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Balao -class submarine

The Balao-class submarine was a class of diesel-electric fleet submarines developed and constructed for the United States Navy during World War II, serving as an evolutionary improvement over the earlier Gato-class with enhanced hull strength for greater diving capability.^[1] Featuring a pressure hull made of high-tensile steel approximately 7/8 inch (22 mm) thick, these submarines had a designed test depth of 400 feet—100 feet deeper than the Gato-class—to better withstand depth charge attacks and operate in contested waters.^[1] With a surfaced displacement of approximately 1,525 tons and a submerged displacement of 2,424 tons, each boat measured 311 feet 9 inches in length, with a beam of 27 feet 3 inches and a surfaced draft of about 15 feet.^[1] Armed with ten 21-inch torpedo tubes—six forward and four aft—the Balao-class carried up to 24 torpedoes, supplemented by a 5-inch deck gun, 40 mm and 20 mm antiaircraft guns, and provisions for minesweeping or other specialized roles.^[1] Powered by four diesel engines and four electric motors, they achieved a maximum surfaced speed of 20.25 knots and a submerged speed of 8.75 knots, with a cruising range of 11,000 nautical miles at 10 knots surfaced, enabling extended patrols across the vast Pacific Ocean.^[1] The crew complement numbered around 80 officers and enlisted men, operating in harsh conditions that demanded high reliability and endurance.^[2] A total of 120 Balao-class submarines were completed between 1943 and 1948, making it the largest submarine class in U.S. Navy history and forming the backbone of the submarine force alongside the Gato- and Tench-classes, with 108 serving during World War II.^[3] The lead ship, USS Balao (SS-285), was commissioned on 4 February 1943, with production distributed among major shipyards including Electric Boat, Manitowoc, and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard to meet wartime demands.^[4] Many were built using modular construction techniques to accelerate output, reflecting the Navy's urgent need for undersea assets following the attack on Pearl Harbor.^[5] In the Pacific Theater, U.S. submarines, including the Balao-class, accounted for over half of all Japanese shipping sunk during the war, with the Balao-class responsible for more vessel sinkings overall than any other U.S. Navy class.^[5] They disrupted vital supply lines, supported island-hopping campaigns, and rescued downed aviators, with notable exploits including the sinking of heavy cruisers and aircraft carriers despite the hazards of enemy antisubmarine warfare.^[3] Postwar, survivors were converted for various roles, including guided-missile submarines and radar pickets, before most were decommissioned by the 1970s as nuclear-powered vessels entered service.^[6]

Design

Specifications

The Balao-class submarines represented an evolutionary improvement over the preceding Gato-class, incorporating a strengthened pressure hull constructed from higher-tensile steel to enhance diving capabilities while maintaining similar overall dimensions and performance metrics.^[7] This design allowed for greater operational depth without significantly altering displacement or speed, prioritizing reliability and crew survivability in combat environments.^[8] Key physical and performance specifications of the Balao-class as originally designed are summarized below:

Category	Specification
Displacement	1,525 long tons (1,550 t) surfaced; 2,415 long tons (2,453 t) submerged
Dimensions	Length: 311 ft 9 in (95.0 m); beam: 27 ft 3 in (8.3 m); draft: 16 ft 10 in (5.1 m)
Speed	20.25 knots (37.5 km/h; 23.3 mph) surfaced; 8.75 knots (16.2 km/h; 10.1 mph) submerged
Range	11,000 nautical miles (20,000 km; 12,000 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) surfaced
Crew	80 (10 officers, 70 enlisted)
Test depth	400 ft (120 m)

These figures reflect the baseline design, with the increased test depth providing a 100-foot advantage over the Gato-class's 300 ft (91 m), enabling safer evasion tactics against depth charges.^[8] Crew accommodations were refined for better habitability, including improved berthing arrangements and ventilation to reduce fatigue during extended patrols, though the total complement remained comparable to the Gato-class.^[7] Snorkel equipment, which would later extend submerged endurance by allowing diesel operation while snorkeling, was not included in the original 1942 design but began retrofitting on select units in late 1944 as wartime needs evolved.^[2]

Armament

The primary armament of the Balao-class submarines consisted of ten 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes—six forward in the bow and four aft in the stern—along with a total reload of 24 torpedoes carried in the forward and after torpedo rooms. These submarines primarily employed the Mark 14 steam-powered torpedo for surface and submerged attacks, with a range of up to 4,500 yards at 46 knots or 9,000 yards at 31 knots; later in the war, the electric Mark 18 torpedo was introduced to reduce wake detection risks, offering 4,000 yards at 29 knots, while the older Mark 10 torpedo was occasionally used for shorter-range missions or mine-laying adaptations. Firing procedures involved loading the tubes from the torpedo rooms via rails and hoists, using compressed air for the initial impulse ejection from the tube (typically 35-60 seconds per shot), followed by the torpedo's own propulsion; reload times for a single tube averaged 5 to 10 minutes under calm sea conditions, requiring a crew of 6-8 men to maneuver the 3,400-pound Mark 14 into position manually with block-and-tackle systems, though this process could extend to 15-20 minutes in rough seas or during evasive maneuvers.^[9]^[10]^[11] Deck guns provided surface gunnery capability against smaller vessels or opportunistically against larger targets when torpedoes were unavailable. The standard installation was a single 5-inch (127 mm)/25 caliber Mark 12 or Mark 40 gun mounted forward of the conning tower, fitted from commissioning starting in 1943; this low-velocity weapon had a maximum range of 9,200 yards (elevation to 85 degrees) and a firing rate of 15-20 rounds per minute using 55-pound shells, emphasizing high-angle fire for anti-aircraft roles as well as surface bombardment. Some early Balao-class boats initially received a 4-inch/50 caliber Mark 9 gun, but these were largely replaced by the more versatile 5-inch/25 during 1943-1944 refits for better stability and ammunition compatibility with destroyer-caliber shells. Anti-aircraft measures evolved significantly in response to increasing aerial threats in the Pacific; initial configurations from 1943 included two single 20 mm/70 caliber Oerlikon Mark 10 guns on open mounts atop the forward and aft gun decks, with a cyclic rate of 450 rounds per minute each for close-range defense up to 2,000 yards. By mid-1944, as boats underwent wartime upgrades, this shifted to 2-4 single or twin 40 mm/56 caliber Bofors Mark 3 mounts (often two forward and two aft), offering a rate of 120 rounds per minute per barrel and effective range of 7,000 yards, sometimes supplemented by .50 caliber machine guns on pintle mounts for flexibility; these installations were typically completed during overhaul periods at bases like Pearl Harbor or Fremantle.^[12]^[13]^[14] Balao-class submarines also possessed mine-laying capability, allowing them to deploy up to 40 Mark 12 moored contact mines through the torpedo tubes using special conversion kits that adapted the mines to fit the 21-inch diameter. The Mark 12, a 1,445-pound (655 kg) magnetic influence mine with a 1,100-pound (499 kg) TNT explosive charge, was the primary type used in World War II, released submerged at controlled depths to create defensive fields; deployment tactics involved approaching enemy anchorages or chokepoints at periscope depth under cover of night, firing the mines in sequence to form barriers that forced shipping into ambush zones or disrupted logistics, with submarines like USS Hardhead demonstrating this in special missions off Japanese-held islands in 1945. The later Mark 60 mine, a bottom-influence type, was not widely deployed until postwar but shared similar tube-launch methods for up to 28 units per boat. Fire control for anti-aircraft guns advanced with the introduction of radar-directed systems like the Mark 63 Gun Fire Control System by 1944-1945, which integrated gyro-stabilized optics and radar (such as the Mark 34 director) to track low-flying aircraft and direct 40 mm batteries with improved accuracy up to 7,000 yards, reducing reliance on visual spotting amid smoke or poor visibility.^[15]^[7]

Propulsion

The Balao-class submarines employed a diesel-electric propulsion system, with four main diesel engines providing power for surfaced operations. These engines were either the General Motors (Cleveland Diesel) Model 16-278A V16 or the Fairbanks-Morse Model 38D8⅛ opposed-piston type, each delivering 1,600 brake horsepower (bhp) for a combined output of 6,400 bhp (4,800 kW).^[16] The engines operated on a two-stroke cycle and drove generators to produce electrical power, with the General Motors variant typically paired with General Electric motors and the Fairbanks-Morse with Elliott motors.^[7] Fuel capacity consisted of 116,000 US gallons (439,800 L) of diesel, enabling extended surface transits.^[17] Submerged propulsion relied on four high-speed electric motors—manufactured by General Electric or Elliott—each rated at 685 shp, yielding a total of 2,740 shp (2,040 kW) delivered to two propeller shafts via reduction gears.^[18] Power for these motors came from two banks of 126 lead-acid Sargo batteries each, totaling 252 cells arranged forward and aft, which provided endurance for underwater operations at low speeds.^[7] The system included one auxiliary generator per engine room for backup power and support functions. Auxiliary propulsion features emphasized stealth and efficiency, with reduction gears allowing high-speed motors to match propeller requirements while minimizing noise. Eighteen late-production Balao-class boats incorporated low-speed, double-armature electric motors that drove the shafts directly without gears, enhancing silent running capabilities for covert approaches.^[7] Cruising optimizations focused on economical speeds around 10 knots surfaced, where fuel consumption supported ranges exceeding 11,000 nautical miles, balancing endurance with operational demands.^[7] Postwar modernizations introduced snorkel masts, enabling the diesel engines to run while partially submerged for battery recharging and extended underwater patrols, though the original design accommodated such additions through hull modifications rather than built-in fittings.

Construction

Building program

The Balao-class submarines were authorized as part of the massive U.S. naval expansion initiated by the Two-Ocean Navy Act of July 19, 1940, which provided for 70,000 tons of submarine construction to bolster fleet capabilities amid rising global tensions following the fall of France. This legislation laid the groundwork for 73 fleet submarines in total, with the Balao class emerging in 1942 as a refined successor to the Gato class, incorporating wartime lessons to enhance production efficiency and operational performance. Subsequent fiscal year authorizations expanded the program, leading to contracts for up to 120 boats to meet urgent Pacific theater demands.^[19]^[20]^[3] Construction contracts were distributed across several key shipyards to accelerate output, with the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut, serving as the primary designer and builder, supplemented by its wartime auxiliary facility at Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company in Wisconsin. Other major yards included Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine; Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California; and William Cramp & Sons Shipbuilding in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Hull numbers SS-285 through SS-426 were allocated under these contracts, with Electric Boat handling the majority (over 70 boats), Portsmouth and Mare Island each building around 20-25, Manitowoc producing 28, which were towed down the Mississippi River to the Gulf for final outfitting and commissioning, and Cramp constructing a smaller share before shifting priorities.^[21]^[7]^[22] Wartime production peaked in 1943-1944, with yards achieving rates of 1 to 2 submarines per month each at maximum capacity, enabling the delivery of over 100 boats by war's end through streamlined assembly lines and labor mobilization. The approximate cost per boat was $3 million in 1940s dollars, reflecting economies of scale from repeated Gato-derived designs and material sourcing efficiencies.^[23]^[22] As construction progressed, incremental design refinements were integrated based on operational feedback from early Gato-class submarines, including a reduction in sail height to minimize silhouette and radar detectability, along with streamlining of the conning tower fairwater to decrease hydrodynamic drag and improve submerged speed. These modifications, applied starting with later hulls like SS-300 onward, enhanced stealth and maneuverability without altering core dimensions.^[24]^[17]

Commissioned boats

A total of 120 Balao-class submarines were commissioned by the U.S. Navy between February 1943 and September 1948, bearing hull numbers SS-285 through SS-426 (with some higher numbers completed to the related Tench-class standard). These vessels were constructed across five primary shipyards to meet wartime production demands, and upon completion, most were assigned to submarine squadrons for training and operational deployment, often in the Pacific Fleet. Following U.S. Navy tradition for diesel-electric submarines during this era, all boats were named for various species of fish.^[25] The early boats in the class featured a taller fairwater (sail) design inherited from the preceding Gato class to accommodate the conning tower, while later production shifted to a more streamlined configuration for improved hydrodynamic performance. Experimental teardrop hull shapes were tested on prototypes like USS X-1 during this period but were not adopted for the production Balao class due to operational and construction considerations.^[7]

Portsmouth Naval Shipyard (Kittery, Maine)

The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard constructed 29 Balao-class boats, including several of the initial vessels with the taller sail design. The lead ship, USS Balao (SS-285), had her keel laid down on 26 June 1942, was launched on 27 October 1942, and commissioned on 4 February 1943; she was initially assigned to Submarine Squadron 4 in the Atlantic Fleet before transfer to Submarine Squadron 12 at Key West, Florida, for training duties.^[21] Another example, USS Sand Lance (SS-381), was laid down on 12 March 1943, launched on 25 June 1943, and commissioned on 9 October 1943; she joined Submarine Squadron 20 in the Pacific after shakedown.^[26] USS Pipefish (SS-388), laid down on 31 May 1943, launched on 12 October 1943, and commissioned on 22 December 1943, was also assigned to Pacific-based squadrons following commissioning.^[27]

Electric Boat Company (Groton, Connecticut)

Electric Boat produced 48 Balao-class submarines, the largest share among the builders, focusing on rapid assembly lines for wartime output. USS Perch (SS-313), for instance, was laid down on 5 January 1943, launched on 12 September 1943, and commissioned on 7 January 1944; she was assigned to Submarine Squadron 16 in the Pacific for combat patrols.^[7] USS Barbel (SS-316), laid down on 18 April 1943, launched on 13 December 1943, and commissioned on 17 April 1944, similarly joined Submarine Squadron 20 after fitting out. These boats exemplified the yard's efficient production, with many featuring the streamlined sail from mid-1943 onward.

Cramp Shipbuilding Company (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)

William Cramp & Sons built 12 Balao-class submarines as a secondary yard, often completing hulls assigned from Portsmouth designs. USS Lionfish (SS-298), laid down on 15 December 1942 at Cramp (though fitted out at Portsmouth), was launched on 7 November 1943 and commissioned on 1 November 1944; she served primarily in training roles with Submarine Squadron 4 in the Atlantic. The yard's output included later streamlined-sail boats, contributing to the class's expansion amid high demand.

Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company (Manitowoc, Wisconsin)

Manitowoc constructed 16 Balao-class submarines on the Great Lakes, launching them sideways into Lake Michigan before towing to the Gulf for commissioning to bypass ocean transit risks. USS Hardhead (SS-365), laid down on 7 July 1943, launched on 12 December 1943, and commissioned on 18 April 1944 at New Orleans, was assigned to Submarine Squadron 16 in the Pacific. This inland yard's innovative methods enabled quick production of streamlined designs, with boats like USS Charr (SS-328) following similar timelines and assignments.

Mare Island Naval Shipyard (Vallejo, California)

Mare Island built 22 Balao-class submarines on the West Coast, benefiting from proximity to Pacific operations. The first of these, USS Spadefish (SS-411), was laid down on 27 May 1943, launched on 8 January 1944, and commissioned on 9 March 1944; she joined Submarine Squadron 20 for deployment. Later examples, such as USS Trepang (SS-412), laid down on 20 June 1943, launched on 27 March 1944, and commissioned on 22 July 1944, also received streamlined sails and Pacific squadron assignments, supporting the fleet's wartime surge.^[28]

Cancellations and reductions

The Balao-class building program initially called for the construction of 182 submarines, but this was reduced to 120 completed vessels due to the end of World War II and postwar budget constraints, with 62 hulls cancelled.^[7]^[29] Cancellations primarily occurred between 29 July 1944 and 12 August 1945 as Allied victories diminished the need for additional fleet submarines, though a few additional terminations followed V-J Day, including SS-437 on 30 January 1946.^[30] Affected hull numbers included SS-353 through SS-360, SS-379 through SS-380, SS-427 through SS-434, and SS-438 through SS-474, among others.^[7] Some planned boats saw their construction reduced or repurposed before completion. For instance, two Balao-class hulls at Cramp Shipbuilding Company in Philadelphia—USS Turbot (SS-427) and USS Ulua (SS-428)—were launched incomplete on 12 August 1945 following cancellation orders, after which their hulks served as experimental platforms at the U.S. Naval Academy and Norfolk Naval Shipyard for several years.^[30]^[31] Earlier in the war, additional reductions took place, such as the scrapping of partially built hulls on slipways at Cramp Shipyard in 1944 to reallocate resources amid production priorities.^[7]

World War II service

Combat operations

The Balao-class submarines played a pivotal role in the U.S. Navy's submarine operations across the Pacific Theater during World War II, with 108 of the 120 commissioned boats entering service before the war's end and the vast majority deployed to the region. These vessels primarily operated from key forward bases including Pearl Harbor, Fremantle in Australia, and Midway Atoll, undertaking extended war patrols organized through submarine squadrons such as SubRon 16 and SubRon 20, which rotated boats for refit and redeployment after patrols lasting 45 to 60 days. Their deployment focused on disrupting Japanese maritime logistics, with patrols targeting high-value shipping routes from the home islands to outlying garrisons in the South and Central Pacific.^[32]^[33] Balao-class submarines employed a range of tactics to maximize their impact, including coordinated wolfpack operations where groups of two to four boats would shadow and attack convoys simultaneously, often guided by intelligence from Ultra decrypts and reconnaissance aircraft. They also conducted lifeguard missions, positioning themselves near enemy coastlines to rescue downed Allied airmen during carrier strikes and B-29 raids, ultimately saving over 500 lives across the submarine force. Primary efforts centered on supply line interdictions, using stealthy approaches to torpedo merchant vessels and tankers, which crippled Japan's ability to sustain its far-flung empire. The class's contributions were substantial, helping the U.S. submarine force sink 1,392 Japanese ships totaling 5,583,400 gross register tons—over half of all enemy shipping losses— with Balao boats responsible for more sinkings than any other U.S. Navy vessel class.^[34]^[35]^[33] In major campaigns, Balao-class submarines supported the 1943 Gilberts and Marshalls operations by patrolling reinforcement routes and sinking troop transports to isolate Japanese garrisons ahead of amphibious assaults on Tarawa and Makin. During the 1944–1945 Philippines campaign, they intensified attacks on convoys supplying Luzon and Mindanao, coordinating closely with fast carrier task forces and surface fleets to clear sea lanes for MacArthur's landings and prevent enemy resupply. These efforts integrated submarine reconnaissance with carrier air strikes, providing real-time intelligence on convoy movements to amplify fleet effectiveness.^[33]^[36] Technological enhancements bolstered their operational success, particularly the installation of SJ surface-search radar for detecting ships at night or in poor visibility, and SD air-search radar for early warning of Japanese aircraft patrols. These systems enabled safer surface transits and more precise targeting, while improved evasion tactics—such as deep dives and silent running—allowed submarines to outmaneuver increasingly vigilant Japanese escorts equipped with sonar and depth charges. By late 1944, such adaptations had extended patrol effectiveness, permitting Balao-class boats to spend more time on station and contribute to the strangulation of Japan's war economy.^[37]^[33]

Losses

Of the 120 Balao-class submarines commissioned during and immediately after World War II, nine were lost during the war, representing an attrition rate of approximately 7.5%. All losses were attributed to enemy action, including depth charges, aerial attacks, and mines, with no recorded training accidents or unknown causes for this class during the conflict.^[38]^[10] Representative incidents illustrate the perils faced by these submarines in Pacific patrols. The USS Bullhead (SS-332) was sunk on 6 August 1945 off the northern coast of Bali by Japanese Army aircraft bombs and subsequent depth charges from escort vessels, resulting in the loss of all 84 crew members and marking the last U.S. submarine lost to enemy action in the war; postwar analysis of Japanese records confirmed the attack.^[39] Similarly, the USS Lagarto (SS-371) disappeared on 3 May 1945 while operating in the Gulf of Thailand, sunk by the Japanese minelayer Hatsutaka using depth charges, with all 86 aboard presumed killed.^[40] Other losses included the USS Capelin (SS-289), missing after December 1943 near Morotai with 78 lost to probable mining, and the USS Golet (SS-361), sunk by Japanese depth charges on 14 June 1944 in the Sea of Japan, claiming 82 lives. Survivors were nonexistent in these Balao-class sinkings, unlike some earlier classes where partial escapes occurred; all incidents resulted in total crew losses, contributing to the 3,506 submariners killed across the U.S. submarine force. Postwar efforts have recovered some wrecks, such as the USS Lagarto, discovered intact in 70 meters of water in the Gulf of Thailand in 2005 by a diving team and verified by the Naval History and Heritage Command.^[41] These casualties underscored the evolving threats from Japanese anti-submarine warfare, including improved detection and coordinated attacks, prompting postwar refinements in submarine tactics and hull designs to mitigate such vulnerabilities.^[42]

Notable achievements

The Balao-class submarines achieved numerous standout successes during World War II, with several boats earning recognition as top performers in tonnage sunk and strategic impacts. USS Tang (SS-306), under Commander Richard H. O'Kane, recorded the highest score among the class by sinking 33 Japanese vessels totaling 116,454 gross register tons across five patrols, establishing a benchmark for aggressive wolfpack tactics that emphasized night surface attacks and rapid follow-up strikes, influencing subsequent submarine doctrine.^[7] Similarly, USS Queenfish (SS-393) distinguished itself on its second patrol by torpedoing and sinking the escort aircraft carrier Taiyo (11,260 tons) along with several merchant ships in a convoy attack in the East China Sea, contributing to the disruption of Japanese supply lines.^[43] USS Archerfish (SS-311), commanded by Commander Joseph F. Enright, accomplished one of the most notable single-vessel sinkings of the war on November 29, 1944, when it torpedoed the incomplete aircraft carrier Shinano—Japan's largest warship at 62,000 tons displaced—shortly after her commissioning, marking the largest ship ever sunk by a submarine and dealing a severe blow to Imperial Japanese Navy carrier capabilities.^[44] This feat, confirmed postwar through Japanese records, earned Archerfish a Presidential Unit Citation for the patrol. O'Kane's leadership on Tang also led to his award of the Medal of Honor for extraordinary heroism during the submarine's fourth and fifth patrols, where precise torpedo salvos sank multiple high-value targets despite intense enemy countermeasures. Another Medal of Honor recipient from the class was Commander Lawson P. "Red" Ramage, who commanded USS Parche (SS-384 and led a daring daylight submerged attack on July 31, 1944, in the East China Sea, sinking two Japanese ships and damaging others while under heavy depth charge assault, the first such award to a living submarine commander in the war.^[29] USS Batfish (SS-310 set a unique record on its sixth patrol in February 1945 by sinking three Japanese submarines—RO-55, RO-112, and RO-113—in the South China Sea over four days using electric torpedoes, a rare achievement that earned the boat a Presidential Unit Citation and highlighted the class's effectiveness against enemy undersea threats.^[45] Overall, Balao-class boats received the most Presidential Unit Citations among U.S. submarine classes for exceptional combat performance, underscoring their pivotal role in the Pacific campaign through innovative tactics and high-impact engagements.^[33]

Postwar service

U.S. Navy operations

Following World War II, numerous Balao-class submarines transitioned to peacetime roles within the U.S. Navy, including patrols for surveillance of emerging Soviet naval activities in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans between 1945 and 1950. For instance, USS Blenny (SS-324) conducted operations in the Far East as part of routine Seventh Fleet activities during this period.^[46] Many boats were decommissioned and placed in reserve fleets starting in 1946 to maintain a pool of trained personnel, with units like Submarine Squadron 12 in Key West, Florida, utilizing them for reserve training exercises.^[21] During the Korean War (1950–1953), Balao-class submarines saw limited combat involvement, primarily conducting reconnaissance patrols rather than offensive operations. USS Blenny, for example, completed a 35-day reconnaissance war patrol in the Korean war zone while supporting Seventh Fleet operations.^[46] Most vessels focused on training duties, such as antisubmarine warfare (ASW) exercises, to prepare crews for potential escalations. In the 1950s, snorkel-equipped Balao-class submarines contributed to ASW developments, participating in fleet exercises that tested submerged endurance and detection tactics against surface and subsurface threats.^[47] Balao-class submarines played key roles in postwar training, serving in sonar schools, torpedo testing, and weapons trials. USS Baya (SS-318) was converted in 1958–1959 to an auxiliary submarine (AGSS-318) specifically for sonar testing, evaluating advanced detection systems during drills.^[48] Others, like USS Balao (SS-285), functioned as training platforms for ASW forces and special development units at Key West and Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, including refresher training and escape apparatus tests such as the Steinke hood in 1961.^[21] Several boats supported SUBROC missile trials, the Navy's submarine-launched ASW rocket system, by simulating targets in underwater exercises during the early 1960s. The active Balao-class fleet peaked in the mid-1950s with approximately 28 boats in commission, many after GUPPY conversions that enhanced their underwater performance for Cold War duties. By the late 1960s, aging hulls and the rise of nuclear-powered submarines led to widespread decommissioning. USS Sea Poacher (SS-406), for example, operated in ASW training with NATO allies until her final deployment in 1969, after which she was decommissioned on 15 November 1969, reclassified AGSS-406, and struck from the Naval Vessel Register in 1973 before transfer. All remaining U.S. Navy Balao-class submarines were retired by 1975, marking the end of their frontline service.^[47]

Transfers to foreign navies

Following World War II, numerous Balao-class submarines were transferred to allied nations under the U.S. Mutual Defense Assistance Program (MDAP), primarily after 1950, to bolster their naval capabilities during the Cold War. Approximately 46 boats were provided to more than ten countries, enabling extended service in foreign fleets often after undergoing modernizations like the GUPPY IA conversion for improved underwater performance and endurance. These transfers reflected U.S. efforts to strengthen NATO allies and other partners through military aid, with submarines typically loaned or sold on favorable terms.^[7] The Royal Canadian Navy operated ex-Balao submarines such as USS Burrfish (SS-312), transferred in 1961 as HMCS Grilse (SS-71), which served until 1969 in training roles off Canada's coasts, and USS Argonaut (SS-475), transferred in 1968 as HMCS Rainbow (SS-75), which served until 1974.^[49] Turkey was a major recipient, acquiring 17 through U.S. aid channels; for instance, USS Groom (SS-367) was transferred in 1972 and renamed TCG Preveze (S-340), participating in Mediterranean exercises. Turkish Balao-class boats, such as TCG Oruç Reis (ex-USS Dace SS-340), remained active into the 1970s, conducting patrols and training until decommissioning in the early 1980s.^[50] The Netherlands acquired two, transferred in 1953 as HNLMS Walrus (S-802, ex-USS Burrfish SS-312, but note sequential transfer) and HNLMS Zeeleeuw (S-803, ex-USS Cutlass SS-315), which operated until 1971 after GUPPY upgrades.^[51] Brazil received boats, with examples like USS Plaice (SS-390) becoming Brazilian submarine Bahia (S-12) in 1963, serving through the 1970s. Italy also received three boats, such as ex-USS Barb (SS-331) as Romeo Romei (S-516) in 1954. All foreign-operated Balao-class submarines were decommissioned by the mid-1980s, with some sold for scrap thereafter.^[7]

Modernizations

GUPPY conversions

The Greater Underwater Propulsion Power (GUPPY) program was a post-World War II U.S. Navy initiative launched in the late 1940s and continuing through the 1950s to modernize fleet submarines, including the Balao class, for enhanced anti-submarine warfare (ASW) endurance and underwater performance. Drawing on captured German U-boat technologies like the snorkel, the program aimed to extend the operational life of these vessels by improving submerged speed, battery capacity, and hydrodynamics while reducing noise and drag. A total of 36 Balao-class submarines underwent GUPPY conversions across multiple subtypes (with numbers adding to 36: e.g., 13 for GUPPY II, 9 for IA, 7 for IIA, 2 for IB, 5 for III), significantly boosting their capabilities compared to their original World War II configurations, which had limited submerged endurance of about 48 hours at 2 knots. In addition, 19 Balao-class boats received the less extensive Fleet Snorkel modifications for basic snorkel capability.^[52]^[53]^[54] The initial GUPPY I conversions, completed between 1947 and 1948, served as prototypes and involved no Balao-class boats, focusing instead on two Tench-class submarines; however, subsequent early upgrades followed similar principles with streamlined sails and enhanced electrical systems. By contrast, the GUPPY II subtype, the first production series from 1947 to 1949, converted 13 Balao-class boats, standardizing the snorkel for diesel operation while submerged, reducing the fairwater (sail) size for better streamlining, and installing larger batteries that doubled capacity to support higher underwater speeds of up to 16 knots. These changes prioritized ASW roles in the emerging Cold War environment.^[53]^[54] Building on this, the GUPPY IA subtype (1950–1951) converted 9 Balao-class submarines as a cost-effective interim measure, retaining much of the GUPPY II design but upgrading to more powerful 5,000 shaft horsepower (shp) diesel engines for improved surface speed and reliability, while the GUPPY IIA (1951–1954) further refined 7 Balao boats with additional battery cells and refined hull streamlining. Later variants included GUPPY IB (1953–1955), which upgraded 2 Balao boats for export with austere enhancements like improved periscopes, and GUPPY III (1959–1967), applying advanced modifications to 5 Balao boats, including the BQQ-2 sonar array and raised bridges for better sensor integration, achieving submerged endurance of approximately 70 hours at 3 knots.^[54]^[53] These conversions extended the service life of Balao-class submarines into the 1970s, with many remaining active in U.S. and allied navies for training and patrol duties, at an average cost of about $1.5 million per boat depending on the subtype and era. The program's incremental improvements collectively transformed the Balao class from short-endurance raiders into viable ASW platforms, influencing submarine design until the introduction of nuclear-powered vessels.^[52]^[54]

Specialized conversions

Several Balao-class submarines received specialized conversions during the early Cold War era to fulfill unique operational roles, distinct from the standard anti-submarine warfare enhancements of GUPPY modernizations. These modifications adapted the vessels for radar surveillance, guided missile launches, and underwater acoustic testing, leveraging their robust hulls for experimental purposes. Approximately a dozen such conversions occurred, though exact numbers vary by role, with most boats reverting to conventional configurations or facing decommissioning by the late 1960s as advanced nuclear and surface-based systems superseded them.^[7] The primary radar picket conversion involved the USS Burrfish (SS-312), redesignated SSR-312 under the Navy's Migraine I program from 1948 to 1949 at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard. This modification removed forward torpedo tubes to accommodate additional berthing and installed a combat information center (CIC) in the former mess and galley spaces, while extending the sail to mount an AN/BPS-2 air-search radar and a dedicated height-finder radar on a free-standing tower for enhanced aerial detection. The Burrfish supported early Cold War air defense operations, including patrols that contributed to continental early-warning networks, until her role became obsolete around 1953; she was later loaned to Canada as HMCS Grilse (SS-71) in 1961 and scrapped in 1969.^[55]^[56] Guided-missile conversions transformed two Balao-class submarines into pioneering platforms for submarine-launched cruise missiles. The USS Cusk (SS-348) underwent modification in 1946–1947 at San Diego, becoming SSG-348 to test the Loon (SSM-N-8), a U.S. derivative of the German V-1 buzz bomb; on 12 February 1947, she achieved the first launch of a guided missile from a submarine off Point Mugu, California, validating the concept for future strategic deterrence. The USS Barbero (SS-317) followed with a more extensive overhaul in 1955 at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, redesignated SSG-317 to carry four Regulus I (SSM-N-8) nuclear-capable missiles in a modified hangar amidships, with launch rails on the aft deck; she conducted operational deployments from Pearl Harbor until 1959, including the historic "missile mail" experiment on 8 June 1959, delivering 3,000 letters via Regulus to a naval base in Florida, before decommissioning in 1964 and sinking as a target in 1969. These conversions demonstrated the adaptability of Balao hulls for emerging missile technologies but were limited by the submarines' diesel propulsion and short missile range.^[6]^[57] For acoustic research, the USS Baya (SS-318) was converted to AGSS-318 at Mare Island Naval Shipyard from 1958 to 1959, equipping her with experimental sonar transducer arrays, including the Long-Range Aid to Navigation (LORAD) system, and a removable test tank for underwater sound propagation studies. She conducted evaluation trials for the Operational Test and Evaluation Force, Pacific, and the Naval Undersea Warfare Center through 1968, contributing data to anti-submarine warfare developments before her final deactivation in 1969 and scrapping in 1973. This role highlighted the Balao class's utility as test platforms for sonar advancements critical to Cold War naval tactics.^[58] Other specialized adaptations included limited transport modifications for select Balao-class boats to carry experimental equipment or midget submarines, such as support for the X-1 midget sub trials in the mid-1950s, though these were temporary and not widespread. By the 1970s, nearly all specialized Balao conversions had been decommissioned, with surviving hulls repurposed for training or preservation.^[59]

Preservation

Museum ships

Several intact Balao-class submarines have been preserved as museum ships, offering public access to these World War II-era vessels and educating visitors on their design and service. As of 2025, seven such ships remain preserved as museums, each showcasing original features like torpedo rooms and conning towers while highlighting the submarines' roles in the Pacific theater. These preservations emphasize the class's contributions to Allied victory, with restoration efforts ensuring their structural integrity for future generations.^[60]^[61] The USS Batfish (SS-310) opened as a museum in 1972 at the Oklahoma War Memorial Park in Muskogee, Oklahoma, featuring onboard artifacts from its service. In World War II, Batfish completed six patrols, sinking 14 Japanese ships and notably three submarines in February 1945, a record-setting feat east of the Philippines. Hull repairs in the 2010s addressed flood damage from 2019, reinforcing the pressure hull and deck plating to combat corrosion. Visitors can explore torpedo and engine rooms via guided tours, with the site hosting military history exhibits and occasional submarine force gatherings. As of 2025, relocation efforts to Three Forks Harbor continue for the submarine and park, but it remains a key attraction.^[62]^[63]^[64] The USS Lionfish (SS-298) serves as a museum at Battleship Cove in Fall River, Massachusetts, since 1986, honoring the Silent Service with self-guided access to its compartments. Commissioned late in World War II, Lionfish conducted two patrols in the Pacific, damaging one enemy vessel but achieving no confirmed sinkings due to its timing near war's end. Preservation efforts have focused on repainting and minor structural reinforcements to maintain seaworthiness alongside other warships. Tours highlight the Balao-class's improved diving capabilities, and the site offers educational programs, including annual commemorations for submarine veterans.^[65]^[66]^[67] The USS Becuna (SS-319) is preserved as a museum ship at the Independence Seaport Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, since 1976, allowing visitors to tour its decks and learn about its seven war patrols in the Pacific, where it sank several Japanese vessels. Restoration has preserved its original configuration, including the conning tower and torpedo loading mechanisms. Guided and self-guided tours are available, with educational exhibits on submarine warfare.^[68]^[69] USS Bowfin (SS-287), known as the "Pearl Harbor Avenger," is displayed at the Pearl Harbor submarine base in Honolulu, Hawaii, since 1981, adjacent to the USS Bowfin Submarine Museum. During World War II, it conducted nine patrols, credited with sinking 44 vessels totaling over 200,000 tons. The submarine offers interactive tours of its interiors, emphasizing Balao-class engineering, with the site hosting memorials for lost submariners.^[70]^[71] The USS Pampanito (SS-383) operates as a museum at Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco, California, since 1976, providing overnight stays and detailed tours of its wartime spaces. It completed six patrols, sinking 11 ships and damaging others, including rescues of Allied POWs. Preservation includes hull maintenance and artifact displays, with daily public access and special events.^[72]^[73] USS Razorback (SS-394) is a museum ship at the Arkansas Inland Maritime Museum in Little Rock, Arkansas, since 2004, after transfer from Turkey. It served in WWII with six patrols, sinking multiple vessels, and postwar in various navies. Tours cover its global history, with restorations focusing on its deck gun and interiors.^[74]^[75] The USS Ling (SS-297) is preserved in Hackensack, New Jersey, since 1986, though in deteriorating condition requiring ongoing restoration efforts. It conducted three patrols late in WWII, with limited combat credits. Access is limited due to structural issues, but it serves as an educational exhibit on Balao-class design.^[76]^[77] No museum ships have been lost by 2025, with potential expansions including partial exhibits from related classes to broaden submarine heritage displays.^[60]

Surviving components

Several major components from Balao-class submarines have been preserved as memorials and exhibits, providing tangible links to their World War II service. The conning tower of USS Balao (SS-285), the lead ship of the class, stands as a prominent relic outside the National Museum of the United States Navy at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C.; sunk as a target in 1963, its tower was salvaged and relocated there in the 1980s to honor the submarine's legacy.^[78]^[4] Similarly, the conning tower and forecastle of USS Pintado (SS-387) are displayed at the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredericksburg, Texas, where they illustrate the vessel's role in Pacific patrols that sank multiple Japanese ships.^[79]^[80] Other preserved conning towers include that of USS Parche (SS-384), positioned as a memorial near the Pearl Harbor Visitor Center in Hawaii to commemorate submariners lost in the Pacific theater.^[81] The conning tower from USS Roncador (SS-301) forms the centerpiece of the Roncador Memorial, associated with submarine commands and highlighting the class's late-war construction and operations.^[82] At the Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton, Connecticut, artifacts such as periscopes and radar components from World War II fleet submarines, including Balao-class examples, are exhibited in the attack center display, demonstrating the technological advancements in observation and targeting used during combat patrols.^[83] The museum also houses salvaged parts like gauges and instruments from Balao vessels, contributing to educational exhibits on submarine engineering.^[84] Smaller relics, including deck gun components and torpedo mechanisms from various Balao-class submarines, are scattered across collections; for instance, the battle flag of USS Balao, marked with symbols of its nine sinkings, is preserved at the Naval History and Heritage Command.^[85] Private and nonprofit organizations, such as those affiliated with the Silent Service memorials, maintain additional artifacts like propellers and hull sections recovered from postwar disposals, with estimates suggesting around 50 such items documented nationwide as of 2025.^[86] These components, often sourced from decommissioned or target-sunk boats referenced in loss records, underscore the class's enduring historical significance without representing complete vessels.

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