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CD86

CD86, also known as B7-2, is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein encoded by the CD86 gene located on the long arm of human chromosome 3 (3q13.33).^[1] This gene spans approximately 66 kb and consists of eight exons, producing multiple transcript variants that encode protein isoforms through alternative splicing.^[1] The CD86 protein belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily and plays a pivotal role in modulating T-cell responses during adaptive immunity.^[1] Structurally, CD86 features an extracellular domain composed of one variable-like (IgV) and one constant-like (IgC) immunoglobulin domain, a single transmembrane helix, and a short cytoplasmic tail containing motifs for intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal association. The IgV domain is primarily responsible for ligand binding, while the overall structure allows dimerization and interaction with immune receptors, sharing about 25-30% sequence identity with its homolog CD80 (B7-1).^[2] With a molecular mass of approximately 70 kDa when glycosylated, CD86 is expressed as a cell-surface molecule on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), though a soluble isoform (sCD86) can be shed or secreted via alternative splicing or proteolytic cleavage. Functionally, CD86 serves as a key costimulatory ligand in the immune synapse, binding to CD28 on naive T cells to deliver signal 2 necessary for full T-cell activation, proliferation, differentiation, and cytokine production such as interleukin-2 (IL-2).^[2] In contrast, its higher-affinity interaction with CTLA-4 (CD152) on activated or regulatory T cells transmits inhibitory signals that dampen T-cell responses, promoting immune tolerance and preventing autoimmunity.^[1] This dual role—costimulatory via CD28 and inhibitory via CTLA-4—positions CD86 as a critical regulator of the balance between immune activation and suppression. CD86 is constitutively expressed at low levels on resting APCs, including dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, and B cells, with expression rapidly upregulated on these and other cells (such as activated T and natural killer cells) in response to inflammatory stimuli like lipopolysaccharide (LPS), cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, TNF-α), or CD40 ligation. Transcriptional regulation involves nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways, and its surface density influences the threshold for T-cell priming versus exhaustion.^[1] Dysregulated CD86 expression has been implicated in various immune disorders, including autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, and malignancies, where it can promote tumor evasion or enhance antitumor immunity depending on context.

Gene and Expression

Gene Characteristics

The CD86 gene is located on the long arm of human chromosome 3 at the cytogenetic band 3q13.33.^[1] This positioning places it within a genomic region spanning approximately 66 kb, from nucleotide positions 122,055,362 to 122,121,136 on the reference genome assembly NC_000003.12.^[1] The gene structure comprises 8 exons, which encode multiple transcript variants, including a soluble isoform; the canonical isoform produces a precursor protein of 329 amino acids.^[1] In mice, the orthologous Cd86 gene resides on chromosome 16 at band B3.^[3] This conservation of synteny between human chromosome 3 and mouse chromosome 16 underscores the evolutionary stability of the locus across mammals. CD86 is a member of the B7 family of immune-regulatory ligands, exhibiting approximately 25% amino acid sequence identity with the related CD80 gene, which reflects shared ancestral origins within the immunoglobulin superfamily while highlighting distinct functional divergences.^[1] Polymorphisms in the CD86 gene contribute to inter-individual variations in immune responsiveness. For instance, the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1129055 in the CD86 promoter region has been linked to altered expression levels and increased susceptibility to sepsis in certain populations.^[4] Similarly, the SNP rs17281995 is associated with modified risk of immune-related conditions, such as colorectal cancer, through influences on T-cell costimulatory signaling.^[5] These variants demonstrate how genetic diversity in CD86 can modulate immune homeostasis and disease predisposition.

Cellular Expression Patterns

CD86 is primarily expressed on professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs), where it serves as a key co-stimulatory molecule. These include dendritic cells, which display constitutive surface expression of CD86 even in their immature state, as well as macrophages and resting monocytes that express it at baseline levels. Activated B lymphocytes also upregulate CD86 upon antigen encounter or cytokine stimulation, distinguishing them from resting B cells that lack significant expression. This pattern underscores CD86's role in bridging innate and adaptive immunity by enabling APCs to interact with T cells.^[6]^[7]^[8] The expression of CD86 is highly inducible, particularly in response to inflammatory cues that activate APCs. Toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation, such as by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) via TLR4, triggers rapid upregulation of CD86 through the NF-κB signaling pathway, enhancing APC maturation and co-stimulatory capacity. This induction occurs within hours of exposure to pro-inflammatory signals, promoting cytokine production and antigen presentation. In monocytes and dendritic cells, such activation leads to a marked increase in CD86 surface density, facilitating stronger T cell responses during infection or inflammation.^[9]^[10] Beyond immune cells, CD86 shows low-level constitutive expression in certain non-immune tissues under basal or stressed conditions. For instance, endothelial cells in vascular or islet tissues express minimal CD86 normally but upregulate it in response to stressors like ischemia-reperfusion injury or inflammatory cytokines, potentially contributing to local immune modulation. This ectopic expression highlights CD86's broader involvement in tissue homeostasis and pathology.^[11]^[12] In comparison to its homolog CD80, CD86 demonstrates quantitative advantages in expression dynamics on activated APCs. CD86 is generally more abundant on the cell surface and exhibits faster induction kinetics following activation signals, positioning it as the primary early co-stimulator during immune responses, while CD80 provides sustained support later. This temporal distinction allows for fine-tuned regulation of T cell activation.^[13]

Molecular Structure

Extracellular Domains

The extracellular region of CD86, spanning residues 24–247 of the 329-amino acid precursor protein following cleavage of the 23-residue signal peptide, adopts a structure composed of two immunoglobulin superfamily domains essential for ligand recognition and molecular interactions.^[14] The N-terminal immunoglobulin variable-like (IgV) domain, approximately residues 33–128, forms a compact β-sandwich fold that serves as the primary site for ligand engagement, while the C-terminal immunoglobulin constant-like (IgC) domain, spanning residues 150–223, provides structural rigidity to the overall architecture.^[14] These domains are connected by a flexible linker region that allows conformational adaptability.^[15] CD86 undergoes extensive N-linked glycosylation within its extracellular domains at multiple sites, including Asn110, Asn121, Asn129, Asn152, Asn167, and Asn188, which contribute to proper folding, stability, and the observed molecular weight of the mature glycoprotein at approximately 70 kDa under denaturing conditions.^[14]^[16] These posttranslational modifications modulate surface expression and interactions without directly participating in the core binding interface.90335-2/fulltext) The extracellular domains exhibit a propensity for homodimerization, mediated in part by interfaces involving the IgC domain, which can influence quaternary organization on the cell surface.^[15]^[17] This dimerization potential, combined with the flexibility at the IgV-IgC hinge, enables dynamic repositioning during immune synapse assembly, optimizing presentation to T cell receptors.^[15] Crystal structures of the isolated IgV domain (PDB: 1NCN) highlight the conserved β-sheet topology and surface loops critical for these functions, revealing a monomeric core with implications for dimer interfaces in the full-length context.^[18]

Transmembrane and Intracellular Regions

The transmembrane domain of human CD86, spanning residues 248 to 268, forms a hydrophobic α-helix that embeds the protein within the plasma membrane, facilitating its type I orientation with the extracellular domains facing outward. This helical structure is essential for stable anchoring and proper localization of CD86 on the surface of antigen-presenting cells.^[14] Adjacent to the transmembrane domain, the intracellular cytoplasmic tail of CD86 extends from residues 269 to 329, encompassing 61 amino acids—a length notably greater than the short cytoplasmic tail of its homolog CD80. Unlike CD80, this extended tail includes potential serine/threonine phosphorylation sites, such as three motifs recognized by protein kinase C (PKC), which may contribute to regulatory modifications influencing protein trafficking and stability. Additionally, the tail features a conserved polylysine motif that promotes association with the actin cytoskeleton, aiding in the organization of CD86 within the plasma membrane.^[14]^[19]^[20] The cytoplasmic domain of CD86 lacks canonical immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation (ITAM) or inhibition (ITIM) motifs, precluding direct tyrosine-based signaling; instead, it relies on recruitment of adaptor proteins for downstream effects. Post-translational modifications, including S-palmitoylation at cysteine residues near the transmembrane-cytoplasmic junction, further modulate the tail's localization and membrane association, potentially enhancing CD86's responsiveness in immune contexts.^[21]

Ligand Interactions

Interaction with CD28

CD86 interacts with CD28 primarily through its extracellular immunoglobulin variable-like (IgV) domain, forming a 1:1 monomeric complex that delivers a costimulatory signal essential for T-cell priming. This binding occurs between the IgV domain of CD86 on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and the corresponding IgV domain of CD28 on T cells, with the interaction mediated by the conserved MYPPPY motif in the CD28 binding face packing against the GFCC' β-sheet face of CD86.^[22] The moderate binding affinity of this interaction, characterized by a dissociation constant (K_d) of approximately 20 μM, reflects the relatively low avidity compared to other receptor-ligand pairs in the immune system, yet it is sufficient for effective costimulation during immune encounters.^[22] The kinetics of CD86-CD28 binding feature a rapid association rate (k_on ≥ 1.4 × 10^6 M^{-1} s^{-1}) and fast dissociation (k_off ≥ 28 s^{-1}), which are notably quicker in the on-rate than those observed for CD80-CD28 interactions. This kinetic profile allows CD86 to engage CD28 swiftly on APCs, facilitating rapid costimulatory signaling in the early phases of T-cell activation when antigen presentation is initiating.^[22] Unlike CD80, which can form dimers and exhibits slower kinetics favoring prolonged engagement, the monomeric nature of CD86 supports transient but efficient interactions suited to dynamic immunological synapses.^[22] Experimental evidence from CD86-deficient (CD86^{-/-}) mice demonstrates the necessity of this interaction for initial T-cell proliferation, as these animals show impaired early T-cell responses to antigens despite compensatory roles from CD80 in later stages. In such models, reduced CD28-mediated costimulation leads to defective priming of naive T cells, underscoring CD86's critical role in the onset of proliferative responses.^[23]

Interaction with CTLA-4

CD86 interacts with cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) with higher affinity than with CD28, exhibiting a monomeric dissociation constant (Kd) of approximately 2 μM, which is enhanced by bivalent engagement due to CTLA-4's dimeric structure, increasing overall avidity.^[24] This high-avidity binding allows CTLA-4, particularly on regulatory T cells (Tregs), to outcompete CD28 for CD86 on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), thereby dampening T cell activation.^[24]^[25] A distinctive mechanism of this interaction is transendocytosis, wherein CTLA-4 on Tregs captures CD86 from APC surfaces and internalizes it into the Treg via trogocytosis, leading to lysosomal degradation of CD86 and reducing its availability for co-stimulatory signaling.^[24]^[26] This process effectively removes CD86 from APCs, limiting co-stimulation of conventional T cells and promoting immune tolerance.^[26]^[27] Compared to CD80, CD86 demonstrates greater susceptibility to CTLA-4-mediated endocytosis, as evidenced by studies showing that CD86 dissociation occurs more readily post-internalization, enabling CTLA-4 recycling for repeated cycles of ligand removal, whereas CD80 remains bound, targeting CTLA-4 for degradation.^[24] This differential handling positions CD86 as a primary target for CTLA-4's regulatory function.^[24]^[28] In the context of feedback inhibition, CTLA-4-CD86 engagement facilitates immune dampening through cytoskeletal remodeling in Tregs, involving proteins like SWAP-70 that support actin dynamics essential for efficient transendocytosis and suppression of APC function.^[29] Recent post-2020 research highlights how this remodeling enhances the precision and efficacy of CD86 depletion, underscoring CTLA-4's role in maintaining immune homeostasis.^[29]

Physiological Functions

Co-stimulation of T Cells

CD86, primarily expressed on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and activated B cells, functions as a critical costimulatory ligand for the CD28 receptor on T cells. In the two-signal model of T cell activation, CD86 provides the indispensable second signal that synergizes with signal 1—the antigen-specific recognition of peptide-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) by the T cell receptor (TCR)—to prevent T cell anergy and induce full activation. This engagement ensures robust T cell responses during adaptive immunity, particularly in the priming phase where naive T cells encounter antigens in lymphoid organs. The binding of CD86 to CD28 triggers intracellular signaling cascades that activate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), leading to the recruitment and phosphorylation of Akt (also known as protein kinase B). Activated Akt promotes the transcription of interleukin-2 (IL-2) by enhancing nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activity, while also stabilizing IL-2 mRNA. These events drive T cell survival, prevent apoptosis, and facilitate clonal expansion through autocrine IL-2 signaling, enabling sustained proliferation essential for mounting effective immune responses. CD86-mediated costimulation, often in conjunction with CD80, contributes to the differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into effector subsets, preferentially supporting Th2 and Th17 responses, while CD80 plays a more prominent role in Th1 differentiation; outcomes are influenced by the local cytokine environment and APC type. For instance, in the presence of IL-4, CD86 supports Th2 differentiation for humoral immunity; transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and IL-6 promote Th17 development for mucosal defense with CD86 involvement. This priming is indispensable for naive T cell commitment to effector functions, as CD86-CD28 interactions lower the activation threshold and amplify cytokine-driven polarization.^[30] Evidence from CD80/CD86 double-deficient mouse models reveals impaired antigen-specific T cell activation and proliferation, with reduced IL-2 and interferon-γ production in response to viral or nominal antigens. In these models, T cell responses to infections like lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus are attenuated, particularly in secondary recall, highlighting the combined roles of CD80 and CD86 in sustaining effector differentiation and memory formation, with partial redundancy between the two ligands.^[31]

Role in Regulatory T Cells

Regulatory T cells (Tregs), characterized by high expression of the transcription factor FoxP3, play a central role in maintaining immune homeostasis by suppressing excessive immune responses. CD86 contributes to this suppressive function primarily through its interaction with CTLA-4 on Tregs, which enables the sequestration of CD86 from antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Tregs express elevated levels of CTLA-4 compared to conventional T cells, allowing them to bind CD86 with high affinity and deplete it from APC surfaces via trogocytosis—a process where membrane fragments containing CD86 are transferred to the Treg. This depletion prevents CD86 from engaging CD28 on effector T cells, thereby inhibiting their activation and proliferation.^[26] In the context of peripheral tolerance, CD86 downregulation by Tregs is crucial for inducing and maintaining anergy in self-reactive T cells. Without sufficient CD86-mediated costimulation, self-antigens presented by APCs fail to fully activate autoreactive T cells, leading to a state of functional unresponsiveness or anergy that prevents autoimmune responses. This mechanism ensures that potentially harmful self-reactive clones remain dormant in the periphery, contributing to long-term immune tolerance. Studies have shown that CTLA-4-mediated removal of CD86 directly correlates with reduced T cell stimulatory capacity of APCs, reinforcing anergic states in vivo.^[26] CD86's role exhibits context-specificity across immune compartments. In the thymus, CD86 expressed on medullary thymic epithelial cells and dendritic cells provides costimulatory signals via CD28 to developing thymocytes, promoting the selection and differentiation of FoxP3+ Tregs during negative selection. This interaction enhances IL-2 production and FoxP3 expression, ensuring the generation of a self-tolerant Treg pool essential for peripheral regulation. In the periphery, however, CD86 primarily supports suppressive functions by limiting inflammation; Treg-mediated sequestration curbs excessive CD86 availability on APCs during ongoing immune responses, preventing overactivation of effector cells and resolving inflammation.^[32] Recent research has highlighted CD86's preferential involvement in CTLA-4-dependent transendocytosis for optimal Treg function. Unlike CD80, which binds CTLA-4 more tightly and leads to CTLA-4 degradation post-internalization, CD86 dissociates readily in acidic endosomal compartments, allowing CTLA-4 recycling and sustained ligand capture by Tregs. This pH-dependent mechanism, with CD86-CTLA-4 affinity around 2 μM compared to CD80's 0.4 μM, enables efficient depletion without exhausting Treg CTLA-4 resources, underscoring CD86 as a key target for immune regulation. Defects in this process, such as in LRBA deficiency or CTLA-4 Arg70Gln variants, impair Treg suppression and are linked to autoimmunity.^[24]

Pathological Roles

Involvement in Autoimmune Diseases

CD86 plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases through its dysregulated expression on antigen-presenting cells, leading to excessive co-stimulation of autoreactive T cells and breakdown of immune tolerance. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), CD86 is upregulated on synovial macrophages and dendritic cells, promoting the accumulation of Th17 cells and exacerbating joint inflammation via enhanced IL-17 production.^[30] Blockade of CD86 in experimental models, such as antigen-induced arthritis, reduces IL-17 secretion by effector T cells, decreases T-cell infiltration into joints, and attenuates synovitis and exudate formation, highlighting its pro-inflammatory contribution.^[30] Similarly, in multiple sclerosis (MS), CD86 expression is elevated on macrophages within active demyelinating lesions, facilitating the reactivation and enhancement of autoreactive T cells that drive neuroinflammation.^[33] This costimulatory activity supports Th1-type responses against myelin antigens, contributing to the breach of central nervous system tolerance.^[33] Experimental evidence from collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) models, which mimic RA, demonstrates that anti-CD86 monoclonal antibodies reduce disease incidence and severity by interfering with T-cell co-stimulation, independent of effects on antibody production or Th1/Th2 balance.^[34] CD86 exhibits a dual role in autoimmunity: its overexpression drives pathogenic T-cell responses, while interactions with CTLA-4 can mitigate excessive activation by competing for binding and downregulating costimulatory signals on antigen-presenting cells.^[35] This inhibitory pathway, mediated by CTLA-4's higher affinity for CD86, helps restore tolerance in contexts where co-stimulation is dysregulated, as evidenced in models where CTLA-4 engagement reduces autoimmune inflammation.^[24]

Role in Cancer and Immunotherapy

CD86 plays a dual role in the tumor microenvironment, acting as both a co-stimulatory ligand for CD28 to promote T cell activation and a higher-affinity ligand for the inhibitory receptor CTLA-4, which dampens anti-tumor immune responses. In many cancers, including melanoma and acute myeloid leukemia (AML), elevated CD86 expression on antigen-presenting cells or tumor cells contributes to immune evasion by preferentially engaging CTLA-4 on T cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs), thereby suppressing cytotoxic CD8+ T cell activity. This interaction allows tumors to maintain an immunosuppressive environment, as demonstrated in studies showing CD86's association with increased immune infiltration but poorer prognosis in low-grade gliomas (LGG) and AML.^[36]^[37]^[38] In cancer immunotherapy, targeting the CD86-CTLA-4 axis has emerged as a cornerstone strategy through immune checkpoint inhibitors. Ipilimumab, a monoclonal antibody approved for metastatic melanoma, binds to CTLA-4 and blocks its interaction with CD86 (and CD80), thereby relieving T cell inhibition and enhancing anti-tumor immunity. This mechanism promotes T cell priming and effector function in lymphoid organs and the tumor microenvironment, leading to durable responses in approximately 20-30% of patients with advanced melanoma. Clinical trials have shown that CTLA-4 blockade increases CD86 availability for CD28 engagement, boosting T cell proliferation and cytokine production critical for tumor rejection.^[39]^[40]^[41] Emerging research highlights CD86's potential as a direct therapeutic target to augment immunotherapy efficacy, particularly in combination with radiation or PD-1 inhibitors. For instance, CD86 blockade has been shown to counteract radiotherapy-induced Treg expansion driven by CTLA-4 pathways, improving CD8+ T cell-mediated tumor control in preclinical models.^[42] Recent studies as of 2024 indicate that PD-1 or CTLA-4 blockade can promote CD86-driven Treg responses following radiotherapy in lymphocyte-depleted tumors, underscoring the need for CD86-specific interventions to overcome this limitation.^[42] In thymic epithelial tumors and B-cell malignancies, high CD86 expression correlates with disease stability following immunotherapy, suggesting its utility as a biomarker for response prediction. Ongoing studies explore CD86-specific antagonists to mitigate Treg suppression without broadly disrupting co-stimulation, potentially broadening the applicability of checkpoint therapies across solid tumors.^[43]^[44]

References

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