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Astaroth

Astaroth, also spelled Astarot or Asteroth, is a prominent demon in Western demonology, classified as a Great Duke of Hell who governs forty legions of infernal spirits. According to the Ars Goetia section of the 17th-century grimoire The Lesser Key of Solomon, Astaroth manifests as a noxious angel mounted on a dragon-like beast, bearing a viper in his right hand, and emits a foul breath that requires the summoner to protect themselves with a magical ring.^[1] He grants true knowledge of past, present, and future events, reveals hidden secrets, teaches the liberal sciences, and recounts the reasons for his own fall from heaven along with those of other demons.^[1] The figure of Astaroth originates from the ancient Canaanite and Phoenician goddess Astarte, a deity of fertility, sexuality, and warfare, whose attributes were reframed and masculinized in medieval Christian demonology as part of efforts to suppress pagan worship.^[2] By the Renaissance period, Astaroth appeared in various grimoires and treatises, embodying themes of intellectual temptation and forbidden knowledge.^[3] In the hierarchical system outlined by the 17th-century exorcist Sébastien Michaëlis during the Loudun possessions, Astaroth ranks among the highest infernal orders, forming an "evil trinity" with Lucifer and Beelzebub as one of the supreme adversaries to divine authority.^[3]

Origins and Etymology

Connection to Ancient Deities

Astaroth's name and attributes in demonological traditions represent a corruption of Astarte (ʿAṯtart), the prominent Canaanite and Phoenician goddess associated with fertility, warfare, and sexuality, who was widely equated with the Mesopotamian deity Ishtar due to shared iconography and cultic practices across the ancient Near East.^[4] This equivalence is evident in textual records from the Late Bronze Age onward, where Astarte's roles as a warrior-huntress and divine lover mirror Ishtar's dominion over love, battle, and sacred prostitution.^[5] In Ugaritic myths from the second millennium BCE, Astarte appears as a key figure in the Canaanite pantheon, often depicted in association with Baal, the storm god, functioning as his consort or divine partner in narratives of conflict and kingship.^[6] Although direct evidence of a marital bond is fragmentary and interpretive—such as in ritual texts where she aids Baal against cosmic foes—scholars like Saul M. Olyan have argued that Astarte's partnership with Baal reflects her integral role in Ugaritic cosmology, emphasizing themes of fertility and martial prowess. The demonization of Astarte occurred gradually during the Hellenistic period and intensified in early Christianity, as pagan deities were recast as malevolent demons to delegitimize polytheistic worship and consolidate monotheistic authority. This process involved reinterpreting astral and fertility cults as diabolical, drawing on Jewish and Christian polemics that transformed neutral or benevolent spirits (daimones) into agents of evil, as seen in patristic writings like Augustine's City of God, which equated pagan gods with fallen angels.^[7] By late antiquity, this led to Astarte's reconfiguration as the male demon Astaroth in medieval texts, suppressing her original feminine attributes. Archaeological and textual evidence underscores Astarte's astral connections, particularly in Phoenician contexts, where she was invoked as "Queen of Heaven" for protection in navigation and celestial matters. In Sidon, inscriptions on the 5th-century BCE sarcophagi of kings Tabnit and Eshmunazar II identify her as a patroness alongside Baal, while a late 4th- to 3rd-century BCE amethyst gemstone depicts her enthroned with astral symbols like a winged disc, crescent moon, and Pleiades.^[8] At Byblos, 4th-century BCE silver coins feature lion-headed ship prows symbolizing her maritime and astral oversight, linking her worship to seafaring rituals.^[9]

Etymological Evolution

The name Astaroth traces its linguistic roots to the ancient Semitic goddess ʿAṯtart, rendered in Phoenician as Astoreth and often appearing in plural form as Ashtaroth, reflecting a Northwest Semitic deity associated with broader Near Eastern traditions.^[10] This form evolved into the Greek Astarte through Hellenistic adaptations, where the name was Hellenized to denote a counterpart to the Mesopotamian Ishtar.^[10] In Latin transmissions, it appeared as Astarothus, preserving the phonetic structure while integrating into Roman-influenced texts.^[11] In the Hebrew Bible, the name manifests as Ashtoreth, a deliberate alteration likely combining ʿAṯtart with the Hebrew term bosheth meaning "shame" to denigrate the foreign deity, as seen in 1 Kings 11:5 where Solomon is described as following "Ashtoreth the goddess of the Zidonians... the abomination of the Ammonites."^[12] The plural Ashtaroth appears elsewhere, such as in references to idolatrous sites, emphasizing collective worship condemned as idolatrous.^[11] This biblical usage solidified the name's negative connotations in Judeo-Christian contexts, transforming a revered figure into a symbol of forbidden cultic practice. During the medieval period, European demonological texts adapted the biblical Ashtaroth into Astaroth, with the "-oth" suffix possibly retaining its Semitic plural inflection or drawing from Aramaic influences to amplify infernal associations, evoking multiplicity or otherworldly plurality in grimoires and theological works.^[11] This evolution marked a shift from divine to demonic nomenclature, as the name entered Latin and vernacular traditions. Spelling variations emerged across languages, including Astarot in French demonological literature and Astaroth in German texts, reflecting phonetic adaptations in translation and transcription.^[13] Originally tied to a fertility goddess in ancient pantheons, the name's trajectory underscores a profound demonization through linguistic and cultural reinterpretation.^[10]

Role in Demonology

Description in Key Grimoires

In the Ars Goetia, the first section of the Lesser Key of Solomon, Astaroth is enumerated as the twenty-ninth spirit among the seventy-two infernal entities, holding the rank of a mighty and strong duke who commands forty legions of spirits.^[1] This grimoire, compiled in the mid-17th century from earlier sources, portrays Astaroth manifesting in the form of a hurtful angel astride an infernal beast resembling a dragon, bearing a viper in his right hand; his presence is marked by a noisome breath that requires the magician to wield a protective magical ring near the face to avoid harm.^[1] A similar depiction appears in Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577), where Astaroth is listed as a great and strong duke ruling thirty-six legions, emerging as a foul angel seated upon an infernal dragon and clutching a viper in his right hand, with an intolerable stench emanating from him that demands the exorcist hold a silver magical ring before the face for safeguarding.^[14] Weyer's text, an appendix to his De praestigiis daemonum, closely mirrors the Ars Goetia in both form and status, emphasizing Astaroth's ducal authority within the infernal hierarchy while underscoring the hazardous nature of his apparition.^[14] These Renaissance grimoires consistently classify Astaroth as a high-ranking duke in the demonic order, often aligned with the western quadrant in broader infernal schemata, distinguishing him through his draconic mount and serpentine attribute as symbols of infernal potency.^[1]^[14] Such portrayals reflect a synthesis of medieval demonological traditions, evolving from ancient Near Eastern deities into a formalized figure of hellish nobility.^[14]

Powers and Summoning Rituals

In demonological traditions, Astaroth is attributed with the power to provide true answers concerning events of the past, present, and future, as well as to discover hidden secrets.^[15] He further explains the reasons for the fall of the spirits and imparts knowledge of the liberal sciences, making those who summon him proficient in various intellectual disciplines.^[14] These abilities position Astaroth as a source of profound esoteric wisdom, particularly regarding the origins and nature of infernal entities.^[15] Summoning Astaroth requires specific precautions due to his foul odor, which can cause harm if the practitioner is too close; thus, the exorcist must maintain distance and use a magical silver ring held near the face to protect against the noxious fumes.^[14] In certain grimoires, such as the Grimoire of Pope Honorius, Astaroth is associated with rituals performed on Wednesdays, often between ten and eleven at night, to obtain favors like the goodwill of rulers.^[16] The invocation typically involves drawing a protective circle, reciting conjurations invoking divine names, and commanding the spirit through the authority of higher powers to ensure obedience without deception.^[15] Central to the ritual is Astaroth's seal, a specific sigil depicted in the Ars Goetia, which must be worn as a lamen over the heart by the summoner to compel the demon's appearance and compliance; this seal serves as a binding tool during the evocation.^[15] Additional elements may include offerings or incantations tailored to planetary influences, though the core practice emphasizes purity, preparation, and unyielding command to mitigate risks.^[14] If not properly controlled through these measures, Astaroth's summoning carries risks of physical discomfort from his stench or potential misleading responses, as emphasized in 16th- and 17th-century texts where failure to use protective artifacts like the ring could lead to harm.^[15] However, when bound correctly, he is described as willing and non-malicious, commanding thirty-six legions yet yielding to the exorcist's authority without intent to injure.^[14]

Appearances in Christian and Medieval Texts

Tale of Saint Bartholomew

In the apocryphal Martyrdom of Bartholomew (also known as the Passion of Bartholomew), an early Christian text from around the 5th or 6th century CE, the apostle Bartholomew travels to India to preach the Gospel. He enters a temple dedicated to the idol Astaroth, a demon posing as a god who inflicts maladies on worshippers and falsely heals them in exchange for sacrifices. Bartholomew's presence renders the idol powerless, binding Astaroth with chains of fire and expelling the demon, which leads to the healing of the afflicted, including King Polymius's daughter.^[17]^[18] This confrontation results in mass conversions, with Polymius becoming a Christian and appointing Bartholomew as bishop. However, the king's brother Astrige, enraged, has Bartholomew beaten, flayed alive, and beheaded. The narrative underscores the triumph of Christian faith over pagan idolatry and demonic deception, illustrating apostolic authority in confronting false gods. It influenced later hagiographies by emphasizing themes of conversion and martyrdom. The text survives in Greek, Latin, and other manuscripts, blending missionary motifs with exorcistic elements common in apocryphal acts.^[17]^[18]

Other Literary References

In medieval Czech vernacular literature, Astaroth emerges as a prominent demonic figure in several anonymous works depicting infernal hierarchies and moral allegories. In the 14th- and 15th-century texts such as Solfernus, he is portrayed as the hejtman (commandant or general) of the devils, commanding their forces with authority. Similarly, in Belial, Astaroth is characterized as a wise demon, contributing to deliberations among hellish leaders on human temptation and divine judgment. These depictions position Astaroth within a structured demonic order, emphasizing his strategic role in satanic schemes against humanity.^[19] The 15th-century Sud Astarotov (Infernal Novel), a Czech prose narrative exploring eschatological themes, further elevates Astaroth's status by casting him as the chief advocate for Lucifer and the demonic host during a cosmic trial before Christ's judgment seat. Here, Astaroth argues eloquently against humanity's redemption, drawing on legalistic rhetoric to defend infernal claims, which underscores his intellectual prowess and rhetorical skill in medieval Christian demonological fiction. This portrayal reflects broader Eastern European traditions of infernal advocacy, blending biblical motifs with local folklore.^[19] In the 19th century, Astaroth's role was synthesized in comprehensive demonological compendia, notably in Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal (first edition 1818, drawing on earlier traditions). De Plancy describes Astaroth as a powerful duke of Hell who manifests as an ugly angel astride a hellish dragon, viper in hand, and grants knowledge of past, present, and future events to those who summon him without requiring sacrifices. This entry synthesizes prior grimoire lore, emphasizing Astaroth's dual nature as a revealer of secrets and a tempter, while warning of the dangers inherent in such invocations.^[20] In the Protestant demonological tradition of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, depictions of demons like Astaroth evolved amid heightened witchcraft persecutions, as seen in texts influenced by King James I's Daemonologie (1597). This treatise justified witch hunts by outlining demonic pacts, illusions, and hierarchies of fallen angels—including Lucifer, Beelzebub, and Leviathan—often linking such entities to accusations of sorcery and sabbatic gatherings. Astaroth thus symbolized intellectual seduction in broader Protestant views of demons as agents of sin and heresy.^[21]

Depictions in Art and Literature

Historical Illustrations

Historical illustrations of Astaroth primarily emerge from Renaissance-era grimoires and later demonological compendia, where visual depictions served to warn against demonic influences and illustrate summoning risks. In earlier works such as Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577), Astaroth is described as appearing in the form of a foul angel riding an infernal dragon and holding a viper, inspiring subsequent woodcuts that portrayed demons as mounted infernal riders to evoke terror and hierarchy in hellish realms.^[14] The most iconic representation appears in Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal (1818, with illustrated editions in 1863 by Louis Le Breton), where Astaroth is shown as a nude, crowned figure with feathered wings, dragon-like hands and feet, riding a hellish beast—often a dragon or lupine creature with bat wings—and grasping a viper, his grotesque features including an equine-like face with a sneering expression emphasizing his role as a seductive yet horrifying duke of hell.^[3]^[22] These elements draw briefly from literary descriptions in grimoires, adapting textual forms into vivid, cautionary visuals. Symbolic motifs in these illustrations reinforce Astaroth's attributes: the dragon mount represents chaos and primordial power, the viper signifies deceit and temptation rooted in biblical treachery imagery, and surrounding flames evoke hellfire, underscoring his association with infernal destruction and forbidden knowledge.^[23]^[24]

Literary Portrayals

In 19th-century occult literature, Eliphas Levi discussed demonology and the evolution of figures like Astaroth from ancient deities such as Astarte in works including The History of Magic (1860), blending historical origins with themes of forbidden knowledge and metaphysical truths. This characterization underscores Astaroth's evolution from pagan deity to infernal tutor, blending historical demonology with Kabbalistic symbolism to appeal to seekers of intellectual and spiritual advancement. Thematic portrayals in esoteric texts recurrently cast Astaroth as a tempter of intellectuals, luring scholars and philosophers with insights into liberal sciences, astrology, and the mysteries of time, often at the risk of moral or rational downfall.^[3] As a guardian of arcane secrets, Astaroth embodies the dual allure of enlightenment and deception, manifesting in narratives where invocation promises profound revelations but demands unwavering discipline to avoid ensnarement by vanity or illusion.^[25] This role highlights the demon's function as a mirror to human ambition, where the pursuit of knowledge exposes the fragility of the seeker's ego against infernal cunning.^[23] In 20th-century esoteric writings, Aleister Crowley included Astaroth in his 1904 edition of the Goetia, viewing demons within a Thelemic framework as aspects of the psyche and initiatory forces in the Great Work.^[26] This approach integrates Astaroth into broader ritual practice, where traditional imagery symbolizes alchemical processes and the transcendence of dualities.^[27]

Influence in Modern Culture

Film, Television, and Music

In film, Astaroth has been portrayed as a malevolent entity central to occult rituals and summonings, often drawing from its demonological roots as a duke of Hell associated with forbidden knowledge and corruption. In the 1976 Hammer horror film To the Devil a Daughter, directed by Peter Sykes, Astaroth is depicted as a demon whose avatar is to be born through the possession and ritualistic grooming of a young woman named Catherine Beddows, orchestrated by a Satanic cult led by Christopher Lee's character, Canon Copely-Syle.^[28] The narrative culminates in a confrontation where the demon's influence manifests through supernatural visions and a grotesque homunculus-like infant, emphasizing themes of infernal rebirth and paternal deception. This adaptation, the last traditional horror produced by Hammer Studios, blends psychological tension with occult horror, attributing Astaroth's power to seductive manipulation and apocalyptic potential for worldly domination.^[28] More contemporary depictions explore Astaroth through visual symbolism and summoning motifs. The 2018 found-footage horror Antrum, directed by David Amito and Michael Laicini, frames the demon as the source of a cursed film reel that allegedly causes viewer deaths; its sigil—a distinctive pentagram variant—appears 170 times throughout the runtime, embedded in frames to invoke possession and ritualistic descent into hellish circles inspired by Dante's Inferno. Here, Astaroth embodies apocalyptic dread, with the film's mockumentary structure revealing how the siblings' attempt to dig a "hole to hell" unleashes the demon's influence, leading to hallucinatory terrors and implied global catastrophe. Similarly, the 2020 Brazilian independent horror Astaroth: Female Demon, directed by Larissa Anzoategui, reimagines the entity as a seductive female figure rooted in its etymological ties to the goddess Astarte; a tattoo artist named Gregório becomes obsessed with summoning her through ink rituals, resulting in possessions that blend erotic temptation with violent manifestations.^[29] These portrayals highlight Astaroth's dual nature as both alluring and destructive, often using body horror to depict its encroachment into the mortal realm.^[29] On television, Astaroth appears in supernatural dramas as a cunning antagonist facilitating damnation through subtle corruption. In the CW series Supernatural, the demon is introduced in season 3, episode 9, "Malleus Maleficarum" (2008), directed by Robert Singer, where it possesses a woman named Tammi Fenton (played by Katherine Boecher) to form a witches' coven in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Disguised as a crossroads demon affiliate but actually a high-ranking white-eyed demon loyal to Lilith, Astaroth grants magical powers in exchange for souls, leading to murders and a climactic exorcism by protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester using a demon-killing knife. This episode draws on Astaroth's grimoire lore of revealing secrets and inciting sloth, portraying it as a seductress who preys on vulnerable women, fostering possession that escalates to apocalyptic threats against the Winchesters' allies. Later seasons reference its escape from Hell during the Devil's Gate opening, reinforcing its role in broader infernal hierarchies without further direct appearances. In music, particularly heavy metal genres, Astaroth is invoked in lyrics to evoke themes of infernal rebellion, seduction, and cosmic chaos, often as a symbol of forbidden enlightenment. These references perpetuate Astaroth's media tropes of possession—manifesting as lyrical "invasion" of the soul—and apocalyptic seduction, where the demon lures listeners toward moral decay and revolutionary fury against celestial authority.

Video Games and Contemporary Fiction

In video games, Astaroth frequently appears as a powerful boss or summonable entity, leveraging his demonic attributes for combat mechanics that emphasize destruction and infernal knowledge. In the Soulcalibur fighting game series, Astaroth is portrayed as a hulking golem constructed by the Fygul Cestemus cult to wield the cursed sword Soul Edge, serving as both a playable character and antagonist with devastating physical strikes and grapples in arena battles.^[30] His design reflects themes of servitude and raw power, appearing across multiple installments including Soulcalibur VI (2018), where players confront him in story mode to unravel the sword's corrupting influence.^[30] Similarly, in Diablo IV (2023), Astaroth emerges as a climactic boss in Act 2, resurrected by Lilith as a towering demon lord who unleashes fire blasts, shadow summons, and sweeping melee attacks during ritualistic encounters in Scosglen.^[31] Players must interrupt his phases by targeting weak points while evading minions, underscoring his role as a guardian of forbidden lore tied to the game's dark fantasy narrative. Astaroth returned as a fan-favorite boss in Diablo IV Season 9 (May 2025), further emphasizing his prominence in the game's escalating content.^[32] In the Shin Megami Tensei franchise, Astaroth functions as a fusible demon ally of the Tyrant race, specializing in fire-elemental spells like Agidyne and physical assaults that align with his traditional dominion over battles and secrets, often unlocked through advanced fusion recipes in titles such as Shin Megami Tensei IV.^[33] In contemporary fiction, particularly urban fantasy, Astaroth is reimagined as a multifaceted high-ranking demon navigating modern worlds of magic, romance, and intrigue, often with nuanced personality traits beyond mere villainy. In Sarah Hawley's A Demon's Guide to Wooing a Witch (2023), part of the Glimmer Falls series, Astaroth is a soul-bargaining duke of Hell exiled to Earth with amnesia, depicted as pansexual and forming an enemies-to-lovers bond with witch Calladia Cunnington amid a quest to restore his memories and evade rival demons. This portrayal emphasizes his charm and vulnerability, blending humor with supernatural stakes in a small-town setting. Recent trends in 21st-century works highlight gender-fluid reinterpretations of Astaroth, drawing from his historical evolution from the Mesopotamian goddess Astarte to a male demon in grimoires, allowing for fluid identities that challenge binary depictions. In Hawley's novel, Astaroth's pansexuality and adaptable form underscore this shift, portraying him as a seductive, multifaceted being capable of deep emotional connections regardless of gender. Such characterizations echo ancient roots while integrating into modern narratives of inclusivity and infernal complexity, as seen in Kathryn Ann Kingsley's Astaroth: The Great Duke of Hell (2025), where he binds to a human summoner in a tale of temptation and alliance.^[34]

References

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