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Tepui

A tepui (Spanish: tepuy; Pemon: tepüi, meaning "house of the gods") is a table-top mountain or mesa characterized by steep, vertical cliffs and a relatively flat summit, primarily located in the Guiana Highlands of northern South America, spanning Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, and extending into parts of Suriname and Colombia.^[1]^[2] These formations, remnants of an ancient sandstone plateau, are among the oldest exposed geological features on Earth, dating back to the Paleoproterozoic era (approximately 1.6 to 2.5 billion years old), and cover an area exceeding 1.35 million square kilometers.^[1]^[3] Geologically, tepuis consist of thick layers of quartz sandstone from the Roraima Supergroup, formed through sediment deposition over a granite basement and subsequent tectonic uplift around 180 million years ago, followed by extensive erosion that isolated them as dramatic, sheer-walled plateaus rising up to 3,000 meters above sea level.^[1]^[2] This erosion has created unique features, including the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls on Auyán-tepui (979 meters), and extensive cave systems like Imawarì Yeuta, which spans 22 kilometers.^[2]^[1] The summits, often above 1,500 meters, function as "sky islands" or ecological isolates, with cooler, wetter climates distinct from the tropical lowlands below, supporting specialized habitats such as peatlands, sclerophyllous woodlands, and rocky meadows.^[3]^[1] Tepuis are renowned for their extraordinary biodiversity, hosting over 2,100 plant species—of which about 1,300 (roughly one-third) are endemic—along with 628 bird species (41 endemic) and high rates of endemism in amphibians and reptiles (up to 68%).^[1]^[2] This isolation has fostered unique evolutionary adaptations, including carnivorous plants from families like Sarraceniaceae and diverse cave-dwelling species such as blind fish and specialized bacteria.^[1]^[2] Notable tepuis include Mount Roraima (2,810 meters) and Pico da Neblina (nearly 3,000 meters), with Roraima holding cultural significance for indigenous Pemón peoples, and the cluster within Venezuela's Canaima National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site spanning over 30,000 square kilometers that protects these fragile ecosystems from human impacts.^[1]^[3] Ongoing geological processes, including slight tectonic uplift, continue to shape these formations, underscoring their role in understanding ancient Earth history and global biodiversity hotspots.^[1]

Physical Characteristics

Morphology

Tepuis are flat-topped, steep-sided mountains or mesas characteristic of the Guiana Highlands in northern South America, often referred to as table mountains due to their mesa-like structure.^[1] The term "tepui" derives from the Pemón indigenous language, where it is believed to mean "house of the gods," reflecting the cultural reverence these formations hold among local peoples.^[1] These landforms typically rise to elevations between 1,000 and 3,000 meters above sea level, with approximately 115 tepuis collectively covering a total summit surface area of about 6,000 km². Individual tepuis vary greatly in size, from small outcrops spanning just a few square kilometers to larger massifs exceeding 600 km², such as Auyán-tepui at around 667 km².^[4] Their summits are predominantly flat, capped by resistant quartzite sandstone layers that contribute to their table-like appearance.^[5] Structurally, tepuis are defined by near-vertical cliffs that often reach heights of 200–400 meters, though some escarpments exceed 1,000 meters, creating dramatic isolation from surrounding lowlands.^[1] These cliffs feature deeply incised edges shaped by long-term erosion, forming steep escarpments and sheer faces around the plateau margins.^[1] The summit surfaces consist of nutrient-poor, sandy soils derived from weathered quartz sandstone, which exhibit poor drainage and result in predominantly boggy or rocky terrains interspersed with rocky outcrops and shallow depressions.^[1]

Geology and Formation

Tepuis are integral components of the Guiana Shield, a vast Precambrian craton spanning northeastern South America that has remained tectonically stable for over 1.7 billion years, with minimal seismic activity due to its position as an ancient, rigid continental block shaped by early Proterozoic orogenies such as the Trans-Amazonian Orogeny (approximately 2.1 to 1.95 billion years ago).^[6] This shield formed through collisions between Archean and Paleoproterozoic terranes, including the assembly with the West African craton during supercontinent cycles like Columbia, creating a basement of granitic and metamorphic rocks that underlie the sedimentary layers of the tepuis.^[6] The tepuis themselves cap this ancient foundation, representing erosional remnants of a once-extensive sandstone plateau. The primary rock composition of tepuis consists of quartz arenites and sandstones from the Paleoproterozoic Roraima Supergroup, deposited approximately 1.87 billion years ago in a vast foreland basin as fluvial and shallow marine sediments up to 3,000 meters thick, often cemented into resistant quartzite layers that form the characteristic table-top structures. These sediments, sourced from eroding orogenic belts to the north and east, include minor conglomerates, shales, and volcanic tuffs, with intrusions of dolerite dykes and sills adding structural complexity.^[1] The supergroup's deposition occurred during a period of tectonic quiescence following major shield assembly, but subsequent epeirogenic uplift associated with the Mesozoic breakup of Gondwana around 90 million years ago elevated the plateau, initiating the modern landscape.^[1] The distinctive isolation of tepuis as "island mountains" resulted from differential erosion starting around 70–90 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous, when softer surrounding sedimentary and basement rocks weathered away more rapidly than the erosion-resistant quartzite caprock, fragmenting the uplifted plateau into discrete tablelands.^[7] This process of relief inversion involved parallel escarpment retreat and undercutting at cliff bases, where chemical and physical weathering exploits joints and bedding planes, gradually dissecting summits and forming steep, near-vertical walls up to 1,000 meters high.^[1] Ongoing erosion continues to shape tepuis through fluvial incision and mass wasting, though at a slow rate due to the quartz-rich lithology's resistance to dissolution, contributing to their role as long-term stable habitats.^[2]

Geography and Climate

Distribution

Tepuis are primarily concentrated in the Pantepui biogeographic region of northern South America, spanning southeastern Venezuela, western Guyana, northern Brazil, and extending into parts of Suriname and southern Colombia.^[8] This region features isolated tabletop mountains rising above 1,000 meters, forming a discontinuous archipelago of elevated plateaus within the broader Guiana Shield. The Pantepui ecoregion itself covers approximately 5.1 million hectares across these countries, where tepuis dominate the landscape as ancient erosional remnants.^[8] Estimates indicate over 50 major tepuis in the Pantepui region, with the total number, including smaller formations, approaching 115; these are often clustered into large massifs such as the Chimantá Massif, which comprises around 11 interconnected tepuis with a summit area of 615 km², and the Auyán Massif, encompassing expansive plateaus like Auyán-tepui. The collective summit area of all tepuis totals about 5,000 km², representing isolated habitats elevated between 1,500 and 3,000 meters above sea level. This spatial arrangement underscores their role as sky islands, separated by steep cliffs and deep valleys.^[9]^[10]^[11] The majority of tepuis—over 100—are situated within Venezuela's Canaima National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site designated in 1994, where tepui formations cover roughly 65% of the park's 3 million hectares. Smaller clusters occur in protected areas elsewhere, including Guyana's Kaieteur National Park, which encompasses eastern extensions of the Pakaraima tepui chain; Brazil's Pico da Neblina National Park, home to highland tepuis like Serra da Neblina; Suriname's Central Suriname Nature Reserve, featuring Tafelberg Tepui; and Colombia's Chiribiquete National Park, a UNESCO site since 2018 with distinctive tepui formations. Notable boundary features include tri-border locations, such as Mount Roraima at the junction of Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil, highlighting the transboundary nature of the Pantepui landscape.^[12]^[2]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

Environmental Conditions

Tepui summits maintain a cool and humid climate, with average temperatures ranging from 8°C to 20°C annually, contrasting sharply with the warm, tropical conditions of the surrounding lowlands where temperatures often exceed 24°C.^[8]^[17]^[18] High rainfall, typically between 2,000 and 4,000 mm per year, sustains persistent humidity, while frequent orographic mists and occasional frosts—where temperatures can drop to 0°C—further define these isolated highland environments.^[8]^[4] The soils on tepui summits are characteristically thin, acidic (pH 3.1–5.3), and oligotrophic, exhibiting low nutrient retention due to the nutrient-poor quartzite sandstone substrate.^[19]^[20] Hydrologically, these landscapes feature waterlogged peat bogs that accumulate over rocky outcrops with impeded drainage, alongside seasonal streams and occasional waterfalls cascading from the plateaus.^[19] Diverse microhabitats emerge from these conditions, including wind-swept exposed plateaus, shaded cliff faces, and isolated wetlands, each shaped by the interplay of elevation, precipitation, and substrate.^[21]^[1] These habitats face heightened vulnerability to climate change, particularly through shifting rainfall patterns that could alter moisture regimes and exacerbate habitat fragmentation.^[22] Seasonal variations influence tepui ecosystems markedly, with the wet season from May to November fostering mist-shrouded forests through sustained high precipitation.^[23] In contrast, the ensuing dry season elevates fire risk in grassy areas, as reduced moisture combines with occasional lightning strikes on the summits.^[24] Such conditions drive unique adaptations in tepui flora and fauna, enabling persistence in these nutrient-scarce, variable environments as explored in biodiversity studies.^[1]

Biodiversity

Flora

The flora of the tepuis, part of the broader Pantepui biogeographic province, exhibits remarkable diversity and endemism shaped by the region's isolation and extreme conditions. Approximately 2,579 species of vascular plants occur across the Pantepui, with 34–40% endemic or nearly endemic to the area, reflecting the tepuis' role as "sky islands" that foster unique evolutionary radiations.^[25] This diversity is dominated by herbaceous plants and low shrubs, which prevail over taller woody forms due to the nutrient-impoverished, acidic sandstone-derived soils that limit tree growth and favor prostrate or cushion-like habits.^[8] Prominent among tepui plant groups are carnivorous species adapted to the oligotrophic environments, including the genus Heliamphora (Sarraceniaceae), which encompasses 24 species of marsh pitcher plants, all endemic to the Guiana Highlands tepuis.^[26] These trumpet-shaped pitchers capture insects and small vertebrates to supplement nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition. Sundews (Drosera spp., Droseraceae), such as the endemic D. roraimae and D. solaris, form rosettes of sticky, glandular leaves in seepage areas, similarly trapping prey for nutrients. Bromeliads (Bromeliaceae) are widespread, with tank-forming species like Brocchinia reducta displaying carnivorous adaptations through absorptive leaf trichomes that digest intercepted organic matter. Orchids (Orchidaceae) form the most species-rich family, accounting for about 258 species or roughly 10% of the Pantepui vascular flora, often as epiphytes or lithophytes in humid microhabitats. Sedge species (Cyperaceae), such as those in the genus Cyperus and Rhynchospora, dominate waterlogged boggy zones, forming dense mats that stabilize peat substrates.^[27] Tepui summits host stratified vegetation zones influenced by elevation, exposure, and hydrology, including expansive grasslands of bunchgrasses and sedges in open, windswept interiors; shrublands with sclerophyllous species like Bonnetia and Ternstroemia in sheltered depressions; and stunted elfin forests of dwarfed trees and epiphyte-laden branches along cliff edges, where mist and humidity support bryophytes and lichens. These zones transition abruptly due to the tepuis' steep escarpments and variable microclimates. Recent expeditions have continued to reveal novel biodiversity, such as the 2024 description of Heliamphora electrum, a new carnivorous species from the Sierra de Lema tepui, and in 2025, a new species of Thibaudia (Ericaceae) from the Venezuelan tepuis, underscoring the ongoing potential for discoveries in orchid and bromeliad lineages amid limited access.^[28]^[29] Tepui plants display specialized adaptations to nutrient scarcity, climatic extremes, and disturbances. Carnivory via pitfall traps in Heliamphora and adhesive mucilage in Drosera enables efficient scavenging of limiting nutrients like nitrogen from insect prey in soils where phosphorus levels are often below 0.01%. Low stature and rosette or tussock architectures confer resistance to gale-force winds exceeding 100 km/h on exposed summits, minimizing desiccation and mechanical damage. Many graminoid dominants, including poaceous bunchgrasses, exhibit fire tolerance through basal resprouting and protected meristems, allowing persistence in fire-prone grasslands where periodic burns, fueled by accumulated litter, prevent shrub encroachment and recycle nutrients.

Fauna

The fauna of tepuis exhibits remarkable endemism driven by the isolation of these tabletop mountains, resulting in a high proportion of species found nowhere else. While vertebrate diversity includes a diverse array of species across the Pantepui region, encompassing birds, amphibians, reptiles, and a limited number of mammals, invertebrates display even greater uniqueness, with groups like beetles, spiders, and land snails showing extreme levels of endemism—for instance, 19 out of 21 identified land snail species on Venezuelan tepuis are endemic.^[30]^[8] Mammal diversity remains low due to the challenges of dispersal across steep escarpments and surrounding lowlands, with only a few small species such as endemic rodents and opossums present as occasional visitors or relicts.^[31] Amphibians represent one of the most diverse and endemic vertebrate groups on tepuis, with over 100 frog species adapted to the summits' misty, nutrient-poor environments, including glass frogs (Cochranella spp.) and poison-dart frogs (Allobates spp.). These species often exhibit direct development, bypassing aquatic larval stages to reproduce in humid terrestrial habitats. Birds, numbering around 628 species in the broader Pantepui ecoregion with 41 endemics, include specialized tepui forms such as the Tepui swiftlet (Aerodramus sawtelli), Tepui antbird (Myrmeciza disjuncta), and Tepui goldenthroat (Polytmus milleri), which forage in the open skies and elfin forests of the plateaus. Reptiles feature unique geckos like the tepui gecko (Gonatodes humeralis tepuiensis), alongside lizards and snakes that have radiated into summit-specific niches, though overall reptile diversity is lower than in surrounding lowlands due to isolation.^[32]^[8]^[33] Recent expeditions have uncovered striking examples of microendemism, underscoring the tepuis' role as evolutionary hotspots. In 2024, two new species of marsupial frogs in the genus Stefania (S. imawari and S. macrogaster) were described from Angasima-tepui in Venezuela, each confined to ranges smaller than 3 km² and classified as Critically Endangered due to their restricted habitats. Similarly, in 2023, surveys on the Neblina massif revealed two new frog species representing entirely novel families and genera within Brachycephaloidea (Neblinaphrynidae and Caligophrynidae), highlighting deep evolutionary divergence isolated on this remote tepui.^[34]^[35] Ecological dynamics on tepui summits revolve around insect-centered food webs, where invertebrates form the base and support higher trophic levels. Amphibians, such as the endemic toads Oreophrynella spp., play key roles as active foragers consuming ants, beetles, and aquatic arthropods, serving as sensitive indicators of habitat integrity amid the oligotrophic conditions. Large predators are scarce, with the ecosystem dominated by small carnivores and insectivores that maintain balance through opportunistic predation rather than apex control.^[36]

Notable Tepuis

Mount Roraima

Mount Roraima, the highest and most emblematic tepui, straddles the tripoint border of Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil in the Guiana Highlands. Rising to an elevation of 2,772 meters (9,094 feet), its flat summit plateau spans approximately 31 square kilometers, characteristic of the isolated, table-like morphology typical of tepuis. The mountain was first sighted by Europeans in 1838 during an expedition led by German explorer Robert Schomburgk, who documented it while surveying the boundaries of British Guiana.^[37]^[38]^[39] The tepui's summit is renowned for its otherworldly landscape, including the Crystal Valley, a region strewn with large quartz crystals formed from the erosion of ancient sandstone layers rich in silica deposits. These hexagonal formations, often several centimeters long and translucent or pinkish due to manganese impurities, create a shimmering, cathedral-like expanse when illuminated by sunlight. Dramatic near-vertical cliffs, rising up to 400 meters in places, encircle the plateau, while black pools—dark, tannin-stained waters—and crystal-clear streams fed by rainwater carve through the terrain, forming features like Crystal Valley Falls and Triple Point Falls. This surreal isolation has long captivated imaginations, serving as the primary inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel The Lost World, which depicted a prehistoric plateau teeming with ancient life.^[40]^[41]^[42] Biodiversity on Mount Roraima is exceptionally high due to its long isolation, estimated at 70-90 million years, fostering a unique ecosystem with roughly one-third of its vegetation endemic to the summit. Over 300 species of plants and insects are found exclusively here, including carnivorous pitcher plants adapted to nutrient-poor soils and various orchids thriving in misty crevices. Notable fauna includes the Roraima black frog (Oreophrynella quelchii), a small, jet-black toad with yellow spots that crawls rather than hops and rolls into a ball to evade predators, alongside related pebble toads like Oreophrynella weiassipuensis. Endemic birds, such as rare nectar-sucking species and white bellbirds, inhabit the summit, contributing to the tepui's status as a "lost world" of evolutionary relics.^[40]^[43]^[41] Access to Mount Roraima is primarily via a challenging hiking route starting from Paraitepuy in Venezuela's Gran Sabana, involving a 6-8 day round-trip trek covering about 64 kilometers through savanna, rivers, and cloud forest. The ascent requires moderate to high physical fitness, with daily hikes of 4-8 hours, and mandatory guided tours to navigate the steep ramps and wet terrain leading to the summit. To mitigate environmental impact, annual visitor numbers are limited to around 3,000-4,000, enforced through park permits within Canaima National Park.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Auyán-tepui

Auyán-tepui, situated in Bolívar State within Venezuela's Canaima National Park in the Guayana Shield, is the largest tepui, featuring a summit plateau spanning approximately 667 km² and rising to a maximum elevation of 2,450 meters along its southern edge.^[4]^[4] The tepui's unevenly heart-shaped summit inclines from about 1,600 meters in the northwest to its highest points, encompassing diverse terrain including steep cliffs, deep crevices, and the origin of Angel Falls, the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall at 979 meters tall.^[47]^[48] This massive table-top formation is characterized by extensive cave systems, such as the Imawarì Yeuta cave, one of the longest quartzite cave networks globally, alongside savanna-like meadows, rocky outcrops, and forested areas that create varied microhabitats from wet plateaus to drier ridges.^[2]^[49] Angel Falls plunges from a prominent sandstone escarpment on the tepui's northeastern face, fed by the Churún River, contributing to the region's hydrological significance through rivers like the Caroní.^[50] Biodiversity on Auyán-tepui exhibits high endemism, particularly among amphibians and plants, supported by its isolated summit environments. Frogs, such as the endemic Oreophrynella cryptica (found at 1,750–2,330 meters) and Stefania schuberti (1,750–2,400 meters), thrive in microhabitats like bromeliad pools and tepui summits, with at least 13 anuran species documented, including several new to science like Hypsiboas angelicus.^[51]^[4] Orchids, including Odontoglossum praestans and Epidendrum species, along with bromeliads like Navia splendens, highlight floral diversity in scrub and meadow habitats.^[50]^[4] Exploration of Auyán-tepui gained prominence through early 20th-century aviation efforts, beginning with American pilot James Angel's sighting of Angel Falls on November 16, 1933, during a prospecting flight, followed by his 1937 plane landing on the summit that drew international attention.^[52] Subsequent scientific expeditions, such as the 1937–1938 American Museum of Natural History–Phelps Venezuelan Expedition and the 1994 AMNH–Terramar Expedition using helicopters to access remote camps up to 2,100 meters, have documented its biology and geology despite the tepui's remoteness limiting access.^[4]^[53]

Other Significant Tepuis

Autana Tepui, rising to approximately 1,300 meters, stands out for its distinctive cylindrical shape with a narrow base, flat summit, and near-vertical walls, formed from Precambrian quartzite.^[54] This isolated formation in Venezuela's Amazonas state features an extensive central cave system with 12 known openings, including one that pierces through the mountain, creating a dramatic "eye" portal visible from the southern wall.^[55] For the indigenous Piaroa people, Autana holds profound spiritual significance as Wahari-Kuawai, the "sacred tree of fruits of the world," symbolizing the origin of all life in their mythology.^[55] Sarisariñama Tepui is renowned for its four massive sinkholes, the largest of which, Sima Humboldt, plunges 314 meters deep and spans 352 meters wide at the rim, formed through the collapse of underground quartz sandstone tunnels eroded by percolating water.^[56]^[57] These inverted cone cavities, including the nearby Sima Martel at 248 meters deep, create isolated karst habitats that foster high levels of endemism, with unique herpetofaunal assemblages adapted to the dim, humid interiors.^[58]^[59] The tepui's remote location within Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park has preserved these features, making them accessible primarily to scientific expeditions. The Chimantá Massif comprises a cluster of about 11 interconnected tepuis with a total summit area of 615 square kilometers in southern Venezuela, characterized by rugged quartzite plateaus, deep valleys, and complex cave networks.^[60] This expansive formation has been a hotspot for recent biological discoveries, including new microendemic frog species such as Stefania lathropae on Murisipán-tepui in 2023 and Stefania imawari on Angasima-tepui in 2024, highlighting its role in harboring ancient, isolated lineages vulnerable to environmental changes.^[61]^[34] Ptari-tepui, part of the Chimantá Massif, is notable for its dramatic tepui-to-tepui waterfalls that cascade between adjacent summits, contributing to moist microhabitats amid the otherwise arid plateau.^[62] The tepui supports significant orchid diversity, including epiphytic species forming "orchid trees" and various terrestrial forms adapted to its rocky, nutrient-poor soils, underscoring its importance as a refuge for specialized flora in the Pantepui region.^[62]

Human Interaction

History and Exploration

The indigenous peoples of the Guayana Highlands, including the Pemon and Yanomami, have long possessed intimate knowledge of the tepuis, viewing them as sacred "houses of the gods" integral to their spiritual and ecological worldviews.^[40]^[63] European exploration began in the 19th century, with the first sighting of Mount Roraima occurring in 1838 by the German naturalist Robert Hermann Schomburgk during an expedition into British Guiana, Brazil, and Venezuela.^[64] The first successful ascent of Mount Roraima took place in 1884, led by British botanist Sir Everard im Thurn, accompanied by Harry Inniss Perkins and local guides, marking a pivotal moment in accessing the isolated summits.^[65] In the 20th century, aviation enabled broader reconnaissance of the tepuis, exemplified by American pilot Jimmie Angel's 1935 flight over Auyán-tepui, which revealed the world's tallest waterfall and sparked further interest in the region's geology and biodiversity.^[52] Systematic scientific efforts intensified in the 1950s and 1960s through Venezuelan-led botanical expeditions by researchers like Julian Steyermark and Bassett Maguire, who mapped numerous tepuis and surrounding lowlands in the emerging Canaima National Park area.^[66] These efforts culminated in the 1970s with additional Venezuelan surveys that expanded knowledge of the tepui ecosystems, contributing to the park's designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 for its unique geological and biological significance.^[67] Recent decades have seen targeted biological expeditions amid ongoing discoveries, such as the 2023 studies on the Neblina massif that identified two new frog families, genera, and species representing deeply rooted lineages within Brachycephaloidea, underscoring the tepuis' role in amphibian evolution.^[35] In 2024, a survey on Angasima-tepui documented two new microendemic frog species of the genus Stefania, highlighting the summits' isolation-driven endemism.^[34] Looking ahead, a 2025 expedition to the Tulu-Tuloi Range is planned to further explore these remote formations.^[68] Exploration of the tepuis remains hampered by extreme remoteness, steep escarpments, and harsh weather, resulting in incomplete surveys; only a fraction of the summits—estimated at around 50%—have been thoroughly investigated, limiting comprehensive understanding of their biodiversity.^[35]^[69]

Conservation Challenges

Tepuis face significant conservation challenges from anthropogenic activities and environmental changes, threatening their unique island-like ecosystems and high endemism. Illegal gold mining has resurged on tepui summits in 2025, causing deforestation and ecosystem degradation within protected areas. For instance, in Canaima National Park, mining operations have encroached near Angel Falls, leading to habitat loss and mercury pollution that impacts aquatic life and downstream communities.^[70] A November 2025 report further details how illegal mining in Canaima threatens Pemón indigenous communities through environmental degradation and human rights violations.^[71] Similarly, on Yapacana Tepui, satellite imagery detected 22.4 hectares of new deforestation from mining between March 2024 and August 2025, following zero detections in 2024, amid ongoing cumulative impacts from prior operations since 2020, despite prior removal efforts.^[72] This activity, often controlled by armed groups, has escalated violence against indigenous peoples and environmental defenders in southern Venezuela's mining regions.^[73] Climate change poses a growing threat to tepui biodiversity, particularly amphibians confined to summits with limited dispersal options. Ongoing warming drives habitat shifts, with tepui species especially vulnerable to droughts and reduced breeding habitats.^[74] A 2023 global assessment highlighted climate change as the primary driver of status deterioration for 39% of amphibian populations since 2004, with tepui species especially vulnerable to droughts and reduced breeding habitats.^[75] These impacts exacerbate risks for endemic frogs, many of which rely on specific microhabitats now projected to disappear.^[75] Tourism, while promoting awareness, introduces risks of disease transmission to isolated wildlife populations on tepui summits, which serve as refugia from global pathogens like chytridiomycosis (Bd fungus). A 2022 study found Bd infections in 1.39% of sampled amphibians, rising to 9% near tourist trails and campsites, affecting endemic species such as Oreophrynella quelchii with up to 26% prevalence in proximity to infrastructure.^[76] Additionally, habitat fragmentation from uncontrolled fires and invasive species further isolates populations; fires pose a threat, contributing to habitat degradation for species like the Tepui tinamou (Crypturellus ptaritepui), while tourist-introduced plants on Mount Roraima threaten native flora.^[77]^[46] Conservation efforts center on protected areas and international assessments to mitigate these threats. Canaima National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site covering 3 million hectares with 65% tepui formations, enforces zoning for integral protection, limiting human access to allow ecological monitoring and research.^[12] The IUCN has recognized many tepui endemics as Critically Endangered, including two newly discovered frog species in 2024—Stefania imawari and S. upuigmae—each confined to less than 3 km² on Angasima- and Upuigma-tepuis, vulnerable to fires and climate shifts.^[34] International collaborations, such as WWF-supported initiatives in the Guiana Shield encompassing Pantepui, promote monitoring and sustainable management to protect these hotspots.^[78] Recent developments underscore the urgency for expanded action. The 2025 MAAP report on Yapacana Tepui documented resumed mining despite dismantlement, prompting calls for strengthened enforcement.^[72] Post-2023 amphibian vulnerability assessments have advocated for enhanced monitoring networks to track climate-driven declines and habitat fragmentation, emphasizing the need for adaptive strategies in Pantepui conservation.^[75] These efforts aim to safeguard the tepuis' endemic species, which face compounded risks from multiple stressors.

Cultural and Popular Significance

Tepuis hold profound spiritual importance for indigenous peoples of the Guiana Shield, particularly the Pemon, who refer to them as "houses of the gods" or "houses of the spirits," viewing them as sacred abodes inhabited by powerful entities that maintain cosmic balance.^[40]^[79] In Pemon cosmology, these formations are not merely geological features but kin-like guardians, with oral traditions recounting humans transformed into stone on their cliffs and emphasizing a relationship of respect and reciprocity.^[80] Accessing tepui summits is often considered a spiritual transgression without proper rituals or purpose, reinforcing taboos that prohibit casual intrusion to avoid disturbing resident spirits.^[80] Tourism to tepuis has grown into a key economic driver for local communities, attracting thousands of adventurers annually to trails like those leading to Mount Roraima, drawn by the promise of pristine ecosystems and dramatic landscapes.^[81] Eco-tourism initiatives, such as those centered in Canaima National Park, promote sustainable stays at indigenous-run lodges like Campamento Wey Tepuy and Waku Lodge, which offer guided experiences while integrating Pemon cultural elements.^[82]^[83] Access is regulated to designated areas, including Roraima and Auyán-tepui, to curb environmental degradation from foot traffic and waste, ensuring tourism aligns with conservation goals.^[17] In popular culture, tepuis have captivated global imaginations, serving as the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel The Lost World, which depicted a prehistoric plateau teeming with dinosaurs based on accounts of these isolated sky islands.^[84] This motif persisted in Pixar's 2009 film Up, where the fictional Paradise Falls mirrors Angel Falls on Auyán-tepui, portraying a lush, unattainable tepui summit as a symbol of adventure and wonder.^[85] Documentaries like PBS's The Lost World (1994) and Islands in the Sky (2003) further highlight tepuis' unique biodiversity, while films such as Arachnophobia (1990) draw on Venezuelan tepui-inspired settings to evoke exotic peril through arachnid threats originating from the region's rainforests.^[84]^[86] Tepuis continue to symbolize unparalleled biodiversity in contemporary environmental media, raising public awareness about Amazonian conservation through coverage of recent scientific expeditions that uncover endemic species.^[68] Outlets like Mongabay have spotlighted tepui ecosystems in 2024 reports, linking geological isolation to evolutionary hotspots and underscoring their role in global efforts to protect threatened habitats.^[87]

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[11]
Boletín de la AeE - Asociación española de Entomología
The elevation of the Pantepui ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 m a. s. l. and the total summit area extends up to 5,000 km2. Until now, only 6 species from families ...
[12]
Chimantá Massif - Canaima National Park - Venezuela - Summit Post
The massif comprises around 11 tepuis and has a total summit area of 615 km2 (237 sq mi) and an estimated slope area of 915 km2 (353 sq mi). It is divided ...
[13]
Canaima National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Roughly 65% of the park is covered by table mountain (tepui) formations. The tepuis constitute a unique biogeological entity and are of great geological ...
[14]
[PDF] Structure and diversity of a riparian forest at Kaieteur National Park ...
this plateau is an eastern extension of the largely Venezuelan Roraima sandstone formation that forms the flat table-top mountains known as tepuis. the ...
[15]
Neblina Peak : Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering : SummitPost
Overview. Pico da Neblina (Fog Peak) is the highest mountain in Brazil, 2,994 metres above sea level, in the Imeri mountain range (Serra do Imeri), ...
[16]
CANAIMA NATIONAL PARK - World Heritage Datasheet
And the cloud forest on the low tepui of Sierra de Lema is one of the most richly endemic areas in Venezuela. Summit forests are low (8-15m) and species-poor; ...
[17]
Tabletop mountains or tepuis of Venezuela - Times of India
Dec 30, 2014 · The top is often cooler with frequent rainfall, while the bases of the mountains have a tropical, warm and humid climate. Many extraordinary ...
[18]
Tepui Peatlands: Setting and Features | Request PDF - ResearchGate
Typically, these ecosystems face harsh environmental conditions (Jacobi et al., 2007;Silveira et al., 2016); for example, soils can range from pure sand to ...
[19]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226139144_Tepui_Peatlands_Setting_and_Features
[20]
[PDF] Smithsonian Plant Collections, the Guianas 1991–1993 and 1995 ...
The summit ridge was a slanted, wind-swept area of mountain savanna and ... shed; cliff faces; 1 km due S of Marali Falls. 7 August. 1992. 6°14′50″N 60 ...
[21]
Potential Responses of Vascular Plants from the Pristine “Lost World ...
Jan 25, 2017 · Other potential environmental forcings (i.e., precipitation shifts, an increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration) and idiosyncratic plant ...
[22]
Discover Venezuela's Angel Falls: A Fiery Cascade in Canaima
Oct 23, 2025 · - ‎June to November, during the rainy season, when water flow is ... dry seasons and reappear dramatically in summer. How to Get ...<|separator|>
[23]
[PDF] Fire Ecology of the Guayana Region, Northeastern South America
In this paper I review the literature and report my personal observa- tions of fires on the flanks and summits of only a few of the approximately fifty tepuis ...
[24]
Vascular plants and bryophytes - ScienceDirect.com
For vascular plants, we report 2579 species known from Pantepui, of which 34%–40% are endemic or nearly endemic.
[25]
Growing Heliamphora | ICPS - International Carnivorous Plant Society
There are at least 23 species of Heliamphora and many hybrids in the wild. The plants are found only in the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela and adjacent Guyana ...
[26]
Expanding the Distribution of Prosthechea jauana (Orchidaceae) in ...
Jan 13, 2024 · Orchidaceae is the richest family in the Pantepui vascular flora, corresponding to ~10% (258 species) of the total flora. However, only 20% of ...
[27]
[PDF] Heliamphora electrum (Sarraceniaceae), an enigmatic species of ...
Mar 1, 2024 · Abstract: A new species of marsh pitcher plant, Heliamphora electrum, is described from the Sierra de Lema in Venezuela.
[28]
Venezuelan tepui – their caves and biota - Academia.edu
Auyán Tepui is the largest of the sampled Gryllidae, Palangopsidae and Rhaphidiophoridae families, as tepuis, with a total surface area of 700 km2. It is ...
[29]
[PDF] Amphibians and reptiles of Guyana, South America: illustrated keys ...
This diverse fauna results from the geographic position of Guyana on the Guiana Shield and the isolated highlands or tepuis of the eastern part of the Pantepui ...
[30]
Neblinaphrynidae - AmphibiaWeb
Known only from the elevated mountaintop (tepui) called the Neblina massif in northern Brazil, the family Neblinaphrynidae was described in 2023 by Fouquet ...
[31]
Tepui Goldenthroat - Polytmus milleri - Birds of the World
The Tepui Goldenthroat is a large hummingbird found in isolated tepui mountains in northern South America. Though previously thought to be endemic to ...Missing: reptiles examples
[32]
Head in the clouds: two new microendemic tepui-summit species of ...
Aug 1, 2024 · Both new species have highly restricted geographic ranges (less than 3 km2) and should be listed as Critically Endangered according to IUCN ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[33]
Two new frog families, genera and species highlight the role of ...
We discovered two new frog species from the Neblina massif, Pantepui. Both species represent deeply rooted new lineages within Brachycephaloidea.Missing: Angasima- | Show results with:Angasima-
[34]
Thriving in a hostile world: Insights from the dietary strategy of two ...
May 27, 2021 · The present data suggest that tepui summit Oreophrynella species are flexible in their diet and are active foragers that also feed on aquatic arthropods.<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790323002713
[36]
Monte Roraima - Peakbagger.com
Elevation: 2810 meters, 9219 feet ; Highest Summit, Maverick Stone ; Subpeaks, Mount Roraima - Guyana High Point (2772 m/9094 ft) Monte Roraima - Triple Country ...
[37]
Mount Roraima, Venezuela - Geology Science
May 7, 2023 · Tepui Formation: Tepuis are ancient table-top mountains characterized by steep vertical walls and flat, plateau-like summits. They are part of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
Mount Roraima: The 'lost world' isolated for millions of years that ...
Mar 7, 2025 · Geologists call this kind of formation a "tepui," which means "house ... 70 million to 90 million years, according to a 2012 study.
[39]
An unexplored world soars high above the Amazon
Mar 22, 2022 · A flat-topped peak gives researchers a chance to identify new species and unlock secrets of evolution. The biggest challenge: getting there.
[40]
Venezuela's lost world - BBC
Oct 25, 2012 · In southern Venezuela's tepuis – the sandstone, table-topped mountains that inspired Sir Arthur Conan-Doyle's novel The Lost World ...
[41]
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/untouched-by-time-this-pristine-world-soars-high-above-the-amazon-feature
[42]
Hiking Mount Roraima: the complete guide - Worldpackers
The trek can last from 7 to 9 days, with 3 days going up and 2 days going down in any of the options. What changes is the number of days you spend up there. On ...
[43]
Mount Roraima Venezuela - Hiking Guide - STINGY NOMADS
Jun 15, 2020 · The Mount Roraima Hike -7 Days 6 Nights. The return hike from Paraitepuy usually takes 6 to 8 days, three days to reach the top, then one to ...
[44]
Is tourism threatening the 'Lost World' of Roraima? | CABI News
Sep 7, 2016 · Roraima receives between 3000 and 4000 tourists per year and, in spite of current conservation rules, this has resulted in obvious vegetation ...
[45]
Auyán Tepuy - PeakVisor
It is the most visited and one of the largest (but not the highest) tepuis in the Guiana Highlands, with a summit area of 666.9 km2 (257.5 sq mi)
[46]
Waterfall - National Geographic Education
Oct 19, 2023 · Angel Falls, the world's tallest waterfall, plummets 979 meters (3,212 feet) into a remote canyon in a rain forest in Venezuela. The water, ...
[47]
Tepuis and quartzite karst of Gran Sabana - IUGS-Geoheritage.org
... rock cliffs hundreds of meters high. ... The region hosts some of the longest caves in quartz sandstones globally and several shafts exceed 300 meters deep.Missing: height | Show results with:height
[48]
[PDF] THE VENEZUELAN BOTANICAL REPORT, EDITION III
Auyántepui is an orchid lover's Paradise with many terrestrial and epiphytic species. Except for Cymbidium orchids which can tolerate low temperatures 7° C ...
[49]
[PDF] Checklist of the Terrestrial Vertebrates of the Guiana Shield
table waterfalls of the region include Angel Falls. (979 m) on Auyán-tepui ... (Anura: Bufonidae) de la cima del Auyán-tepui, Edo. Bo- lıvar, Venezuela ...
[50]
Angel Falls - Jimmie Angel Historical Project
1937: Jimmie Angel and Angel Falls became better known to the world as the result of his 9 October 1937 landing of El Rio Caroni on Auyántepui in search of the ...
[51]
Scientist of the Day - Jimmie Angel, American Aviator and Explorer
Dec 8, 2021 · It was while on a solo flight on Nov. 18, 1933, that Angel flew over one of the tepuis, Auyán-tepui, and saw the granddaddy of all waterfalls, ...
[52]
Tepui, at the thereshold of time | milesbeyond.it
Autana Tepui: the sacred three of life of the Piaroa indigenous tribe, a tower of quartzite rising 1300 meters above the Amazonian forests.Missing: maximum | Show results with:maximum<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
[PDF] Autana - Eye of the Gods - Leveret Croft
Cerro Autana, a small isolated tepui, or table mountain composed of Lower Precambrian ... In all there are 12 openings in the cave system, one of which pierces.Missing: geology | Show results with:geology
[54]
Sarisariñama sinkhole — Charles Brewer Carias
‭ ‬This sink hole or‭ “‬Sima de hundimiento‭” ‬is an inverted cone cavity‭ ‬352‭ ‬meters wide at the mouth and‭ ‬500‭ ‬meters at the bottom and is‭ ‬350‭ ‬ ...
[55]
Genesis of giant sinkholes and caves in the quartz sandstone of ...
Quartz sandstone of the Sarisariñama massif in Venezuela hosts the world biggest collapse dolines in quartz-rich lithologies, with volumes up to some ...
[56]
The Sinkholes of Cerro Sarisarinama - Amusing Planet
Feb 26, 2015 · The other well known sinkhole Sima Martel is equally impressive at 248 meters deep. Both sinkholes are roughly circular and are located just 700 ...
[57]
Herpetological results of the 2002 expedition to Sarisariñama, a ...
Nov 26, 2008 · Sarisariñama is well known among spelunkers for its sinkholes (simas), among which Sima Mayor is the largest on earth. Herpetofaunal surveys at ...Missing: formation sources
[58]
https://www.amusingplanet.com/2015/02/the-sinkholes-of-cerro-sarisarinama.html
[59]
New species of bumpy frog discovered on Venezuela mountain
Jul 6, 2023 · Scientist exploring summit of Murisipán-tepui found animals hiding under rocks and discovered a new species: Stefania lathropae, study said.Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
[60]
[PDF] A tour of the Venezuelan Gran Sabana and some of its Tepuis
Flora on the summit of Ptari Tepui, from left: an “orchid tree”; Paepalanthus sp; Stegolepis sp. way down the steep, slippery side. The bottom was very narrow ...
[61]
(PDF) Indigenous people and vegetation in the Venezuelan Guayana
Nov 10, 2017 · ... Pemon, the. Yekuana, the Yanomami, and the Piaroa, have homelands ... explorations now allow us to evaluate far more realistically. the ...
[62]
Robert H. Schomburgk Explores the Interior of British Guyana, Brazil ...
Schomburgk Explores the Interior of British Guyana, Brazil, and Venezuela and Is the First European to Visit Mount Roraima.Missing: sighting | Show results with:sighting
[63]
13 interesting facts about Mount Roraima - Osprey Expeditions
Dec 31, 2021 · Frustratingly for Raleigh, he was unable to climb Roraima. Based on historical records the mount was first climbed in 1884 by Sir Everard Thurn.
[64]
Meseta de Ichúm Paragua River Expedition Report for Explorers Club
My originally stated objectives were, “To trace the source of the Paragua River in the unexplored Meseta de Ichúm (one of Venezuela's largest and least explored ...
[65]
[PDF] Canaima National Park and World Heritage Site, Venezuela
In recognition of its extraordinary scenery and geological and biological values, the park was accorded World Heritage status in 1994, forming one of a select ...
[66]
New frog species show how geology shapes Amazon's biodiversity
a species that lived 55 million years ago in the ...Missing: Angasima- tepui survey
[67]
The Pantepui “Lost World”: Towards a Biogeographical, Ecological ...
Due to its remoteness, Pantepui is challenging for biological surveys, and only a glimpse of its biodiversity has been described, which hampers ...
[68]
Illegal mining reaches Venezuela's famed Angel Falls, threatens ...
Illegal mining reaches Venezuela's famed Angel Falls, threatens treasured national park ... Illegal gold mining continues to harm Amazon ecosystem.
[69]
MAAP #234: Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park ...
Oct 14, 2025 · However, we now present evidence that the illegal mining activity has resumed on top of the tepui in 2025. We also show continuing mining ...Missing: Canaima | Show results with:Canaima
[70]
A Curse of Gold: Mining and Violence in Venezuela's South
Jul 29, 2025 · Illegal gold mining is doing growing damage to southern Venezuela, its delicate ecosystem and its people. Curbing this harm is up to the ...
[71]
Ongoing declines for the world’s amphibians in the face of emerging threats - Nature
### Summary of Climate Change Impacts on Amphibians
[72]
The lost world: Venezuela's unique tepui frogs face new perils
Oct 14, 2023 · There are more than 50 tepuis in Venezuela. Translated as “house of ... Many of these species are found only on a single tepui, giving ...Missing: total | Show results with:total
[73]
Tourism may threaten wildlife disease refugia - Conservation Biology
Jun 13, 2022 · The remoteness and isolation of South American tabletop mountain (tepui) summits may protect against infections that underpin global amphibian declines.Missing: transmission | Show results with:transmission
[74]
Tepui Tinamou Crypturellus Ptaritepui Species Factsheet
Fire, subsistence agriculture and hunting may present some threat (D. Ascanio in litt. 2007). However, rates of tree cover loss are <1% over three generations ( ...
[75]
[PDF] NEW SPECIES DISCOVERIES IN THE AMAZON 2014-15 - WWF-UK
Sep 4, 2017 · A new species of the Pantepui endemic genus Riolama. (Squamata: Gymnophthalmidae) from the summit of Murisipán-tepui, with the erection of a new ...
[76]
Removing Illegal Mining from Sacred Tepui in Yapacana ... - MAAP
Apr 1, 2024 · The images reveal that all illegal mining camps and equipment on top of the tepui have been effectively dismantled. That is, we went from 425 ...
[77]
The Ancient Sky Islands of the Amazon - Orinoco Magazine
Sep 4, 2025 · Rituals, taboos, and narratives about the tepuis are still alive today, binding people and place in a relationship of respect and reciprocity.
[78]
Adventurers Flock to Venezuelan Mountain Inspiring 'The Lost World'
Feb 3, 2015 · Standing at more than 2,800 meters (9,200 feet) high, Roraima is sacred ground for the Pemons and a spiritual symbol for many other Venezuelans.<|separator|>
[79]
Campamento Wey Tepuy - Canaima National Park Hotels
Rating 3.1 (29) This a tremendous camp, right by the shores of the beautiful Lake Canaima, with multiple impressive small waterfalls and beaches dotted around.Missing: eco- | Show results with:eco-
[80]
Letters from Venezuela: From Tepuis to Angel Falls and The Luxury ...
Sep 26, 2025 · In Pemon people folklore, tepui are taboo and “house of spirits”, a place that was rarely visited, and Auyán-tepui was even called “devil's ...
[81]
Living Edens: The Lost World | About | Nature - PBS
a land that time forgot.
[82]
Paradise Falls | Disney Wiki | Fandom
Paradise Falls is a location in the 2009 Disney/Pixar animated feature film, Up. Paradise Falls is based on the real-life Angel Falls, located in Venezuela, ...
[83]
Nature | Islands in the Sky | Season 8 | Episode 18 - PBS
Jun 1, 2023 · [insects chirping] - [George] Schubert and his assistant take samples of peat moss. ... rainfall into the many streams which feed the vast ...
[84]
Mongabay's most impactful investigations of 2024
Dec 31, 2024 · This year, Mongabay published in-depth investigations on critical environmental issues. Our reporting revealed evidence of ecosystem destruction ...