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Butte

In geomorphology, a butte (/bjuːt/ BEWT) is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; buttes are smaller landforms than mesas, with widths typically under 3 kilometers (1.9 mi).^[1] They form through differential erosion in arid or semi-arid regions, where resistant caprock, such as sandstone or lava flows, protects underlying softer sedimentary layers from weathering, while surrounding material erodes away over millions of years.^[2]^[3] Buttes are most common in the southwestern United States, particularly on the Colorado Plateau in areas like southern Utah and northern Arizona, but examples exist worldwide, including volcanic buttes in California's Sutter Butts and monadnocks in other eroded landscapes.^[1] Notable U.S. examples include the West and East Mitten Buttes in Monument Valley and Church Rock in Canyonlands National Park.^[2] Internationally, they appear in regions like the Scottish Highlands and Australian outback. These landforms often hold cultural significance for indigenous peoples and attract tourists for their dramatic scenery.^[3]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A butte is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top, typically resulting from the process of erosion.^[2] These landforms are prominent in arid and semi-arid regions where differential erosion exposes resistant rock layers. The term "butte" derives from the French word meaning a mound or hillock, originating from Old French "but" for a landmark or target, and was introduced into English through American French usage in the early 19th century.^[4] In geological contexts, it specifically denotes these isolated elevations, distinguishing them from broader features.^[5] Buttes are generally smaller than mesas, featuring summit areas that are comparatively limited in extent, and they are characteristically taller than they are wide.^[2] This proportional distinction highlights their role as more diminutive erosional remnants compared to larger flat-topped formations.^[6]

Physical Features

Buttes are characterized by their distinctive isolated, flat-topped structure rising prominently above surrounding terrain, often recognized as a type of hill with a summit area narrower than its height.^[7] Their sides typically form steep, near-vertical cliffs due to the exposure of resistant rock layers that erode more slowly than adjacent materials, creating dramatic escarpments.^[3] These cliffs can reach heights ranging from tens to hundreds of meters, as seen in examples like the 73-meter rise of buttes in the Great Plains or the over 600-meter elevations of volcanic formations such as the Sutter Buttes.^[8]^[9] The flat top of a butte, known as the caprock, consists of erosion-resistant materials that shield underlying softer sediments from further degradation, preserving the level summit.^[2] Common caprock compositions include sandstone or limestone in sedimentary environments and lava flows in volcanic settings, which contribute to the butte's stability and visual prominence.^[7]^[10] Beneath this protective layer lie more erodible rocks such as shale or clay, which accentuate the steep profile by wearing away preferentially.^[3] Buttes exhibit variations in form and arrangement, appearing as solitary features or in clusters, such as the grouped sandstone towers in arid southwestern landscapes.^[2] In some dry environments, prolonged exposure can sculpt them into columnar or pillar-like shapes, resembling slender spires that further highlight their isolated nature.^[3] These morphological traits, driven by differential rock resistance, distinguish buttes from broader landforms like mesas.^[7]

Geological Formation

Erosional Processes

Buttes primarily form through differential erosion, a process in which softer underlying rock layers erode more rapidly than the resistant caprock atop them, gradually isolating elevated remnants from the surrounding plains.^[11] This selective wearing away creates the characteristic steep sides and flat tops of buttes, as the harder caprock shields the softer materials beneath from further degradation until the protective layer is breached.^[2] In regions like the Colorado Plateau, this mechanism operates on flat-lying sedimentary strata uplifted over geological time, resulting in the progressive sculpting of isolated hills.^[7] The primary agents driving butte formation are wind, water, and freeze-thaw cycles, which are especially effective in semi-arid to arid climates where vegetation is sparse and exposes rock surfaces to unrelenting physical forces.^[2] Water, often in the form of flash floods and episodic stream incision, cuts channels and removes sediment from weaker layers, while wind abrasion polishes and erodes exposed faces; freeze-thaw action further contributes by expanding water in rock cracks during temperature fluctuations.^[3] These processes dominate in environments such as the southwestern United States, where low precipitation limits chemical weathering but amplifies mechanical breakdown.^[7] Butte development unfolds over millions of years, typically accelerating after tectonic uplift events that expose rock layers to surface erosion, as seen in the Colorado Plateau where uplift began around 70 million years ago and intensified in the Miocene epoch about 10 million years ago.^[7] The evolutionary sequence progresses from broad plateaus, which represent the initial uplifted surfaces, to mesas as peripheral erosion isolates larger flat-topped remnants, and finally to buttes when continued dissection reduces these to narrow, steep-sided pillars.^[3] This staged transformation reflects the ongoing balance between uplift and denudation, with buttes representing advanced stages of landscape maturity in erosional terrains.^[11]

Caprock and Underlying Layers

The caprock of a butte is composed of hard, erosion-resistant rock layers that shield the underlying softer sediments from rapid weathering and erosion, thereby preserving the flat-topped structure of the landform. These caprock layers, often formed from durable materials like sandstone or conglomerate, cap the butte and contrast sharply with the more vulnerable strata beneath, which erode at faster rates to create the characteristic steep sides.^[12]^[13] In the American Southwest, a prominent example of caprock is the Navajo Sandstone, a silica-rich, quartz-dominated formation that forms the resistant tops of many buttes, such as those in Canyonlands National Park. Deposited during the Middle Jurassic as vast wind-blown sand dunes in an ancient desert environment, this cross-bedded sandstone owes its durability to well-cemented quartz grains and iron oxide, allowing it to withstand prolonged exposure while protecting lower layers.^[14]^[15] The underlying layers of buttes typically consist of alternating beds of softer, more erodible rocks, including shale, mudstone, and weakly cemented sandstone, which preferentially erode to isolate the caprock. For instance, in Monument Valley, buttes feature underlying sequences like the Organ Rock Tongue (red sandy mudstone and shale) and Moenkopi Formation (chocolate-brown sandy shale), derived from continental and fluvial deposits of Permian and Triassic age.^[13] These sedimentary sequences often originate from ancient desert eolian environments, as seen in the Navajo Sandstone, or from marginal marine settings in older strata like the Pennsylvanian Hermosa Formation's fossiliferous limestones, reflecting deposition in shallow seas.^[13]^[14] In volcanic regions, butte caprocks can instead form from solidified lava flows, such as basaltic layers that flowed into ancient valleys and now protect underlying softer country rock through their greater resistance to erosion. Examples include the basaltic caps on Red Butte in Grand Canyon National Park, where these Miocene to Quaternary flows have inverted the topography by preserving elevated remnants amid surrounding erosion.^[16]

Mesas and Plateaus

Mesas are larger flat-topped landforms than buttes, typically featuring broader summits that can extend over several square kilometers, and they represent an intermediate stage in the erosional evolution of elevated terrains.^[17] Unlike buttes, which are more isolated and diminutive, mesas often retain connections to surrounding elevated areas and have at least one steep side, with their flat tops protected by resistant caprock layers such as sandstone or basalt.^[18] This caprock resists weathering, preserving the mesa's structure while softer underlying layers erode more readily, leading to the characteristic table-like appearance.^[3] Plateaus, in contrast, are vast elevated flatlands with gentle slopes and minimal dissection, serving as the initial precursors to both mesas and buttes through widespread tectonic uplift followed by early stages of erosion.^[17] These expansive features, often spanning hundreds of square kilometers, form in regions of horizontal sedimentary strata where uplift exposes the land to erosional agents like wind, water, and mass wasting, gradually carving out steeper margins.^[7] Like mesas and buttes, plateaus are capped by durable rock layers that slow overall degradation, but their larger scale and lower degree of isolation distinguish them from the more fragmented forms that develop later.^[3] All three landforms—buttes, mesas, and plateaus—share the key trait of caprock protection, which creates differential erosion rates between the resistant summit and the erodible base, but they differ markedly in size and the extent of isolation resulting from prolonged weathering.^[2] The evolutionary progression typically follows a sequence where a plateau undergoes initial dissection to form mesas, which further erode into isolated buttes as surrounding material is stripped away by fluvial and aeolian processes in arid environments.^[17] This continuum highlights how continued erosion refines larger structures into smaller, more prominent remnants over geological timescales.^[7]

Other Isolated Hills

Inselbergs represent isolated, dome-shaped hills that emerge as erosional remnants through prolonged deep chemical weathering, particularly in humid tropical climates where soluble minerals are leached away, leaving a core of resistant crystalline rock such as granite exposed upon subsequent erosion of the overlying regolith. Unlike buttes, which feature flat summits preserved by horizontal caprock layers, inselbergs typically exhibit rounded or convex profiles without flat tops, resulting from the uniform weathering of massive, non-stratified rock bodies. This process often occurs over millions of years in regions like the humid tropics, where high rainfall facilitates intense subsurface decomposition before arid exposure reveals the landform.^[19] Monadnocks, closely related to inselbergs but more commonly associated with temperate humid environments, are erosion-resistant hills that persist as isolated features within broadly dissected landscapes where surrounding softer materials have been removed by fluvial and glacial action. These landforms, often composed of hard igneous or metamorphic rocks, develop rounded contours and lack the steep, near-vertical cliffs and flat summits seen in buttes, as their formation emphasizes prolonged surface and near-surface erosion rather than protection by differential layering. Named after Mount Monadnock in New Hampshire, they stand as relicts from ancient peneplains, gradually isolated as base levels lower through ongoing dissection.^[20]^[21] The primary geomorphic distinction between buttes and these other isolated hills lies in the underlying processes: buttes arise from differential mechanical erosion of horizontally bedded sedimentary sequences, where a resistant caprock shields underlying softer layers to maintain a flat top and steep sides, whereas inselbergs and monadnocks form via more uniform chemical weathering and broad-scale erosion of homogeneous, resistant rock masses in non-layered settings. This contrast highlights buttes' dependence on stratified geology versus the weathering-dominated evolution of inselbergs and monadnocks, which do not require lithologic layering for their isolation. For instance, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Australia exemplifies an inselberg, consisting of a massive, tilted sandstone body—formed from ancient marine deposits and exposed through regional uplift and erosion—lacking the stratified, flat-topped structure of a butte.^[22]^[23]

Global Distribution

North America

Buttes are prominent landforms across North America, with significant concentrations in the Colorado Plateau of the U.S. Southwest, the badlands of the Great Plains, and the Snake River Plain. These regions represent the primary areas where buttes dominate the landscape, shaped by distinct geological processes that highlight the continent's varied tectonic and erosional history. In the Colorado Plateau, buttes emerge from extensive exposures of layered sedimentary rocks, while in the Great Plains badlands, they arise from softer, differentially eroding strata, and along the Snake River Plain, they manifest as volcanic domes rising above basaltic plains.^[24]^[25]^[26] Geologically, buttes in the Southwest, particularly the Colorado Plateau, are primarily composed of Mesozoic-era sedimentary rocks, including sandstones and shales deposited in ancient marine and terrestrial environments, which have been uplifted and subsequently isolated by erosion. These formations date back to periods like the Jurassic and Cretaceous, with resistant layers such as Navajo Sandstone capping many buttes. In contrast, the badlands of the Great Plains feature buttes formed from Cenozoic sedimentary sequences of the White River Group, consisting of Eocene to Oligocene sandstones, siltstones, and volcanic ash beds that erode rapidly due to their fine-grained nature, leaving behind steep-sided remnants capped by harder limestones or sandstones. Further west, the Snake River Plain hosts volcanic buttes resulting from Cenozoic volcanism associated with the Yellowstone hotspot, where rhyolitic domes and tuff cones, such as those formed 300,000 to 600,000 years ago, protrude from Miocene basaltic lava flows.^[27]^[25]^[26] High densities of buttes occur in clustered formations, notably within Monument Valley on the Colorado Plateau, where dozens of isolated sandstone buttes rise amid expansive valleys, and in Badlands National Park on the Great Plains, where erosion has produced intricate networks of buttes, pinnacles, and hoodoos across thousands of acres. These concentrations reflect localized structural controls, such as anticlines or resistant rock layers, that promote the isolation of multiple buttes in proximity. The arid climate prevalent in the U.S. West enhances the long-term preservation of these features by promoting sparse vegetation cover, which allows episodic flash flooding and wind erosion to preferentially wear away softer underlying layers while the durable caprocks shield the summits, maintaining the distinctive flat-topped profiles over millennia.^[28]^[29]^[3]

Other Regions

Buttes in Australia are prominent in arid inland regions, particularly within sedimentary basins where differential erosion exposes resistant sandstone layers. In central Australia, such as near Chambers Pillar in the Northern Territory, Carboniferous sandstones form isolated buttes rising up to 50 meters above surrounding plains, shaped by long-term fluvial and aeolian erosion of softer underlying deposits. Similarly, in the Pedirka Basin of the Northern Territory and South Australia, Permian sandstones of the Crown Point Formation cap buttes and mesas, preserving ancient depositional environments amid ongoing desert weathering.^[30] These formations highlight Australia's arid to subtropical weathering regimes, where intense seasonal rainfall and chemical breakdown accelerate the isolation of harder caps from friable bases. In Africa, table-like buttes emerge in hyper-arid desert settings, primarily through wind-driven erosion that sculpts sedimentary rock into steep-sided, flat-topped remnants. Along the margins of the Sahara in northern Egypt's Gebel Qatrani area, Eocene sandstones form buttes rich in calcite-cemented concretions, standing as isolated features up to several tens of meters high after deflation removes finer particles.^[31] These structures, often associated with ichnofossils and paleosols, exemplify yardang-like progression where initial plateau erosion yields broader mesas before narrowing to buttes under prevailing northerly winds.^[23] Wind abrasion dominates here, contrasting with sporadic flash floods that further undercut bases, resulting in overhanging caps and mushroom-shaped profiles. Buttes across Asia and Europe display varied origins tied to tectonic and climatic histories. In Asia's Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia, Upper Cretaceous sedimentary sequences of the Djadokhta and Nemegt Formations outcrop as low buttes and rounded hills, formed by erosion of eolian and fluvial sands that once blanketed vast inland basins.^[32] These features, typically 10–50 meters high, preserve dinosaur-bearing layers and result from differential weathering of cross-bedded sandstones resistant to the region's extreme aridity and occasional dust storms. In Europe, volcanic buttes prevail in Iceland's neovolcanic zones, where subglacial eruptions during Pleistocene glaciations produced flat-topped tuyas—steep-sided mounds of basaltic hyaloclastite and pillow lavas emerging through ice sheets up to 1 km thick.^[33] Examples like Herðubreið reach 1,682 meters, their table-like summits formed as magma froze against glacial confines before post-glacial melting exposed the structures. Unique factors include chemical weathering in Australia's arid interiors, which dissolves soluble minerals to isolate sandstone buttes, versus glacial influences in Europe, where ice loading and meltwater enhanced volcanic edifice preservation while abrading softer surroundings.^[30]^[34]

Notable Examples

Iconic Buttes in the United States

One of the most iconic clusters of buttes in the United States is found in Monument Valley, straddling the Arizona-Utah border within the Navajo Nation. The West and East Mitten Buttes, named for their mitten-like shapes, rise dramatically from the desert floor, reaching heights of approximately 300 meters above the surrounding valley. These formations are primarily composed of Navajo Sandstone, a Jurassic-era rock layer deposited around 190 million years ago as vast wind-blown dunes in an ancient erg or sand sea.^[35] The resistant sandstone cap protects underlying softer layers, allowing differential erosion to sculpt these isolated pillars over millions of years. Their striking red hues result from iron oxide staining, enhanced by weathering. These buttes have become visual symbols of the American Southwest, frequently appearing in media such as John Ford's Western films like Stagecoach (1939) and later works including Forrest Gump (1994), cementing their cultural prominence.^[36] Merrick Butte, located nearby in Monument Valley, exemplifies similar geological processes, standing at about 300 meters in prominence with a summit elevation of 1,892 meters.^[37] Formed from the same Navajo Sandstone sequence dating to approximately 200 million years ago, it features a flat-topped profile that highlights the erosional resistance of the sandstone atop weaker shale and mudstone layers.^[38] Its isolated position and layered striations make it a quintessential example of butte morphology in the Colorado Plateau. In South Dakota's Badlands National Park, buttes emerge as isolated erosional remnants amid a stark landscape of layered sedimentary rocks. These formations, often no more than 100 meters tall, are carved from alternating bands of shale, siltstone, and sandstone deposited during the late Cretaceous to Oligocene epochs, spanning about 75 to 30 million years ago. The dominant shales, such as those in the Pierre Shale and White River Group, erode rapidly due to their fine-grained, soft composition, leaving behind steeper buttes protected by harder sandstone caps. This ongoing erosion exposes colorful strata rich in fossils, creating a rugged tableau of spires and pinnacles that contrasts with the smoother surrounding plains.^[39] The Sutter Buttes in California's Sacramento Valley represent a distinct volcanic origin among U.S. buttes, forming as eroded remnants of a single ancient volcano. This cluster rises up to 600 meters above the valley floor, with the highest peak, South Butte, at 646 meters elevation. Eruptions occurred around 1.6 to 1.4 million years ago during the early Pleistocene, extruding rhyolite, andesite, and dacite lavas and tuffs through overlying sediments. Unlike sedimentary buttes, their steep, conical profiles result from volcanic intrusion and subsequent erosion by regional rivers, isolating the central core as a prominent, circular range amid flat farmlands.^[40]

International Buttes

Outside the United States, buttes exhibit diverse geological origins and morphologies, often resulting from prolonged erosion in arid or tropical environments, contributing to the global pattern of isolated hills in ancient cratons and sedimentary basins.^[41] In Venezuela, the tepuis represent some of the most dramatic table-top buttes, formed as erosional remnants of the Precambrian Roraima Formation, consisting of quartz sandstone that dates back over 2 billion years. Auyán-tepui, one of the largest and most prominent, rises to a height of 2,450 meters above sea level and features sheer cliffs that isolate its summit plateau, fostering unique ecosystems with high levels of endemism due to separation from surrounding lowlands for tens of millions of years since the Cretaceous period. These ancient structures, sculpted by differential erosion where harder sandstone layers resist weathering, support specialized flora and fauna adapted to nutrient-poor, high-altitude conditions, including carnivorous plants and relict species unchanged for millennia.^[42]^[43]^[44] In Australia, the Bungle Bungle Range within Purnululu National Park showcases beehive-shaped sandstone buttes formed from Devonian-era quartz sandstone deposits, approximately 350 million years old, that were laid down in ancient river and coastal environments. Over the past 20 million years, episodic weathering by wind, water, and chemical processes has eroded these layers into striped domes up to 250 meters tall, with alternating orange iron oxide bands and darker cyanobacterial crusts that enhance their distinctive appearance and protect against further erosion. The range's karst-like pinnacles and narrow gorges highlight the role of permeable sandstone in creating these isolated, sculptural landforms amid the Kimberley region's semi-arid landscape.^[41]^[45] Africa's Brandberg Mountain in Namibia exemplifies a granitic butte, emerging as an intrusive massif from the early Cretaceous period around 130 million years ago, when mantle-derived magma pierced the continental crust during the breakup of Gondwana. This dome-shaped feature, reaching 2,573 meters at its Königstein peak and rising over 2,000 meters above the surrounding Namib Desert plains, has been shaped by extensive erosion that stripped away softer overlying sediments, leaving a rugged granite core with localized resistant outcrops that form protective caps against further degradation. The mountain's isolation and aridity have preserved its geological integrity, making it a key example of igneous buttes in desert settings.^[46]

Human and Ecological Aspects

Cultural and Historical Significance

Buttes have held profound cultural and spiritual importance for indigenous peoples, serving as sacred sites integral to their cosmologies and traditions. In Monument Valley, the towering sandstone buttes are revered by the Navajo Nation as holy places embodying ancestral stories and spiritual power, with formations like the West and East Mitten Buttes representing legendary figures from Navajo oral histories.^[47] Similarly, in Australia's Purnululu National Park, the Bungle Bungle Range's beehive-shaped sandstone domes feature prominently in Gija Aboriginal Dreaming stories, such as the creation narrative Jirraginy joo Goorrarndal, which describes the landscape's formation through ancestral beings and has been passed down for tens of thousands of years.^[48] Historically, buttes provided natural defensive advantages due to their elevated, isolated positions, which Native American groups utilized during conflicts. For instance, tribes in the American Southwest and Great Plains leveraged buttes like Pima Butte in Arizona for strategic vantage points in intertribal warfare, as seen in the 1857 Battle of Pima Butte where Yuma, Mojave, Apache, and Yavapai warriors engaged in combat atop the formation.^[49] In regions like the Columbia Plateau, similar landforms were occupied as refuges by early indigenous residents to deter attackers.^[50] Beyond defense, buttes supported practical outposts; the city of Butte, Montana—named for a prominent mining hill—emerged as a key 19th-century copper mining hub, producing over 25% of the world's supply by 1900 and earning the moniker "The Richest Hill on Earth."^[51] In modern times, buttes have become iconic in popular culture, particularly as cinematic backdrops that evoke the American West. Monument Valley's dramatic buttes served as a primary filming location for John Ford's 1939 film Stagecoach, the first major Hollywood production shot there, which popularized the landscape and influenced subsequent Westerns like The Searchers (1956).^[52] This exposure has driven substantial tourism, with over 400,000 visitors annually to Monument Valley Navajo Tribal Park, generating vital economic benefits for the Navajo community.^[53] Likewise, Purnululu National Park attracts around 30,000 tourists each year as of 2023 to explore the Bungle Bungle Range, blending cultural tours with natural appreciation.^[54]^[55] Buttes symbolize the untamed frontier in 19th-century Western art and literature, representing isolation, resilience, and the sublime beauty of the American landscape. Artists like George Catlin depicted buttes such as the Square Buttes in early sketches from 1832, capturing their dramatic forms as emblems of exploration and manifest destiny in paintings that romanticized westward expansion.^[56] In literature, these landforms appear in works evoking the vast, unforgiving plains, underscoring themes of freedom and human struggle against nature, as in narratives of the Great Plains that shaped the mythic Western genre.^[57]

Ecological Role and Conservation

Buttes, with their steep, isolated slopes and flat summits, create distinct microclimates that support unique biodiversity, often fostering endemic plant species adapted to harsh, exposed conditions. In the southwestern United States, such as on desert buttes, these environments harbor specialized flora including cacti like the kingcup cactus (Echinocereus triglochidiatus), which thrives in rocky crevices protected from extreme winds and temperatures. Similarly, on the tabletop mountains known as tepuis in South America, the vertical cliffs generate cooler, wetter summits that sustain over 100 orchid species, many endemic, such as Epidendrum katarun-yariku and Prosthechea jauana, which have evolved in isolation from lowland ecosystems. These microhabitats enhance overall regional biodiversity by providing refugia for drought-resistant or shade-tolerant plants not found in surrounding plains. The fauna of buttes benefits from the structural complexity of their rugged surfaces, offering nesting sites and shelter that promote ecological niches and, in some cases, speciation. Birds of prey, including the prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), frequently nest in potholes, ledges, and crevices on buttes and cliffs, using these elevated perches for hunting small mammals and birds across open landscapes. Small mammals, such as rock squirrels or pocket gophers, inhabit the base crevices and talus slopes, where the isolation of buttes limits gene flow and can drive evolutionary divergence, as observed in tepui vertebrates where summit populations show low genetic diversity due to prolonged separation. This isolation has led to speciation events in groups like tepui treefrogs (Tepuihyla), highlighting buttes' role as "sky islands" that contribute to broader phylogenetic diversity. Buttes face significant threats that undermine their ecological integrity, primarily accelerated erosion from climate change-induced weather extremes, which erodes caprocks and exposes softer underlying layers more rapidly. Human activities exacerbate these issues: tourism foot traffic compacts soils and disturbs vegetation on slopes, while off-road vehicles cause soil compaction, rutting, and increased sediment runoff, damaging fragile habitats on arid buttes. These pressures reduce habitat availability for endemic species and disrupt microclimates, with studies showing widespread vegetation loss in similar sensitive landforms. Conservation efforts for buttes emphasize protection within protected areas and active restoration to preserve their biodiversity. In the United States, Arches National Park safeguards buttes and related formations through monitoring of landscape dynamics and invasive species control, maintaining habitats for raptors and desert flora. Internationally, Purnululu National Park in Australia, a UNESCO World Heritage site, protects over 600 plant species, including unique ones in the Bungle Bungle Range, via regulated access and ecosystem management under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act. Restoration projects since the 1990s, such as those by the Sutter Buttes Regional Land Trust, focus on acquiring and rehabilitating contiguous habitats to support rare species and mitigate erosion through native revegetation.

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[PDF] Badlands National Park Geologic Resource Evaluation Report
Vegetation is sparse and erosion has carved the region into distinctive spires, pinnacles, hoodoos, monuments, buttes, and mesas that are known collectively as ...
[33]
(PDF) Permian, Carboniferous and Upper Devonian geology of the ...
Apr 29, 2015 · ... buttes and ranges that reach elevations of. 300 m above sea level. In ... Western Australia: Australia, Geology and Geophysics, Bulletin 60,.
[34]
[PDF] Geology and mineral resources of the Northern Territory - Geoscience
in the western Pedirka Basin and outcrops as mesas, buttes and low ... Petroleum geology of South Australia series. Crowell JC and Frakes LA, 1971 ...<|separator|>
[35]
Mushroom rock, inselberg, and butte desert landforms (Gebel ...
Jun 18, 2020 · The buttes consist mainly of sandstone containing calcite-cemented concretions “cannonballs” and are also very rich in ichnofossil ...
[36]
The Geology of Ukhaa Tolgod (Djadokhta Formation, Upper ...
Jun 16, 2008 · The lithostratigrahy and sedimentology of the fossiliferous Upper Cretaceous strata exposed in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia at Ukhaa Tolgod are described and ...
[37]
Glacial and volcanic history of Icelandic table mountains from ...
Basaltic table mountains in the neovolcanic zones of Iceland have been interpreted as subglacial volcanoes that emerged through an ice sheet.
[38]
Tuya - Wikipedia
A tuya is a flat-topped, steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet. They are rare worldwide.
[39]
Icelandic Subglacial Volcanism: Thermal and Physical Studies
The dominant products of subglacial volcanic eruptions in Iceland are pillow basalt and sideromelane tuff. Physical and thermal studies of these materials ...
[40]
Navajo sandstone | The Geological Society of London
This enormous sand sea was deposited in the Early Jurassic, approximately 190 million years ago, as a result of regional tectonics and mountain building in what ...
[41]
Behind the Scenes in Monument Valley - Smithsonian Magazine
The vast Navajo tribal park on the border of Utah and New Mexico stars in Hollywood movies but remains largely hidden to visitors.
[42]
Geolex — Navajo publications - National Geologic Map Database
Aug 28, 2025 · Named for exposures in the "Navajo country." No type locality designated. Name applied to a sandstone of Jurassic age that is assigned to ...
[43]
Geologic Formations: How Badlands Buttes Came to Be
Nov 10, 2020 · That's because in addition to being a geographic term, describing Badlands National Park in South Dakota, this word is also a geologic term!<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Sutter Buttes--The Lone Volcano in California's Great Valley
Apr 1, 2011 · Eruptions at the Sutter Buttes occurred in early Pleistocene time, 1.6 to 1.4 million years ago. The Sutter Buttes are not part of the Cascade ...Missing: Pliocene | Show results with:Pliocene
[45]
Purnululu National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
It includes the Bungle Bungle Range, a spectacularly incised landscape of sculptured rocks which contains superlative examples of beehive-shaped karst sandstone ...Missing: buttes | Show results with:buttes<|separator|>
[46]
Venezuela's Majestic Mountain Ranges | LAC Geo
Jun 18, 2025 · ... formations in Venezuela, with rocks dating back to the Precambrian era. ... Auyán-tepui, with its highest point at 2,450 meters (8,038 feet) ...
[47]
Venezuela's Flat-Topped Mountains - NASA Earth Observatory
Jul 12, 2021 · More than 100 tepuis, which can range 1,000 to 3,000 meters (3,000 to 10,000 feet) in height, are located in the park. Tepuis are some of the ...
[48]
(PDF) The Tepuis of the Guiana Highlands - ResearchGate
The interior of the Guiana region in north‐eastern South America was one of the last mountain areas to be explored in the. Americas; the flat and rocky ...
[49]
How the Bungle Bungles got their stripes - Geology Page
Mar 17, 2020 · The Bungle Bungles formed from river deposits. Iron-rich layers became red, and clay-rich layers with cyanobacteria became dark, creating the ...
[50]
[PDF] Petrogenesis and 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology of the Brandberg ...
The Brandberg Complex formed from evolved melts during early Cretaceous rifting, with metaluminous and peralkaline granites, and 40Ar/39Ar ages of 132-130 Ma.
[51]
Understanding The Spirituality of Monument Valley - Insight Vacations
Feb 26, 2024 · Monument Valley is more than just a Hollywood backdrop. Local Navajo guide Larry Holiday tells us more about its spiritual significance.
[52]
Gija creation story recognised for the first time at World Heritage ...
Jun 28, 2024 · Jirraginy joo Goorrarndal tells the area's creation story as passed down over tens of thousands of years by Gija traditional owners.Missing: buttes | Show results with:buttes
[53]
Battle of Pima Butte, Arizona - Legends of America
It was marked by intense hand-to-hand combat when warriors from the Yuma, Mojave, Apache, and Yavapai tribes attacked a Maricopa village named Secate. The ...
[54]
Lower Crab Creek Coulee - Buttes, Mesas and tsmee-toos?
Mar 8, 2009 · Several of these mesas may have been used as defensive positions by early Columbia Plateau residents. Mesas occupied by Native Americans were ...
[55]
Butte, Montana - Mining History Association
Butte, Montana was once known world-wide as The Richest Hill on Earth. A combination of geologic circumstances produced a mineral wealth that made hundreds ...Missing: true | Show results with:true
[56]
How Monument Valley Became the Most Iconic Landscape of the ...
Oct 29, 2019 · The movie world immediately saw potential, and Western directing legend John Ford chose the stunning location for his 1939 film Stagecoach. It ...
[57]
Monument Valley | Bluff, Utah
Viewed as a uniquely American icon, over 400,000 people from all over the world visit Monument Valley annually, providing a major source of income to the Navajo ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[58]
[PDF] Purnululu National Park - DBCA Library
Aboriginal people in the Kimberley passed on Dreaming stories about ... The geology of the Bungle Bungle Range is a complex story set over hundreds of millions of ...Missing: buttes | Show results with:buttes
[59]
(PDF) The Square Buttes in Art - Academia.edu
George Catlin's early sketches in 1832 marked the buttes' artistic representation, followed by works from Karl Bodmer and Carl F. Wimar in mid-19th century.
[60]
3.3 Western American literature - Fiveable
The vast expanse of the Great Plains became a powerful symbol in Western literature · Authors used the open prairie to evoke feelings of freedom, possibility, ...<|separator|>