viewed as the enemy or villain of a story. Antagonists obstruct protagonists from achieving their desires. The word “antagonist” comes ...
[70]
Conflict Narrative Structure and Relational Dynamics
This chapter describes the structural features of conflict narratives, including emplotment, causality, character roles, voice, and moral themes.Conflict Narrative as Structure · The Structure and Politics of... · Positioning
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a neuroimaging perspective on antagonists in narrative engagement
May 19, 2025 · Antagonists, as morally complex figures, challenge readers' ethical frameworks and stimulate affective and cognitive responses. This review aims ...Missing: definition sources
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Full article: Morality Predicts Enjoyment But Not Appreciation of ...
May 19, 2016 · As such, a morally ambiguous character may have both positive and negative moral traits, whereas a less morally ambiguous character (i.e., a ...
[73]
Antagonist - Definition and Examples | LitCharts
An antagonist is usually a character who opposes the protagonist (or main character) of a story, but the antagonist can also be a group of characters, ...
[74]
Othello: Antagonist - SparkNotes
Iago actively works to thwart Othello by convincing Othello that Desdemona is being unfaithful to him, knowing that this belief will torment Othello.
[75]
The Handmaid's Tale Study Guide | Literature Guide - LitCharts
Antagonist: Though the Commander, Serena Joy, and Aunt Lydia seem to be Offred's enemies, the real antagonist is the Republic of Gilead itself.