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Assembly of Experts

The Assembly of Experts for the Leadership (Majlis-e Khobregān-e Rahbari) is an 88-member body of qualified Shia Islamic jurists (mujtahids) in the Islamic Republic of Iran, constitutionally empowered to elect, supervise the performance of, and dismiss the Supreme Leader if he fails to meet requisite religious and political qualifications.^[1]^[2] Members are elected by popular vote every eight years from a list of candidates vetted for scholarly credentials by the Guardian Council, a process that has resulted in the disqualification of reformist or dissenting clerics in multiple elections, thereby shaping the body's conservative composition.^[1]^[3]^[4] Established as a permanent institution following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, with its first elections in December 1982, the Assembly initially confirmed Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini before selecting his successor, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, in 1989 upon Khomeini's death; it has convened periodically since but exercised its supervisory mandate sparingly, meeting roughly twice yearly without significant public challenges to the Leader's authority.^[5]^[6]^[3] The body's role, outlined in Articles 107 and 111 of Iran's Constitution, underscores the theocratic principle of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist), yet critics contend its effectiveness is constrained by the Supreme Leader's influence over the Guardian Council and state institutions, rendering overt dismissal improbable absent a profound crisis.^[2]^[7]^[3]

Origins and Constitutional Basis

Historical Origins

The Assembly of Experts originated in the context of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy and established the Islamic Republic. Following Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran on February 1, 1979, and the subsequent collapse of the interim government, a provisional Islamic Revolutionary Council assumed legislative and executive powers. To formalize the new regime's structure, Khomeini decreed elections for a 73-member Assembly of Experts tasked with drafting an Islamic constitution; these occurred on August 3, 1979, with high turnout amid revolutionary fervor.^[8]^[1] This temporary body, dominated by Khomeini supporters, convened from August 28 to November 15, 1979, incorporating elements of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) into the draft while rejecting secular proposals.^[8] The resulting constitution, approved by referendum on December 2–3, 1979, with 98.2% reported approval on a 99% turnout, enshrined the Supreme Leader as the ultimate authority and mandated a permanent Assembly of Experts (Majlis-e Khobregan-e Rahbari) to elect, supervise, and potentially dismiss him under Articles 107 and 111.^[1] This provision addressed the need for clerical oversight of the leadership role, drawing from Shi'a juristic traditions but adapted to the revolutionary context where no single figure could claim perpetual infallibility without checks. The temporary assembly dissolved after ratification, leaving the permanent body's formation to subsequent legislation.^[8] Implementation occurred amid post-revolution consolidation, with the first elections for the 83-member permanent Assembly held on December 24, 1982, following vetting by revolutionary committees.^[6] This body convened in 1983, electing Khomeini as Supreme Leader on October 21, 1983, though he had effectively held the position since 1979. The structure reflected the constitution's emphasis on mujtahids (qualified jurists) to ensure doctrinal fidelity, with initial membership skewed toward hardline revolutionaries aligned with Khomeini's vision. Subsequent adjustments expanded seats to 86 by 1985, reflecting provincial reapportionment.^[1]

Provisions in the Iranian Constitution

The provisions for the Assembly of Experts (Majles-e Khobregan-e Rahbari) are enshrined in several articles of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, adopted in 1979 and revised in 1989, primarily defining its role in relation to the Supreme Leader under the doctrine of Velayat-e Faqih. Article 107 assigns the responsibility of appointing the Supreme Leader to experts elected by the people, who must deliberate among qualified fuqaha (Islamic jurists) meeting the criteria in Articles 5 and 109—namely, scholarly competence in Islamic jurisprudence, justice, piety, and political acumen—and select the individual exhibiting superiority in interpreting Islamic regulations (fiqh), or in political and social leadership. Upon selection by a majority, the appointee assumes the office of Leader, exercising wilayat al-amr (guardianship of the realm) and all attendant constitutional powers.^[9]^[2] Article 108 delegates the determination of the Assembly's composition, including the number of members, qualifications (requiring expertise in Islamic jurisprudence), and electoral procedures, to a special law drafted by the fuqaha members of the inaugural Guardian Council and approved by the Leader. This law governs the Assembly's formation and operations, but the body itself holds the authority to review, amend, or replace it in future sessions, providing a mechanism for self-regulation within constitutional bounds.^[9]^[10] Article 111 outlines the Assembly's supervisory and dismissal functions, mandating it to convene whenever the Leader is deemed incapacitated or to have forfeited qualifications under Articles 5 or 109, at which point it must either remove him from office or temporarily delegate his duties to one of its members. In cases of the Leader's death, resignation, or dismissal, the Assembly is obligated to expedite the appointment of a successor, ensuring continuity of leadership. This article implicitly embeds oversight as a core duty, though the Constitution specifies no routine monitoring procedures beyond the power to act on evident failures.^[9]^[2]^[8] Supplementary provisions reinforce the Assembly's integration into the constitutional framework. Article 99 requires the Guardian Council to oversee elections for the Assembly, ensuring compliance with Islamic criteria during vetting and polling. Article 177 further incorporates five representatives from the Assembly into the Council for the Revision of the Constitution, positioning it as a participant in potential amendments subject to the Leader's edict and national referendum. Collectively, these articles establish the Assembly as an elected body of jurists tasked exclusively with Leader selection, accountability, and replacement, without broader legislative or executive powers, distinguishing it from other institutions like the Islamic Consultative Assembly.^[9]^[11]

Relation to Velayat-e Faqih Doctrine

The Assembly of Experts operationalizes the Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) doctrine by constitutionally electing, monitoring, and potentially dismissing the Supreme Leader, who embodies the jurist's authority over the Islamic Republic during the occultation of the Twelfth Imam.^[9] This doctrine, articulated by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in his 1970 treatise Islamic Government, posits that a qualified faqih (jurisprudent) assumes comprehensive guardianship (velayat) over political, military, and judicial affairs to preserve Islamic governance, a principle enshrined in the 1979 Constitution's preamble and Article 5, which vests leadership in a "just and pious person" aware of contemporary exigencies.^[9] The Assembly, composed of 88 mujtahids (qualified jurists), fulfills this by reviewing candidates against doctrinal qualifications, ensuring the Leader's alignment with Velayat-e Faqih as the foundational legitimacy of the regime.^[12] Under Article 107 of the Constitution, the Assembly's primary mandate is to select the Leader from fuqaha (jurisprudents) meeting criteria in Articles 5 and 109, including mastery in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), piety, political acumen, and leadership capacity—attributes directly derived from Velayat-e Faqih's emphasis on the jurist's unqualified authority (velayat-e motlaqeh).^[9] This process occurred initially in 1989 when the Assembly elected Ali Khamenei as Khomeini's successor after deliberating on qualifications, bypassing a leadership council provision in the original 1979 text.^[2] Article 111 further empowers the Assembly to dismiss the Leader if he loses these qualifications or becomes incapacitated, providing doctrinal accountability: the jurist's guardianship is not absolute against collective juristic oversight, though invocations of this clause remain unprecedented as of 2025.^[9]^[13] The Assembly's supervisory committees, established post-1989 amendments, periodically evaluate the Leader's performance in upholding Velayat-e Faqih, reporting confidentially on jurisprudential fidelity and administrative efficacy, as affirmed in constitutional interpretations by the Expediency Discernment Council.^[14] This mechanism theoretically safeguards the doctrine's integrity against deviation, yet critics, including exiled jurists like Hossein Ali Montazeri (dismissed as potential successor in 1989), argue it subordinates the Assembly to the Leader's influence via Guardian Council vetting of members, diluting independent supervision.^[15] Nonetheless, the framework integrates Velayat-e Faqih with elective elements, distinguishing Iran's system from unchecked clerical rule by mandating juristic consensus for leadership transitions.^[16]

Election Process and Composition

Electoral Mechanism and Frequency

Members of the Assembly of Experts are selected through direct popular elections held every eight years across Iran.^[17]^[1] The body consists of 88 Islamic jurists apportioned to provincial constituencies based on population size, with voters in each district casting ballots for up to the number of seats allocated to that area; candidates receiving the most votes fill the positions.^[18] This process, outlined in Iran's constitution and electoral laws, ensures periodic renewal of the assembly while tying representation to demographic distribution.^[17] The eight-year term length was established to balance continuity in oversight of the Supreme Leader with democratic accountability, though turnout has varied significantly, as seen in the 2024 election where official participation reached approximately 41%.^[1]^[19] Elections coincide with those for other bodies like the Islamic Consultative Assembly when scheduled, as in March 1, 2024, for the sixth assembly term running through 2032.^[4] Prior cycles adhered to this interval, with the fifth assembly elected in 2016 and the first in 1982, though initial seat numbers started lower at 82 before statutory adjustments increased them to 88.^[20]^[13]

Candidate Vetting and Guardian Council Oversight

The vetting of candidates for the Assembly of Experts is mandated by Iranian law derived from Article 91 of the Constitution, which requires members to be mujtahids—experts capable of independent Islamic legal reasoning (ijtihad)—and stipulates that their qualifications be confirmed by the Guardian Council's six clerical members, appointed by the Supreme Leader.^[1]^[21] Applicants, who must be male Shi'a clerics aged at least 38 with advanced seminary training, submit credentials including fatwas and endorsements from established religious authorities; the Council then conducts reviews, including potential examinations, to verify scholarly competence and adherence to velayat-e faqih.^[8]^[18] The Guardian Council, a 12-member body with veto power over elections under Article 99 of the Constitution, oversees the entire process to ensure candidates align with Islamic principles and the regime's foundational ideology, effectively filtering out those deemed insufficiently orthodox or politically unreliable.^[22] In practice, this has resulted in high disqualification rates: for the 2016 election, the Council approved candidates from a large pool after rigorous scrutiny, prioritizing interpretations compatible with the Supreme Leader's authority, while excluding many moderates and reformists.^[21]^[23] Similarly, in the March 1, 2024, election for the sixth Assembly, initial applications exceeded 500, but approvals were limited to 144 candidates for 88 seats, contributing to record-low voter turnout of around 41% amid perceptions of preordained outcomes.^[24]^[19] This oversight mechanism, intended to safeguard religious integrity, has drawn criticism for incorporating political loyalty tests beyond formal criteria, as evidenced by the disqualification of prominent figures like former President Hashemi Rafsanjani's allies in prior cycles, thereby reinforcing hardline dominance in the Assembly.^[25]^[26] While the Council's jurists focus on constitutional compliance, the clerics' dominance in Assembly vetting—without appeal processes for rejections—ensures selection of individuals unlikely to challenge the Supreme Leader, aligning with the system's emphasis on doctrinal continuity over pluralism.^[8]^[27]

Membership Qualifications and Demographic Profile

Membership in the Assembly of Experts requires candidates to be mujtahids—Shia Islamic jurists capable of ijtihad, the independent derivation of religious rulings from primary sources—who are deemed pious, just, and knowledgeable in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).^[28] Article 91 of the 1979 Iranian Constitution (as amended) stipulates that the Assembly comprises jurists (fuqaha) with qualifications specified by law, including diligence in religious sciences and administrative competence.^[9] These criteria are enforced through vetting by the Guardian Council's six jurists, who assess candidates' scholarly credentials, often requiring seminary training from institutions like Qom, oral and written examinations, and endorsements from established clerics.^[3] No formal age minimum exists, but the emphasis on lifelong scholarship results in candidates typically over 50 years old.^[18] The Assembly consists of 88 members elected nationwide but allocated by province, serving eight-year terms with no consecutive re-election limit, though incumbency advantages persist due to name recognition and networks.^[1] All members are male Shia clerics, reflecting the institutional requirement for mujtahid status, which has historically excluded women in Iran's Twelver Shia hierarchy despite rare female scholars achieving equivalent learning.^[13] Demographically, members are predominantly Persian by ethnicity, with overrepresentation from central provinces like Tehran and Qom due to seminary concentrations, though some represent ethnic minorities such as Azeris in northern districts.^[29] In terms of age profile, the body skews elderly, with the sixth Assembly (elected March 1, 2024) featuring members averaging in the late 60s to 70s; for instance, its chairman, Mohammad-Ali Movahedi Kermani, was approximately 86 at election.^[21] ^[30] This gerontocracy stems from the time-intensive path to mujtahid qualification, often spanning decades, and Guardian Council preferences for established conservatives over younger or reformist figures.^[31] Educationally uniform, nearly all hold advanced hawza (seminary) degrees, with political alignment heavily favoring loyalists to Velayat-e Faqih, as evidenced by the disqualification of over 80% of applicants in recent cycles to filter out perceived threats to regime orthodoxy.^[32]

Functions and Internal Operations

Core Responsibilities Under the Constitution

The Assembly of Experts, as delineated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (revised 1989), holds the constitutional mandate to select the Supreme Leader following the death, resignation, or dismissal of the incumbent. Article 107 specifies that after the demise of a leader—initially referencing Ayatollah Khomeini—the experts elected by the people review and consult on qualified jurists (fuqaha) meeting criteria in Articles 5 and 109, notifying candidates and electing by majority the one recognized for jurisprudence, political acumen, or other attributes.^[33] If no single qualified individual emerges, the Assembly may appoint a leadership council of multiple fuqaha to exercise the Leader's functions, operating under rules it establishes.^[9] A further responsibility is the supervision and potential dismissal of the Supreme Leader to ensure ongoing fulfillment of duties and retention of qualifications. Article 111 vests the Assembly with authority to assess incapacity, loss of qualifications (such as scholarly expertise in fiqh, justice, piety, or leadership capability per Article 109), or initial disqualification, leading to removal if substantiated.^[7] In such contingencies, the Assembly promptly appoints a successor or, absent a suitable individual, a provisional council comprising the President, Chief Justice, and a Guardian Council jurist, pending full resolution.^[9] This oversight mechanism underscores the Assembly's role in maintaining the Leader's alignment with constitutional standards, though determinations require collective deliberation among members.^[7] The Constitution confines these duties narrowly to leadership selection and accountability, with Article 108 empowering the Assembly to regulate its own composition, elections, and procedures via laws it approves, subject to initial Guardian Council input. No broader legislative or executive functions are assigned, distinguishing it from other bodies like the Majlis or Guardian Council.^[33]

Supervision and Accountability Mechanisms for the Supreme Leader

The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, in Article 111, mandates that the Assembly of Experts supervise the Supreme Leader's performance of duties, with the authority to dismiss him if he becomes incapable, loses qualifications outlined in Articles 5 and 109 (such as justice, piety, political and social acumen, prudence, and managerial ability), or exhibits evident senility or disqualification.^[9] This supervision entails periodic review, potentially through a designated committee, to assess compliance with constitutional standards, though the text does not prescribe specific procedures or frequency for such evaluations.^[9] The Assembly may also investigate claims of misconduct or incapacity upon sufficient evidence, aiming to ensure the Leader upholds the principles of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist).^[8] In operational terms, the Assembly's internal structure includes a leadership council and committees that could theoretically facilitate oversight, such as reviewing reports on the Leader's health or decision-making capacity.^[1] However, no formal, enforceable protocols exist for compelling the Leader to submit to scrutiny, rendering supervision largely discretionary and infrequent.^[1] Since the Assembly's inception in 1983, it has never as a body invoked Article 111 to challenge, criticize, or dismiss a Supreme Leader, including during Ayatollah Khomeini's tenure (1979–1989) or Ayatollah Khamenei's (1989–present), despite public concerns over health or policy in cases like Khamenei's reported ailments in the 2010s.^[8]^[3] Structural dependencies undermine effective accountability: the Supreme Leader appoints six of the twelve Guardian Council members, who in turn vet Assembly candidates, ensuring a majority aligned with the Leader's ideological framework and limiting independent voices.^[34] This vetting process has disqualified reformist or critical candidates in elections, such as over 80% in 2016, fostering an Assembly predisposed to deference rather than rigorous oversight.^[1] Individual members have occasionally voiced private concerns about leadership efficacy, as documented in Assembly proceedings, but collective action remains absent due to these interlocking power dynamics and the Leader's control over state institutions like the judiciary and military.^[8] Consequently, the mechanism functions more as a symbolic check than a practical constraint, with the Assembly's primary realized role being the Leader's election or succession planning upon death or incapacity.^[3]

Organizational Structure and Committees

The Assembly of Experts comprises 88 members, all required to be qualified Islamic jurists (faqihs) capable of interpreting Sharia law, serving staggered eight-year terms with half the seats renewed every four years.^[13]^[5] The body convenes at least twice annually in Tehran, with sessions focused on deliberative oversight rather than legislative activity, and its proceedings remain confidential to maintain internal cohesion.^[1]^[8] Internally, the assembly is led by a board elected via secret ballot every two years, consisting of a chairman, two deputy chairmen, and a secretary, responsible for agenda-setting, session management, and administrative coordination.^[5] This leadership structure ensures continuity while allowing periodic renewal, though in practice, incumbents often retain positions due to factional alignments within the clerical elite. Complementing the board is a general secretariat handling day-to-day operations and an investigative council tasked with probing matters related to the Supreme Leader's performance, including periodic reviews of his qualifications under Article 111 of the Constitution.^[35]^[8] The assembly divides its work among six specialized committees, which facilitate focused examination of issues like doctrinal interpretation, leadership supervision, and internal governance; these bodies prepare reports and recommendations for plenary sessions but lack independent enforcement powers.^[1]^[5] Notable among them is the Article 108 Committee, empowered to propose amendments to criteria for Supreme Leader candidates, such as adjusting qualifications for ijtihad or political acumen.^[15] The Financial and Administrative Affairs Committee oversees budgeting, personnel, and procedural compliance, while the Political and Social Committee evaluates broader governance and societal impacts of the Leader's directives.^[15] Other committees address legal, doctrinal, and supervisory functions, reflecting the assembly's constitutional mandate to monitor the Supreme Leader's adherence to Velayat-e Faqih principles without public disclosure of findings.^[15] This committee-based approach, while streamlining deliberations, has been critiqued for enabling factional logrolling rather than rigorous accountability, as evidenced by infrequent public outputs since the body's inception in 1983.^[8]

Historical Assemblies and Key Events

First and Second Assemblies (1983–1999)

The First Assembly of Experts was elected on December 10, 1982, and convened in 1983, comprising 83 Shiite clerics tasked with supervising Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.^[15] Chaired by Ayatollah Ali Meshkini, the body initially focused on endorsing Khomeini's leadership while addressing constitutional interpretations of velayat-e faqih.^[36] A pivotal action occurred following Khomeini's death on June 3, 1989, when the Assembly convened the next day and selected Ali Khamenei as Supreme Leader by a vote of 60 to 14, despite his lacking traditional marja' status; this decision prompted rapid constitutional amendments to institutionalize a single-leader model over a collective one.^[37] The Assembly's term ended in 1991 amid minimal public scrutiny of its proceedings, reflecting the era's consolidation of clerical authority post-revolution.^[36] The Second Assembly was elected on October 8, 1990, across 24 constituencies, with 83 seats filled from 109 Guardian Council-approved candidates out of 180 registrants.^[38] Voter turnout reached 37.09 percent, with 11,602,613 ballots cast from 31,280,084 eligible voters, varying widely by province (e.g., 77.06 percent in Ilam versus 30.93 percent in Tehran); results in Sistan and Baluchestan were nullified due to irregularities.^[38] Also chaired by Ayatollah Ali Meshkini, the Assembly—again dominated by conservative mujtahids—convened its first session on February 21, 1991, and served until 1999 without major leadership interventions, though it issued periodic reports affirming Khamenei's compliance with constitutional duties.^[39] Internal operations emphasized doctrinal oversight rather than overt challenges, aligning with the Supreme Leader's growing influence amid factional tensions in broader Iranian politics.^[21]

Third and Fourth Assemblies (1999–2016)

The Third Assembly of Experts convened following elections held on October 23, 1998, with its inaugural session on February 23, 1999, in Qom, comprising 86 clerics elected from 28 constituencies.^[28] Voter turnout was reported at 46.3 percent.^[21] Chaired by Ayatollah Ali Akbar Meshkini throughout its term until his death in 2007, the assembly operated amid President Mohammad Khatami's reformist presidency (1997–2005), yet retained a conservative majority due to Guardian Council vetting that disqualified many reformist candidates.^[5] During this period, the body issued no public challenges to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's authority, focusing instead on routine affirmations of his leadership in annual reports, reflecting limited exercise of its supervisory mandate.^[5] The Fourth Assembly was elected on December 15, 2006, alongside municipal council elections, with only 165 candidates approved for the 86 seats after extensive Guardian Council disqualifications, including all non-clerics and women applicants.^[40] It convened on February 20, 2007.^[41] Following Meshkini's death on July 30, 2007, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani was elected chairman on August 7, 2007, and re-elected in 2009.^[5] Rafsanjani's tenure ended on March 8, 2011, when he was replaced by Mohammad-Reza Mahdavi Kani as interim chairman amid internal conservative factional tensions; Mahdavi Kani served until his death on October 21, 2014.^[5] Mohammad Yazdi then assumed the chairmanship in 2015, defeating Rafsanjani in a 47–24 vote.^[5] The assembly endorsed Khamenei's policies during President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's term (2005–2013) and the early years of Hassan Rouhani's presidency, including support for the government's handling of 2009 election protests, but engaged in no formal investigations or dismissals of the Supreme Leader, underscoring its role as largely ceremonial despite constitutional oversight powers.^[5]

Fifth and Sixth Assemblies (2016–2032)

The Fifth Assembly of Experts was elected on February 26, 2016, alongside parliamentary elections, with approximately 62% voter turnout nationwide.^[42] Despite the Guardian Council's disqualification of over 80% of aspiring candidates, including prominent moderates like Ayatollah Mohammad Reyshahri, reformist and moderate-aligned clerics achieved notable gains, particularly in urban centers; in Tehran, their slate captured 15 of the 16 seats.^[43] Overall, the 88-member body featured a mix of principlists (hardline conservatives) holding a majority but with increased moderate influence compared to prior terms, reflecting partial public support for President Hassan Rouhani's pragmatic faction amid post-nuclear deal optimism.^[44] During its 2016–2024 term, the assembly convened biannual sessions as mandated, focusing on oversight of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei through its Command and Supervision Committee, which issued periodic confidential reports affirming his religious and political qualifications without public dissent or removal proceedings.^[13] Key activities included deliberations on leadership succession criteria in light of Khamenei's advancing age, though no binding decisions emerged; internal factional tensions surfaced in 2017–2018 over the assembly's limited transparency in supervision reports, with moderates like Ayatollah Ahmad Khatami advocating stricter accountability mechanisms, but these yielded no structural changes.^[15] The body also addressed broader clerical issues, such as seminary reforms, but maintained deference to Khamenei's authority, underscoring its constitutional role as a supervisory rather than executive entity. The Sixth Assembly was elected on March 1, 2024, in conjunction with parliamentary polls, recording the lowest turnout since 1979 at around 41%, attributed to widespread disillusionment following 2022 protests and economic pressures.^[45] The Guardian Council approved only about 20% of over 1,200 registrants, disqualifying figures like former President Hassan Rouhani and most reformists, resulting in an all-conservative composition of 88 members loyal to Khamenei's principlist vision.^[46] Hardliners consolidated control, with no moderate representation, positioning the assembly as a more unified body for potential succession duties amid Khamenei's reported health concerns at age 85.^[47] Inaugurated on May 21, 2024, the assembly elected 92-year-old Ayatollah Mohammad Ali Movahedi Kermani as chairman, succeeding the late Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati, during its opening session attended by regime elites.^[30]^[48] As of October 2025, early meetings have emphasized readiness for leadership transition, with Khamenei reportedly instructing immediate convening protocols upon his demise, though no successor has been named publicly; the body's enhanced ideological uniformity, per Iranian state media, aims to ensure doctrinal continuity but raises questions about independent oversight given pre-election vetting.^[49]

Controversies and Power Dynamics

Candidate Disqualifications and Electoral Integrity

The Guardian Council, a 12-member body with six clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader and six jurists nominated by the judiciary head (itself Leader-appointed) and approved by parliament, vets all candidates for the Assembly of Experts.^[26] Vetting criteria include demonstrated religious scholarship as a mujtahid (qualified to perform ijtihad, or independent Islamic legal reasoning), practical management experience, trustworthiness, piety, and explicit commitment to the doctrine of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurist).^[50] Disqualifications occur if candidates fail these standards or exhibit past actions deemed incompatible with the Islamic Republic's principles, such as criticism of the Supreme Leader or associations with reformist factions perceived as insufficiently loyal. This process effectively filters for ideological alignment, often disqualifying moderates and reformists while approving hardline conservatives. In the 2016 election for the fifth Assembly, the Guardian Council approved only 166 out of 801 registered candidates, a record-low approval rate of approximately 21%, predominantly favoring established clerics loyal to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.^[51] This mass disqualification, which eliminated most challengers to the incumbent leadership-aligned slate, drew protests from President Hassan Rouhani and reformist groups, who argued it violated the constitution's intent for broader clerical representation.^[52] The outcome reinforced hardliner dominance, with approved candidates including key figures like Ahmad Jannati, who retained influence over Assembly proceedings. The 2024 election for the sixth Assembly saw similar exclusionary patterns, with the Guardian Council disqualifying prominent moderates, including former President Hassan Rouhani on January 24, 2024, despite his prior service and religious credentials.^[53] Critics, including Rouhani himself, contended that such rulings prioritized safeguarding Khamenei's succession plans over merit, narrowing the candidate pool to hardliners and incumbents.^[54] Official data indicated around 144 candidates approved for 88 seats, reflecting continued high rejection rates that limited voter choice and contributed to a reported turnout of 41% (including spoiled ballots), the lowest in the body's history.^[19] These disqualifications have fueled concerns over electoral integrity, as the pre-selection mechanism undermines competitive pluralism and public mandate. While Iran's constitution mandates popular election of the Assembly, the Guardian Council's veto power—exercised without transparent appeals or independent oversight—ensures outcomes align with regime preservation, leading to perceptions of engineered consensus rather than genuine deliberation.^[55] Low turnout in 2024, alongside boycott calls from opposition voices, empirically correlates with disqualification scale, signaling eroded legitimacy amid suppressed alternatives.^[56] Reports of ballot irregularities and inflated official figures have surfaced, though regime controls on monitoring limit verification; nonetheless, the vetting barrier causally precedes these issues by demotivating participation.^[57] This structure prioritizes doctrinal continuity over broad representation, as evidenced by repeated hardliner majorities since 1983.

Debates on Independence from Supreme Leader Influence

The Assembly of Experts is constitutionally mandated under Article 111 of Iran's Constitution to supervise the Supreme Leader's performance and dismiss him if he fails to meet qualifications for the role, though the mechanisms for such oversight remain vaguely defined and have never been invoked against either Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini or Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.^[32]^[3] In practice, the body has functioned primarily as a ceremonial endorser, issuing supportive statements without substantive scrutiny, as evidenced by its failure to establish effective monitoring despite individual members occasionally voicing private concerns.^[32] This gap has fueled debates over whether the Assembly truly operates independently or serves as an extension of the Supreme Leader's authority, particularly given the Guardian Council's vetting process—which disqualifies candidates perceived as insufficiently aligned, as seen in the 2016 elections where numerous reformist or independent jurists were barred.^[3] Central to these debates is the tension between "supervision" (nazelat) and "guarding" (herasat) the Leader, with proponents of the former arguing it aligns with the Assembly's founding intent under Khomeini, while opponents, including Khamenei, frame it as undermining the doctrine of absolute guardianship (velayat-e motlaqeh-ye faqih).^[15] In 2006, Assembly Chairman Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati publicly acknowledged majority support within the body for active supervision but noted Khamenei's firm opposition, rooted in historical precedents where the Assembly refrained from oversight during Khomeini's tenure to avoid political friction.^[15] Khamenei's resistance extends to proposals for an Investigation Committee tasked with monitoring institutions directly controlled by the Leader, such as the Supreme National Security Council and bonyads (foundations), which faced repeated stalls over the past decade due to his influence over key members.^[15] Critics, including exiled Iranian analysts, contend that systemic vetting by the Leader-appointed half of the Guardian Council ensures the Assembly's composition favors loyalty over autonomy, rendering it a "pawn" rather than a check on power, as demonstrated by the 1989 selection of Khamenei—despite his initial lack of requisite religious credentials, which prompted a constitutional amendment to retroactively validate the choice.^[15]^[3] Proceedings of any supervisory efforts remain confidential, with no recorded instances of collective action, further eroding perceptions of independence and raising questions about the body's capacity to handle leadership transitions without external dictation.^[32] These dynamics persist into the sixth Assembly (elected March 1, 2024), where hardliner dominance limits potential for reformist challenges to the status quo.^[3]

Factionalism and Internal Conflicts

The Assembly of Experts has been predominantly controlled by the principlist (osulgarayan) faction since the mid-1990s, following the disqualification of left-leaning Maktabi clerics from key bodies in the post-Khomeini era, which entrenched conservative dominance through path-dependent factional dynamics rooted in the 1987 dissolution of the Islamic Republic Party and subsequent power shifts.^[58] Within principlists, subgroups include traditional conservatives, such as those aligned with the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom, and ultra-hardliners like the followers of Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi, who advocate stricter ideological purity and have clashed over influence in leadership selection processes.^[58] Reformist or moderate elements have been marginalized, with only token representation post-2016 elections, as Guardian Council vetting consistently favors loyalists to the Supreme Leader.^[3] A major internal conflict arose in 2016 over the Assembly's supervisory role, when members debated reviewing a confidential medical report on Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's health amid concerns about his fitness, but Chairman Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati blocked public questioning, asserting it was unnecessary and affirming Khamenei's competence without formal inquiry.^[3] This episode highlighted tensions between factions favoring nominal accountability—per Article 111 of the Constitution, which allows dismissal for dereliction—and hardline loyalists who view supervision as ceremonial or subordinate to the Leader's authority, a stance reinforced by rulings from Khamenei appointees like Chief Justice Sadeq Larijani declaring such oversight illegal.^[3] Similar divisions surfaced in the 2016 elections, where a pragmatist-reformist coalition backed by President Hassan Rouhani and Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani challenged hardliners by opposing ultra-conservatives like Mesbah-Yazdi, yet principlists retained control with Jannati elected chair despite electoral setbacks for some rivals.^[3] These factional rifts extend to succession planning, with traditional principlists wary of ultra-hardline pushes for figures like Khamenei's son Mojtaba, potentially exacerbating post-Khamenei instability, as the Assembly's bylaws limit proactive deliberation to avoid overt challenges to the incumbent.^[3] Broader regime infighting, including clerical disputes over policy amid external pressures, has occasionally spilled into Assembly sessions, such as criticisms of economic mismanagement, but hardline cohesion prevails due to shared allegiance to velayat-e faqih principles.^[59] The 2024 elections further consolidated principlist control, with low turnout and disqualifications sidelining moderates, underscoring persistent internal hierarchies over factional pluralism.^[3]

Role in Iranian Political Stability

Contributions to Leadership Succession

The Assembly of Experts holds the constitutional mandate to appoint the Supreme Leader upon the death, resignation, or dismissal of the incumbent, ensuring continuity in Iran's theocratic governance structure. According to Article 111 of the Iranian Constitution, in such scenarios, the Assembly must convene immediately to select a qualified successor from among jurisprudents (fuqaha) meeting specified criteria, including scholarly competence, justice, and political acumen. This role underscores the body's function as a safeguard against leadership vacuums, though its deliberations occur behind closed doors, with outcomes ratified publicly.^[3] The Assembly's most significant contribution to leadership succession occurred on June 4, 1989, one day after the death of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini on June 3, 1989. In an emergency session, the 83-member first Assembly of Experts, dominated by Khomeini loyalists, elected Ali Khamenei—then President of Iran and a mid-ranking cleric—as the new Supreme Leader, despite his initial reluctance and lack of traditional marja'iyya (source of emulation) status. To facilitate this, the Assembly endorsed constitutional amendments, ratified by referendum on July 9, 1989, which removed the marja' requirement and expanded the Leader's powers, allowing Khamenei's provisional one-year appointment to be confirmed indefinitely. This rapid transition, completed within 24 hours, averted potential instability amid factional tensions and external pressures following the Iran-Iraq War.^[60]^[8]^[3] Beyond 1989, the Assembly has established mechanisms to prepare for future successions, including a three-member committee tasked with vetting potential candidates based on constitutional qualifications. Formed under later Assemblies, this panel has intensified efforts since the mid-2010s amid Khamenei's advancing age (born July 17, 1939), screening clerics for attributes like piety, administrative skill, and alignment with velayat-e faqih doctrine. Public statements from Khamenei in 2024 emphasized the Assembly's readiness to act swiftly, framing it as a pillar of regime endurance without interruption. However, no subsequent transitions have occurred, and the body's supervision has not led to Leader dismissal despite debates over performance.^[61]^[62]^[3]

Criticisms of Effectiveness and Legitimacy

The Assembly of Experts has faced criticism for lacking genuine supervisory authority over the Supreme Leader, as evidenced by its failure to ever question or dismiss a sitting leader despite constitutional provisions under Article 111 allowing removal for insufficient piety or competence.^[3]^[63] During Ayatollah Khomeini's tenure and under Ayatollah Khamenei, the body has prioritized ceremonial functions over active oversight, with bylaws interpreting supervision as non-contradictory to the Leader's "absolute guardianship," effectively diluting its mandate.^[8] Critics, including reformist figures, argue this renders the Assembly a rubber-stamp institution that advances the Leader's agenda rather than constraining it, as seen in 2017 when Khamenei directed it to assume roles beyond its constitutional purview, such as policy endorsements.^[64] Electoral processes undermine the Assembly's legitimacy, with the Guardian Council disqualifying large numbers of candidates—often reformists or moderates—ensuring only regime loyalists compete. In the 2016 elections, anomalies like inflated vote totals and disorganized candidate lists raised transparency concerns, while the 2024 cycle saw over 40% of Assembly applicants rejected, including high-profile moderates like former President Hassan Rouhani, prompting accusations of engineered outcomes to exclude dissent.^[65]^[25]^[66] This vetting, controlled by appointees of the Supreme Leader, has led to low voter turnout—around 41% in 2024 parliamentary and Assembly polls—signaling public disillusionment and a broader legitimacy crisis amid protests and economic woes.^[67]^[68] Internally, factionalism hampers effectiveness, as hardline dominance stifles debate on leadership accountability; for instance, in 2023, a prominent cleric publicly argued the Leader should not be subject to Assembly scrutiny, contradicting constitutional text.^[63] Observers note the Assembly's transformation from an intended check on power to a pawn in succession politics, with opaque deliberations failing to address Khamenei's health or policy failures, exacerbating perceptions of irrelevance in Iran's centralized theocracy.^[15]^[69] This dynamic, rooted in regime interference, contributes to systemic instability, as the body's inability to enforce velayat-e faqih's checks erodes public trust and invites challenges from opposition forces.^[70]

Impact on Broader Governance and Policy

The Assembly of Experts influences Iran's governance structure indirectly by selecting the Supreme Leader, who wields veto authority over legislation, commands the armed forces, appoints judicial and media heads, and shapes foreign policy orientations, thereby embedding clerical oversight into all major policy domains. This selection process, occurring upon a Leader's death or incapacity, ensures that policy continuity aligns with theocratic priorities, as evidenced by the Assembly's appointment of Ali Khamenei on June 4, 1989, following Ruhollah Khomeini's death the prior day, which preserved hardline stances on export of revolution and resistance to Western influence.^[71]^[34] The Leader's resultant dominance marginalizes elected bodies like the presidency and Majlis, channeling policy toward ideological imperatives over electoral mandates, such as sustaining support for regional proxies despite economic costs. In practice, the Assembly's purported supervisory function—intended to monitor the Leader's adherence to Islamic criteria—has yielded negligible checks on policy execution, with no recorded dismissals or substantive interventions despite constitutional provisions. Historical analyses indicate this stems from the Assembly's vetting by the Guardian Council, which disqualifies reformist candidates, resulting in a body overwhelmingly composed of loyalists who reconfirm the Leader without contesting decisions on issues like nuclear negotiations or domestic crackdowns.^[3]^[1] This dynamic perpetuates policy rigidity, as seen in the Assembly's failure to influence Khamenei's endorsements of confrontational foreign policies, including ballistic missile development and alliances with non-state actors, which have isolated Iran economically while prioritizing regime preservation.^[34] Factional tensions within the Assembly, though muted by conservative dominance, occasionally surface in succession deliberations, indirectly affecting long-term policy trajectories by signaling potential shifts in clerical consensus. For example, amid Khamenei's advancing age—85 as of 2024—discussions in the sixth Assembly, elected March 1, 2024, have accelerated grooming of successors like Mojtaba Khamenei, likely entrenching policies of self-reliance and anti-Western defiance over liberalization.^[3]^[72] Critics from reformist quarters argue this reinforces a governance model where policy legitimacy derives from divine mandate rather than popular input, contributing to institutional inertia and public disillusionment, as reflected in low voter turnout in recent elections.^[1] Overall, the Assembly sustains a hybrid system where clerical selection trumps democratic mechanisms, constraining policy adaptability to domestic crises like inflation exceeding 40% annually in 2023-2024 or international sanctions.^[34]

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