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Auditory illusion

Auditory illusions are perceptual distortions in which the brain interprets acoustic stimuli in a manner that deviates from their physical properties, often reorganizing or filling in sensory information to create a coherent but inaccurate auditory experience.^[1] These phenomena arise from the interplay of bottom-up sensory processing and top-down cognitive influences, demonstrating how the auditory system groups sounds based on principles like similarity, proximity, continuity, and common fate.^[2] Auditory illusions provide critical insights into human sound perception, revealing the brain's active role in constructing auditory scenes rather than passively receiving input.^[3] They occur in everyday listening, such as the phonemic restoration effect where noise masks speech yet the mind reconstructs missing phonemes,^[4] and have applications in psychology, neuroscience, and even music composition to explore perceptual limits.^[5] Unlike hallucinations, which lack external stimuli, auditory illusions stem from real sounds but highlight vulnerabilities in perceptual organization, influenced by factors like attention, handedness, and linguistic background.^[6] First systematically studied in the mid-20th century, particularly through work by researchers like Roger Shepard and Diana Deutsch in the 1960s–1970s, these illusions continue to inform research on auditory processing disorders, cognitive models, and emerging applications in AI and virtual reality as of 2025.^[7]^[8]

Overview

Definition

An auditory illusion is a misinterpretation of auditory stimuli by the brain, resulting in the perception of sound characteristics—such as pitch, location, or continuity—that differ from the actual physical properties of the sound waves presented.^[1]^[2] Unlike accurate auditory perception, which faithfully represents the incoming acoustic signals, illusions arise when the auditory system reorganizes or alters the sound information to form a coherent interpretation, often prioritizing perceptual stability over literal fidelity to the stimulus.^[1] Key characteristics of auditory illusions include their subjectivity, context-dependence, and reproducibility under controlled conditions. Subjectivity manifests in individual variations in perception, influenced by factors such as linguistic background or cognitive biases, leading different listeners to experience the same stimulus differently.^[1]^[2] Context-dependence means that the illusion's strength or occurrence relies on surrounding auditory cues or environmental factors, which shape how the brain interprets ambiguous signals.^[1] Reproducibility ensures that, despite variability, the illusions can be reliably elicited in most individuals when specific stimulus parameters are met, making them valuable tools for studying perception.^[2] Auditory illusions exploit the auditory system's predictive processing, a mechanism where the brain generates expectations based on prior knowledge and sensory context to anticipate and fill in incomplete or ambiguous auditory input.^[2] This process, akin to predictive coding frameworks, allows the system to maintain a stable auditory scene by inferring plausible continuations or resolutions, but it can lead to perceptual mismatches when predictions override the actual stimulus.^[9] Similar to visual illusions, these phenomena highlight how sensory processing is an active construction rather than passive reception.^[1]

Historical Context

The study of auditory illusions traces its roots to early 19th-century investigations into sound localization and binaural hearing, which laid foundational observations for understanding perceptual discrepancies in audition. Charles Wheatstone, known primarily for his work in optics, contributed to auditory research through experiments demonstrating that sounds are perceived more intensely in the occluded ear, highlighting basic binaural effects that foreshadowed later illusion studies.^[10] These efforts were part of a broader physiological inquiry into sensory integration, influenced by the era's advancements in acoustics and optics, though systematic exploration of auditory deceptions remained limited until the mid-20th century. A pivotal advancement occurred in 1964 when psychologist Roger Shepard introduced the concept of endless rising tones, now known as Shepard tones, through computer-generated stimuli that created an illusion of continuous pitch ascent without resolution. Published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Shepard's work demonstrated circularity in relative pitch judgments, marking a shift toward experimental psychology's use of synthesized sounds to probe perceptual ambiguities and influencing subsequent research on auditory pattern recognition. Post-2000 developments integrated neuroimaging techniques to elucidate the neural underpinnings of auditory illusions, confirming brain-level involvement beyond peripheral mechanisms. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies in the 2010s, for instance, revealed heightened activity in the auditory cortex during illusions of sound location, such as those induced by interaural level differences, underscoring the role of cortical processing in spatial misperceptions.^[11] Similarly, fMRI investigations of the ventriloquism effect demonstrated visual dominance over auditory localization in multisensory integration, with activations in superior temporal sulcus regions.^[12] Historical perspectives on auditory illusions also extend to ancient non-Western contexts, where acoustic phenomena in architecture were interpreted through cultural lenses, often evoking supernatural explanations. In prehistoric Native American sites, such as Utah's canyon rock art locations, sound reflections and ricochets created illusory whispers or echoes that aligned with pictorial motifs of spirits, suggesting early recognition of auditory deceptions in built environments.^[13] These observations highlight a gap in Western-centric narratives, as similar effects in non-European architectural designs influenced ritualistic and artistic expressions long before formal scientific study.^[13]

Mechanisms

Physiological Basis

Auditory illusions originate at the peripheral level through the cochlea's frequency-selective processing, where inner hair cells transduce mechanical vibrations into neural signals via stereocilia deflection, establishing a tonotopic map along the basilar membrane.^[14] This organization allows precise detection of sound frequencies, but ambiguities arise when stimuli produce overlapping or nonlinear interactions, such as distortion products from concurrent tones that hair cells cannot fully resolve, leading to perceptual misrepresentations of pitch or timbre.^[15] These peripheral ambiguities propagate centrally, where incomplete frequency separation contributes to illusory sound qualities by exploiting the limits of hair cell tuning sharpness.^[16] Central processing involves the auditory pathway, beginning with the auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII) relaying signals from hair cells to the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem, followed by projections to the superior olivary complex for binaural integration, the inferior colliculus in the midbrain, the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus, and ultimately the primary auditory cortex in the superior temporal gyrus.^[17] Within the auditory cortex, particularly the superior temporal gyrus, top-down processing modulates these signals through corticofugal feedback loops, incorporating prior expectations to resolve ambiguities in complex or noisy environments via predictive coding mechanisms.^[18] This hierarchical integration enhances perceptual accuracy but can generate illusions when top-down influences override or bias bottom-up inputs, as seen in delayed reconciliation of predictions in frontal-auditory interactions.^[19] Many auditory illusions stem from failures in cross-modal integration, where auditory signals are inappropriately biased by non-auditory cues, leading to mismatched multisensory representations.^[20] Recent optogenetics studies in animal models during the 2020s, including 2024 research decoding contextual influences on auditory perception from primary auditory cortex activity, have causally demonstrated these effects by selectively activating or silencing auditory cortex circuits, revealing how specific neuronal ensembles generate illusion-like perceptual alterations, such as modified sound predictions in cross-modal contexts.^[21]^[22] As of 2025, studies using auditory illusory models as proxies continue to investigate bottom-up and top-down neural networks underlying phantom perceptions like tinnitus.^[23] These findings highlight the auditory cortex's role in bridging peripheral inputs and higher-order interpretation, with implications for understanding pathological illusions like tinnitus.^[24]

Perceptual Processes

Auditory illusions often arise from the perceptual system's reliance on organizational principles akin to those in visual Gestalt psychology, adapted to the temporal and spectral dimensions of sound. In auditory streams, grouping by proximity organizes sounds based on their temporal closeness, where successive tones or events separated by short intervals are perceived as belonging to a single coherent stream rather than separate entities. Similarly, grouping by similarity merges sounds sharing spectral characteristics, such as timbre or frequency range, leading to illusory fusions or segregations; for instance, harmonic sounds with matching fundamental frequencies may be heard as a unified chord despite physical discontinuities. These principles, extended from visual to auditory domains, explain why ambiguous acoustic inputs can yield stable yet illusory percepts, as the brain imposes structure to resolve complexity.^[25] The role of attention and expectation further modulates these processes through a Bayesian inference framework, where prior knowledge from experience biases the interpretation of sensory input. In this model, the auditory system generates hypotheses about likely sound sources based on learned probabilities and updates them with incoming data, often favoring interpretations that align with contextual expectations over raw acoustic evidence. This can produce illusions when priors override veridical cues, such as expecting a continuous melody in noisy environments, resulting in filled-in gaps or misattributed sources. Attention selectively amplifies relevant streams, enhancing grouping by proximity or similarity while suppressing alternatives, thereby shaping the illusory outcome. A foundational concept in understanding these perceptual mechanisms is auditory scene analysis, as articulated by Bregman, which describes how the auditory system segregates complex sound mixtures into perceptual streams, with illusions emerging from failures in this segregation. Stream segregation relies on cues like common fate (synchronized changes) or harmonicity, but when these conflict—such as in rapid alternations between tones—percepts may erroneously integrate or split, creating phantom continuities or fragmented illusions. Bregman's framework highlights primitive grouping (automatic, cue-based) versus schema-based grouping (top-down, expectation-driven), where lapses in either lead to misperceptions.^[26] Cultural influences introduce variability in these perceptual biases, particularly in pitch processing, where speakers of tone languages exhibit distinct sensitivities compared to non-tonal language users. For example, tone-language speakers, accustomed to using pitch for lexical distinction, show reduced susceptibility to certain pitch-related illusions, such as the speech-to-song effect, where repetitive speech fragments transform into song-like melodies; this illusion weakens due to perceiving prosodic structures as linguistic rather than musical, resisting the perceptual shift.^[27] Similarly, the tritone paradox—an ambiguity in perceiving ascending or descending tritones—varies by linguistic background, with tone-language speakers demonstrating altered directional judgments influenced by native pitch contours in spoken language.^[28] These differences underscore how cultural-linguistic experience tunes Bayesian priors, affecting illusion proneness in auditory pitch perception.

Types

Pitch and Frequency Illusions

Pitch illusions represent a category of auditory illusions where the perceived height of a sound, known as pitch, deviates from its actual physical frequency. Pitch is formally defined as the auditory sensation allowing sounds to be ordered on a scale from low to high, independent of other attributes like loudness or timbre.^[1] These illusions arise because human pitch perception is not a direct linear mapping of frequency but involves complex psychoacoustic processing influenced by contextual cues. Key types of pitch illusions include glissando illusions and those based on ambiguous tones. In glissando illusions, a tone of constant pitch is presented simultaneously with a gliding (glissando) tone separated spatially via stereo speakers; listeners often perceive the stationary tone as rising or falling in pitch following the glissando's trajectory, due to the brain's integration of temporal and spatial auditory cues.^[29] This effect, first demonstrated by Diana Deutsch in 1995, highlights how proximity in auditory space can override frequency constancy to create illusory pitch motion.^[30] Ambiguous tones exploit the perceptual principle of octave equivalence, where tones separated by an octave (a frequency ratio of 2:1) are treated as equivalent in pitch class despite differing in absolute frequency, enabling circular representations of pitch height.^[1] For instance, in the tritone paradox, pairs of synthesized tones related by a half-octave (tritone) interval are presented; the perceived direction of pitch change—ascending or descending—varies systematically across listeners based on linguistic and cultural factors, such as the spoken language's tonal structure.^[31] This ambiguity stems from the brain's reliance on learned pitch hierarchies rather than raw frequency differences.^[32] Psychoacoustic scaling reveals why such illusions occur: perceived pitch does not scale linearly with physical frequency, as lower frequencies require larger changes for equivalent perceptual steps compared to higher ones. The mel scale, developed to quantify this nonlinearity, approximates perceived pitch by transforming frequency f (in Hz) into mels via the formula \text{mel}(f) = 2595 \log_{10} (1 + f / 700), aligning better with subjective experience than linear frequency measures. This scale underscores the logarithmic compression in auditory processing, where equal mel intervals correspond to roughly equal perceived pitch differences.^[33] In the 2020s, sound synthesis research has increasingly employed generative AI models to create and study novel pitch illusions, simulating complex frequency interactions that push perceptual boundaries beyond traditional stimuli. These approaches, including neural networks trained on psychoacoustic data, generate ambiguous tone sequences that elicit variable pitch perceptions, aiding investigations into auditory cognition.^[34]

Spatial and Localization Illusions

Spatial and localization illusions occur when the auditory system misperceives the position, direction, or motion of a sound source in three-dimensional space, often due to ambiguities or overrides in the primary binaural cues used for localization. Humans rely on interaural time differences (ITD), the slight delay in sound arrival between the ears (typically 10–700 μs depending on azimuth), and interaural level differences (ILD), the intensity disparity caused by the head's shadowing effect (up to 20 dB at high angles), to estimate sound azimuth. ITD is most effective for low-frequency sounds below 1,500 Hz, where phase differences allow precise timing extraction, while ILD dominates for high frequencies above 4,000 Hz due to acoustic shadowing. These cues fail in illusions when frequency content falls in the transitional 1,500–4,000 Hz range, where neither provides reliable information, or in reverberant environments that introduce conflicting reflections, leading to ambiguous localization on the "cone of confusion" (a hyperbolic surface where identical ITD/ILD values correspond to multiple positions).^[35]^[35] The precedence effect exemplifies how ITD and ILD cues can be overridden by temporal arrival order, causing echoes to be perceptually fused with and localized to the first-arriving direct sound rather than their true position. In this illusion, when a lead sound is followed by a lag (echo) within 1–10 ms, the brain suppresses the lag's spatial cues, attributing the entire auditory event to the lead's direction; this enhances localization accuracy in everyday reverberant spaces by preventing "ghost" sources from reflections. Seminal experiments with click pairs showed localization dominance persisting beyond fusion thresholds (4–7 ms), with neural correlates in the inferior colliculus inhibiting lag responses up to 10 ms in animal models.^[36]^[36] The ventriloquism effect demonstrates cross-modal failure of auditory localization cues, where visual stimuli bias perceived sound position toward the visual source, overriding ITD/ILD by up to 90% in spatial misalignment. This occurs through near-optimal Bayesian integration of sensory inputs, weighting vision higher due to its superior spatial acuity (error <1° vs. auditory ~10°), such that when a sound and incongruent visual event coincide temporally, the brain computes a fused estimate closer to the visual location. Functional MRI studies confirm this capture in superior temporal sulcus regions, with the effect diminishing when visual reliability decreases (e.g., via blurring).^[37]^[37]^[38] Recent applications in virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) leverage these illusions for immersive spatial audio, exploiting manipulated ITD/ILD and precedence to create synthetic soundscapes that enhance presence and navigation. Post-2020 studies show that adding co-localized auditory cues in VR homing tasks improves spatial updating accuracy by 20–30% over visual-only conditions, while reverberation simulations in AR induce precedence-like illusions to mimic real-room acoustics, aiding distance perception despite cue conflicts. Technologies like higher-order ambisonics further enable dynamic illusions, such as virtual sound motion overriding physical echoes, with evaluations in head-mounted displays confirming heightened immersion without disorientation.^[39]^[40]^[41]

Temporal and Continuity Illusions

Temporal and continuity illusions disrupt the auditory system's processing of sound timing, rhythm, and flow, often compelling listeners to perceive unbroken sequences amid interruptions or ambiguities in the input signal. These illusions arise within broader perceptual processes that prioritize scene coherence, such as auditory stream segregation and integration, where the brain infers continuity to resolve incomplete auditory scenes. Disruptions in temporal processing can lead to misperceptions of duration, beat organization, or seamless sound progression, highlighting the interplay between sensory input and cognitive expectations. The continuity illusion, also termed auditory induction, exemplifies how sounds are perceived as uninterrupted despite containing silent gaps masked by concurrent noise. In this effect, a tone interrupted by a brief noise burst—matching the tone's spectrum and exceeding a critical loudness threshold—triggers the auditory system to "fill in" the gap, restoring the sound as continuous; this occurs because the noise suppresses neural offset responses to the tone while providing excitatory drive to sustain activity in relevant neural populations. Seminal demonstrations showed that such restoration applies even to speech sounds, where missing phonemes obscured by noise are perceptually reinstated based on contextual cues. Neural models attribute this to bistable states in auditory cortex, where recurrent excitation maintains activity during masking, as evidenced by sustained responses in primary auditory cortex during illusory continuity. Recent computational simulations confirm that hysteresis in neural populations, combined with masking of transients, underlies the illusion's dynamics. Rhythmic grouping errors occur when listeners erroneously organize beats in isochronous sequences, such as metronome-like auditory pulses, particularly under phase perturbations that subtly alter timing without altering the overall period. In sensorimotor synchronization tasks, small subliminal phase shifts (e.g., 0.8–2% of the inter-onset interval) in a metronome sequence prompt rapid phase corrections in tapping responses, but can induce perceptual illusions where the rhythm appears to shift phase or regroup, as the brain integrates the perturbation into the ongoing temporal pattern via attentional monitoring. These errors persist across various synchronization modes, including antiphase tapping or interrupted responses, suggesting that perceptual oscillators detect deviations below awareness, leading to illusory beat alignments or tempo drifts. Such grouping misperceptions reveal the auditory system's reliance on local timing adjustments over global period recalibration, with full period correction requiring multiple successive perturbations. The kappa effect in audition manifests as a bias where longer durations between successive tones lead to overestimation of the perceived pitch separation, or spatial extent, between them. This temporal-spatial illusion, known more precisely as the auditory tau effect in this direction, demonstrates how extended intervals distort judgments of pitch distance, with listeners reporting greater separation for longer inter-tone durations despite fixed pitch differences. Experimental evidence using three-tone sequences shows systematic distortions in pitch memory tasks, supporting models where imputed velocity influences spatiotemporal binding. This effect underscores the auditory modality's susceptibility to cross-dimensional influences, analogous to visual tau illusions. Research from the 2020s has increasingly explored temporal illusions in neurodiverse populations, such as those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), revealing atypical processing that limits susceptibility to certain auditory timing distortions. Autistic adults exhibit reduced sensitivity to audiovisual asynchronies in simultaneity judgments, particularly for complex social stimuli like speech or rhythmic actions, resulting in wider temporal binding windows and higher error rates for auditory-leading trials. Neuroimaging studies indicate altered neural synchrony in superior temporal regions during audiovisual temporal integration, contributing to diminished illusory effects in speech processing. These findings suggest that enhanced local processing in ASD may impair global temporal coherence, with implications for sensory integration deficits beyond typical populations.

Examples

Shepard Illusion

The Shepard illusion, commonly referred to as the Shepard tone, is an auditory phenomenon consisting of a superposition of sine waves separated by octaves, which generates the perception of a tone that rises indefinitely in pitch without ever reaching a higher register.^[42] This illusion exemplifies pitch and frequency illusions by exploiting the logarithmic nature of pitch perception, where the overlapping harmonics create a seamless auditory loop.^[42] Developed by psychologist Roger Shepard in 1964, the illusion is constructed by layering multiple sine waves at frequencies that are octave multiples of a base tone, with each wave's amplitude modulated via bell-shaped envelopes that gradually increase for higher octaves and decrease for lower ones as the sequence progresses.^[42] This fading in and out of components ensures that the perceptual focus shifts continuously upward, mimicking an ascending scale while the overall spectral centroid remains ambiguously cyclic.^[42] The perceptual effect arises from the brain's failure to disambiguate the circular pitch structure, as the auditory system interprets the rising components as a unidirectional escalation, leading listeners to experience an infinite ascent that defies acoustic reality.^[42] This ambiguity stems from the equivalence of octaves in musical perception, where the highest audible component dominates the pitch judgment, perpetuating the illusion across repetitions.^[42] A notable variation, the Shepard-Risset glissando, was introduced by composer Jean-Claude Risset in 1969, adapting the discrete tone steps into a continuous gliding scale that can produce both endless ascents and descents through similar amplitude and frequency modulation techniques.^[43]

Octave Illusion

The octave illusion is an auditory phenomenon discovered by psychologist Diana Deutsch in 1973 and first reported in 1974. It arises from the dichotic presentation of two pure tones separated by an octave, typically 400 Hz and 800 Hz, alternated at a rate of four cycles per second through stereo headphones. In the standard sequence, the right ear receives the high tone while the left ear receives the low tone, followed by a switch where the right ear gets the low tone and the left gets the high tone, creating a repeating pattern without gaps between tones.^[44] Listeners typically perceive the high tone as emanating continuously from the right ear and the low tone from the left ear, regardless of the actual input switches, resulting in an illusory sensation of the pitch ascending and descending by a full octave with each alternation. This swapped perception of pitch and location persists even when the sequence is reversed or presented monaurally, highlighting the illusion's robustness. Subjective reports from experimental participants consistently describe this octave-jumping effect, though some individuals experience variations such as the tones appearing to trade places or fuse into a single gliding pitch. The experimental setup relies on controlled dichotic listening via headphones to isolate ear-specific inputs, with participants asked to describe their perceptions after multiple repetitions of the 20-second sequence.^[45] The mechanism underlying the octave illusion involves a right-ear bias in the brain's pitch-processing pathways, where pitch information from the right ear dominates perception, overriding location cues from the left ear and leading to the anomalous assignment of pitches to ears. This reflects a dissociation between "what" (pitch identification) and "where" (sound localization) streams in auditory processing. The illusion demonstrates robustness across diverse cultural groups, as evidenced by consistent replications in Western and non-Western populations, but its specific form varies systematically with handedness: right-handers predominantly report the standard high-right/low-left pattern, while left-handers exhibit more diverse or reversed perceptions, potentially linked to hemispheric lateralization differences.^[46]

McGurk Effect

The McGurk effect is a perceptual illusion in which conflicting auditory and visual speech cues lead to the perception of a fused or altered speech sound that is not present in either modality.^[8] First demonstrated by Harry McGurk and John MacDonald in 1976, the effect occurs when an auditory syllable, such as /ba/, is paired with a visually articulated syllable like /ga/, resulting in the perceiver often reporting an intermediate sound, such as /da/.^[8] This audiovisual integration error highlights how the brain prioritizes multimodal coherence in speech processing, even when the inputs are incongruent.^[47] At the neural level, the McGurk effect involves integration primarily in the superior temporal sulcus (STS), a region critical for audiovisual speech processing.^[48] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies show heightened activity in the left STS during the illusion, supporting its role in fusing auditory and visual inputs.^[48] Transcranial magnetic stimulation targeted at the STS disrupts the effect, confirming its causal involvement in multimodal speech perception.^[48] The strength of the McGurk effect varies based on visual salience and the perceiver's native language. Higher visual clarity, such as sharp lip movements without blurring, enhances the illusion by increasing the weight of visual cues in integration.^[49] Similarly, native language experience modulates susceptibility; for instance, non-native speakers exhibit weaker effects for unfamiliar phonetic contrasts due to reduced audiovisual mappings in their linguistic system.^[50] Recent extensions in the 2020s have explored McGurk-like illusions beyond traditional speech, applying them to non-speech sounds and AI-generated content.^[51] Studies demonstrate that audiovisual integration for non-linguistic auditory stimuli, such as environmental noises paired with gestures, yields weaker but analogous illusions compared to speech, underscoring modality-specific mechanisms.^[52] In AI dubbing contexts, deep learning models that synchronize dubbed audio with mismatched lip movements in videos can induce McGurk illusions, raising implications for realistic synthetic media.^[53]

Applications

In Music and Sound Design

Auditory illusions play a significant role in music composition by enabling composers to manipulate perception for emotional impact. The Shepard tone, which creates the illusion of an endlessly rising or falling pitch, has been integrated into film scores to evoke escalating tension. In Christopher Nolan's Dunkirk (2017), Hans Zimmer employed Shepard tones in the soundtrack's ticking clock motif and orchestral builds, layering octave-separated sine waves to simulate perpetual ascent without resolution.^[54] Similarly, in A Quiet Place Part II (2020), Marco Beltrami used Shepard tones with dissonant piano elements to drive rhythmic tension in horror sequences.^[55] These applications leverage the illusion's ambiguity to heighten suspense in narrative contexts.^[56] Risset rhythms extend similar principles to tempo, producing the perception of continuous acceleration or deceleration through overlapping cyclic patterns at varying speeds. In electronic music, this illusion crafts dynamic builds that maintain momentum indefinitely, often in dance or experimental genres. For instance, producer martsman incorporated Risset rhythms in a 2024 remix of the track "Ting" from the album Black Plastics Pt. 5, using Pure Data software to generate eternal accelerando effects that enhance rhythmic drive without fatigue.^[57] Such techniques allow composers to create hypnotic grooves that align with the genre's emphasis on perceptual motion.^[58] In sound design for video games and virtual reality, spatial auditory illusions foster immersion by exploiting binaural cues to simulate 3D positioning. Binaural audio recording and rendering techniques mimic interaural time and level differences, generating the illusion of sounds originating from precise locations in virtual space. This is particularly effective in VR titles, where it aids player navigation and environmental awareness; for example, spatial audio in games like Half-Life: Alyx (2020) uses head-related transfer functions to place auditory events dynamically around the user, enhancing realism and tension.^[59]^[60] By leveraging these localization illusions, designers create believable worlds that respond to head movements via headphones.^[61] Recent advancements in AI have introduced tools for procedural audio generation that incorporate auditory illusions, streamlining creation for interactive media post-2020. Generative models now produce dynamic soundscapes with embedded perceptual effects, tailored to real-time gameplay. These developments enable scalable applications in games and VR, where AI automates illusion-based audio to heighten engagement without predefined loops.^[62]

In Psychological Research

Auditory illusions have been instrumental in psychological research for elucidating the underlying mechanisms of sound perception, cognitive processing, and neural organization. By manipulating acoustic stimuli to elicit predictable misperceptions, researchers can dissect how the brain constructs auditory reality from ambiguous inputs, revealing principles of sensory integration, attention, and expectation. These illusions provide controlled paradigms to test theories of perception without relying on introspective reports alone, allowing for objective measurement through behavioral responses, neuroimaging, and electrophysiological recordings. Seminal work in this domain highlights how illusions bridge low-level sensory encoding with higher-order cognitive influences, informing models of auditory scene analysis and multisensory fusion. In the realm of pitch and frequency processing, illusions such as the octave illusion and tritone paradox, pioneered by Diana Deutsch, demonstrate marked individual and cultural variations in pitch height perception. The octave illusion, where alternating high and low tones presented dichotically yield a fused ascending or descending scale, varies systematically between right- and left-handers, suggesting lateralized hemispheric specialization in auditory processing. Similarly, the tritone paradox shows that listeners from different linguistic backgrounds assign pitch classes differently, indicating that early exposure to tonal languages shapes categorical pitch representations. These illusions have been used to probe absolute pitch abilities and the interplay between music and speech perception, with neuroimaging studies confirming shared neural substrates in the superior temporal gyrus.^[63]^[64] Temporal and continuity illusions further illuminate auditory grouping principles, as explored in Albert Bregman's foundational framework of auditory scene analysis. The illusory continuity illusion, where a high-frequency tone seems uninterrupted despite being masked by noise, reveals how the perceptual system restores missing information based on temporal proximity and spectral similarity, facilitating sound source segregation in noisy environments. This effect, observed in psychophysical experiments with reaction times and perceptual ratings, underscores Gestalt-like organizational rules in audition and has influenced computational models of streaming versus integration. Bregman's 1990 monograph, cited over 10,000 times, established illusions as proxies for studying real-world listening challenges, such as cocktail party effects.^[65] Multisensory applications leverage illusions like the McGurk effect to investigate audiovisual speech integration, a process central to communication. First described by Harry McGurk and John MacDonald, this illusion occurs when incongruent auditory and visual speech cues—such as dubbing a video of /ga/ with /ba/ audio—lead perceivers to report a fused /da/, demonstrating obligatory multisensory binding in the posterior superior temporal sulcus. Developmental studies using the effect show that integration strengthens from infancy to adulthood, while clinical research links reduced susceptibility to autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia, highlighting its role in social cognition. With applications in over 2,000 studies, the McGurk paradigm has quantified integration strength via fusion rates, aiding diagnostics for sensory processing deficits.^[47] Beyond typical perception, auditory illusions serve as biomarkers in psychopathology research, particularly for psychosis risk. Speech illusions, where degraded or ambiguous auditory stimuli are interpreted as meaningful words (e.g., via continuum noise), correlate with hallucination proneness in non-clinical populations. EEG studies of these illusions reveal aberrant predictive coding in the temporal lobes, linking top-down expectations to symptom emergence—a high-impact finding from over 300 citations. Similarly, conditioned auditory hallucinations, elicited by learned associations, model delusion formation, informing cognitive therapies.^[66] Recent advancements integrate illusions with advanced neuroimaging to map bottom-up versus top-down influences. For instance, the Zwicker tone illusion, a virtual pitch perceived in notched noise, activates primary auditory cortex similarly to real tones, as shown in fMRI, while top-down modulation via attention alters its salience. These paradigms, combining psychophysics with machine learning analyses, continue to refine models of perceptual inference, with implications for AI-driven hearing aids and virtual reality soundscapes.^[67]^[24]

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May 9, 2016 · Examining the effect of the listener's native language, tonal language native speakers experienced significantly weaker speech-to-song effects ...
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The Tritone Paradox: An Influence of Language on Music Perception
Jul 1, 1991 · The tritone paradox is produced when two tones that are related by a half- octave (or tritone) are presented in succession. Each tone is ...
[28]
The glissando illusion and handedness - ScienceDirect.com
The present paper reports the first study of the glissando illusion, which was created and published as a sound demonstration by Deutsch (1995).1 To experience ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[29]
The glissando illusion: A spatial illusory contour in hearing
Apr 1, 2005 · In the glissando illusion (originally demonstrated by Deutsch, 1995) a synthesized oboe tone of constant pitch is played together with a ...
[30]
Tritone Paradox - Diana Deutsch
The basic pattern that produces this illusion consists of two computer-produced tones that are related by a half-octave. (This interval is called a tritone).
[31]
A paradox of musical pitch - American Psychological Association
Shepard, PhD, created an auditory illusion by using tones that consist of many octaves of the same pitch class note played at once--from very low to very high.
[32]
https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug01/musicpitch.html
[33]
Listening with generative models - ScienceDirect.com
The results show how generative models can account for the perception of both classic illusions and everyday sensory signals.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[34]
Auditory localization: a comprehensive practical review - Frontiers
The difference in reception times between the two ears is called the Interaural Time Difference (ITD). It constitutes the dominant cue in estimating the azimuth ...
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The Precedence Effect in Sound Localization - PMC - PubMed Central
The precedence effect, characterizing the perceptual dominance of spatial information carried by the first-arriving signal.
[36]
The ventriloquist effect results from near-optimal bimodal integration
In this study we investigate spatial localization of audio-visual stimuli. When visual localization is good, vision does indeed dominate and capture sound.
[37]
An fMRI Study of the Ventriloquism Effect - PMC - PubMed Central
Jan 9, 2015 · In spatial perception, visual information has higher acuity than auditory information and we often misperceive sound-source locations when ...
[38]
The addition of a spatial auditory cue improves spatial updating in a ...
May 9, 2024 · Here, we tested whether an auditory cue co-localized with a visual target could improve spatial updating in a virtual reality homing task.
[39]
Effects of auditory distance cues and reverberation on spatial ...
Oct 13, 2025 · This study was fundamental to better comprehending the interaction between head movements and reverberation in spatial auditory perception, even ...
[40]
Creating Auditory Illusions with Spatial-Audio Technologies
The spatial auditory illusion (SAI) occurs when acoustic sources create a sound scene that produces a desired auditory scene over a region. ... ... In addition ...
[41]
Circularity in Judgments of Relative Pitch - AIP Publishing
Circularity in Judgments of Relative Pitch Available. Roger N. Shepard. Roger ... This content is only available via PDF. Open the PDF for in another ...
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Listening to the Shepard-Risset Glissando - PubMed Central - NIH
Mar 4, 2016 · Thus, the Shepard scale creates an illusion because it contains ambiguous tones that lure the brain into making perceptual errors. Although the ...
[43]
Octave Illusion - Diana Deutsch
The Octave Illusion involves alternating tones an octave apart, often perceived as a single tone switching between high and low pitch in different ears.Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[44]
http://deutsch.ucsd.edu/octave_illusion
[45]
What is the McGurk effect? - PMC - NIH
The McGurk effect is a multisensory illusion where a voice is heard as a different consonant when paired with incongruent visual speech, causing a change in ...
[46]
fMRI-Guided Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Reveals That the ...
Feb 17, 2010 · These results demonstrate that the STS plays a critical role in the McGurk effect and auditory–visual integration of speech.
[47]
Influence of auditory and visual stimulus degradation on eye ...
Jun 12, 2020 · Adding noise to the auditory signal increased McGurk responses, while blurring the visual signal decreased McGurk responses.Missing: salience | Show results with:salience
[48]
Language Experience Changes Audiovisual Perception - PMC - NIH
May 11, 2018 · The McGurk effect refers to a curious phenomenon whereby what we see changes what we hear. Participants are presented with auditory stimuli such ...Missing: salience | Show results with:salience
[49]
The sound illusion that makes Dunkirk so intense - Vox
Jul 26, 2017 · Named after cognitive scientist Roger Shepard, the sound consists of several tones separated by an octave layered on top of each other. As the ...<|separator|>
[50]
Marco Beltrami Used Shepard Tones to Create Tension on A Quiet ...
May 28, 2021 · One of the sounds that was new to this movie was the dissonance between the two pianos and using that as a pulsing rhythmic element that could drive some of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
What is The Shepard Tone? The Audio Illusion Explained with ...
Aug 10, 2020 · What is the Shepard Tone? The Shepard Tone is an audio illusion that creates the feeling of consistent, never-ending rising or falling.
[52]
Risset rhythms: Pure Data implementation of eternal accelerando
Sep 5, 2024 · The component is useful to set up full compositions based on Risset rhythms. As an example, I've remixed my track “Ting” from Black Plastics Pt.
[53]
Infinite Acceleration: Risset Rhythms - Point at Infinity - WordPress.com
Nov 20, 2017 · Such a rhythm is known as a Risset rhythm. I coded up some very basic examples on Supercollider. Here's an accelerating Risset rhythm: And a ...
[54]
Spatial Audio For VR - Meegle
Dec 27, 2024 · When played back through headphones, binaural audio can create a realistic 3D sound environment, making it ideal for VR applications where users ...
[55]
Spatial Sound in VR - Showtime VR
Mar 5, 2025 · Spatial sound in VR recreates a sound field, giving cues about sound position, distance, and movement, replicating natural psychoacoustic ...
[56]
https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/shepard-tone-illusion/
[57]
[PDF] Artificial intelligence in creating, representing or expressing an ...
Apr 10, 2025 · Our approach involved proposing a systematic process, starting with AI-driven sound generation, leading to the development of an immersive ...
[58]
AI in Sound Design and Automated Post-Production
Sep 25, 2025 · Moreover, AI assists in creative manipulations—transforming sounds, layering textures, or generating entirely new auditory elements—offering ...
[59]
Illusions and Research - Diana Deutsch
Auditory Illusion 4: Mystery Melody Youtube Video. Auditory Illusion 3: Phantom Words Youtube Video. Octave Illusion: Auditory Illusion 1 (headphones needed!)<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
https://showtimevr.eu/blog/spatial-sound-in-vr
[61]
Auditory Scene Analysis: The Perceptual Organization of Sound
Aug 6, 2025 · Auditory scene analysis (ASA) is the process by which the auditory system separates the individual sounds in natural-world situations.
[62]
From Speech Illusions to Onset of Psychotic Disorder: Applying ...
May 27, 2020 · Earlier studies have found experimentally assessed speech illusions to be associated with positive symptoms in patients with psychotic disorders ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
Cortical processes of speech illusions in the general population
Oct 18, 2016 · There is evidence that experimentally elicited auditory illusions in the general population index risk for psychotic symptoms.Eeg Measurement · Eeg During Si · Discussion
[64]
Auditory illusory models as proxies to investigate bottom-up and top ...
May 9, 2025 · This induces a temporary and auditory illusion which is an afterimage of the missing central frequency called the Zwicker Tone (ZT) (Zwicker, ...