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Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath surrounding nerve fibers in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves, leading to inflammation, demyelination, scarring (sclerosis), and disrupted nerve signal transmission.^[1]^[2]^[3] This damage can result in a wide array of neurological symptoms that vary in severity and progression, with no known cure but available treatments to manage symptoms and slow disease advancement.^[1]^[2] MS typically presents with symptoms such as numbness or tingling, muscle weakness or stiffness, vision problems (including blurred vision or optic neuritis), fatigue, coordination and balance difficulties, bladder or bowel dysfunction, cognitive changes, and pain, which often occur in episodes known as relapses followed by periods of remission.^[1]^[2]^[3] The disease course is classified into several types, with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) being the most common initial form (affecting about 85% of patients), characterized by clear relapses and recoveries, while progressive forms like primary progressive MS (PPMS, 10-15%) involve steady worsening without distinct relapses.^[3] Over time, many individuals with RRMS transition to secondary progressive MS (SPMS), where disability accumulates more continuously.^[2]^[3] The exact cause of MS remains unknown, but it involves a combination of genetic susceptibility, environmental triggers, and immune dysregulation, with key risk factors including female sex (women are two to three times more likely to develop MS than men), age of onset between 20 and 40 years, family history (2-4% risk if a first-degree relative has MS compared to 0.1% in the general population), Epstein-Barr virus infection, low vitamin D levels, smoking, obesity, and residence in higher latitudes farther from the equator.^[1]^[2]^[3] Epidemiologically, MS affects approximately 1 million people in the United States and 2.9 million worldwide (as of 2023), with higher prevalence among individuals of European ancestry (about 1 in 1,000).^[3]^[4]^[5] Diagnosis of MS relies on a combination of medical history, neurological examination, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to detect characteristic lesions (such as T2 hyperintense plaques or Dawson's fingers), cerebrospinal fluid analysis for oligoclonal bands, and evoked potential tests, guided by the 2024 McDonald criteria to demonstrate dissemination of lesions in space and time while ruling out mimics like infections or other autoimmune disorders.^[1]^[3]^[6] Treatment focuses on disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) such as interferons, glatiramer acetate, fingolimod, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, and dimethyl fumarate to reduce relapse frequency and slow progression, alongside corticosteroids or plasma exchange for acute attacks, and symptomatic management through physical therapy, medications for spasticity or fatigue, and lifestyle interventions.^[1]^[2]^[3] Prognosis varies widely, with most patients having a near-normal life expectancy, though 40-70% experience cognitive impairment and disability may progress, influenced by factors like early treatment and disease subtype.^[1]^[3]

Signs and symptoms

Common neurological symptoms

Multiple sclerosis (MS) commonly presents with a variety of neurological symptoms resulting from demyelination and axonal damage in the central nervous system.^[3] These symptoms often occur in episodes or relapses, varying in severity and location depending on the affected neural pathways. Symptom prevalence and type can vary by MS subtype, with sensory and visual issues more common in relapsing forms and cognitive effects prominent in progressive disease.^[7] Vision problems, particularly optic neuritis, are among the most frequent initial manifestations, affecting approximately 20-25% of patients at onset.^[1]^[8] Optic neuritis, characterized by inflammation of the optic nerve, leads to partial or complete vision loss typically in one eye, accompanied by pain during eye movement.^[1] Blurred vision and double vision (diplopia), often due to internuclear ophthalmoplegia from brainstem lesions, further impair visual function.^[2] Motor symptoms primarily involve the limbs and trunk, stemming from corticospinal tract involvement. Weakness in the arms or legs, ranging from mild paresis to significant impairment, affects mobility and daily activities.^[3] Spasticity manifests as muscle stiffness and involuntary spasms, particularly in the lower extremities, leading to gait difficulties.^[1] Ataxia, or lack of coordination, results in unsteady movements and balance issues, while tremors cause uncontrollable shaking, often exacerbated by intention or posture.^[2] Sensory disturbances arise from lesions in sensory pathways and are reported by over 80% of individuals with MS. Numbness and tingling (paresthesia) commonly affect the extremities, face, or trunk, creating sensations of pins and needles.^[1] Pain, including dysesthesias or sharp, burning sensations, can be chronic or episodic, sometimes linked to trigeminal neuralgia.^[3] Lhermitte's sign, an electric-shock-like sensation radiating down the spine or limbs upon neck flexion, occurs due to cervical cord demyelination.^[2] Bladder, bowel, and sexual dysfunction stem from spinal cord and brainstem involvement, impacting autonomic functions. Urinary urgency and frequency affect approximately 80% of patients, often progressing to incontinence or retention.^[1] Bowel issues, such as constipation, arise from reduced motility, while sexual dysfunction includes erectile difficulties in men and reduced sensation or lubrication in women.^[3] Fatigue is a near-universal symptom, experienced by 75-90% of people with MS, distinct from general tiredness as it worsens with heat (Uhthoff's phenomenon) and persists despite rest.^[2] This profound exhaustion significantly limits physical and cognitive endurance, often appearing early in the disease course.^[1]

Cognitive and emotional effects

Cognitive impairment affects up to 65% of individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS), manifesting primarily as deficits in memory, attention, and information processing speed.^[9] Memory impairment, particularly in long-term recall, is reported in 22% to 65% of cases, often involving difficulties in encoding and retrieving information due to disruptions in hippocampal and frontal lobe networks.^[9] Attention issues, such as sustained focus and selective attention, compound these challenges, leading to everyday difficulties like following conversations or multitasking.^[10] Slowed information processing speed is a hallmark feature, observable in tasks requiring rapid cognitive throughput, and it correlates with overall functional limitations in work and social activities.^[11] Executive function deficits further exacerbate cognitive challenges in MS, with impairments in planning, organization, and problem-solving affecting approximately 40-50% of patients.^[12] These deficits arise from damage to prefrontal and subcortical regions, resulting in reduced abstract thinking, poor task initiation, and inefficient strategy formation for complex activities like financial management or meal preparation.^[13] For instance, individuals may struggle with sequencing steps in daily routines or adapting to novel problem-solving scenarios, independent of physical disability levels.^[14] Emotional symptoms are prevalent in MS, with mood disorders impacting around 50% of patients over their lifetime.^[15] Depression occurs in up to 50% of cases, characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and somatic complaints that can overlap with fatigue but distinctly influence quality of life.^[16] Anxiety disorders, affecting 30-40% of individuals, often present as generalized worry or panic episodes, potentially linked to uncertainty about disease progression.^[17] Pseudobulbar affect (PBA), involving involuntary episodes of laughing or crying disproportionate to emotional state, has a prevalence of approximately 10-50% in MS, stemming from disruptions in emotional regulation pathways.^[18] These cognitive and emotional effects are associated with brain atrophy, particularly in gray matter regions like the thalamus and frontal lobes, which correlates with the severity of deficits even in early disease stages.^[11] Whole-brain volume loss predicts worsening cognitive performance and mood instability, highlighting neurodegeneration's role in non-motor symptoms.^[16]

Measures of disability

The Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) is a widely used clinician-rated measure to quantify disability in multiple sclerosis, ranging from 0 (normal neurological examination) to 10 (death due to multiple sclerosis), with primary emphasis on ambulation and mobility.^[19] Developed by John F. Kurtzke in 1983, the EDSS evaluates eight functional systems—pyramidal, cerebellar, brainstem, sensory, bowel and bladder, visual, cerebral, and other—before assigning an overall score that increasingly weights walking ability from scores of 4.0 onward.^[19] Scores are typically assessed during clinical examinations and provide a standardized way to track physical impairment over time.^[20] To address limitations in single-domain assessments like the EDSS, the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite (MSFC) integrates three quantitative tests: the timed 25-foot walk for lower limb function, the 9-hole peg test for upper limb dexterity, and the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) for cognitive processing speed.^[21] Introduced in 1999 by the National Multiple Sclerosis Society's task force, the MSFC generates z-scores for each component, which are averaged into a composite score to offer a multidimensional view of neurological function.^[21] This approach enhances sensitivity to changes in arm, leg, and cognitive domains compared to mobility-focused scales.^[21] Patient-reported outcome measures, such as the 29-item Multiple Sclerosis Impact Scale (MSIS-29), capture the subjective physical and psychological effects of multiple sclerosis on daily life and quality of life.^[22] Developed in 2001, the MSIS-29 includes 20 items on physical impact and 9 on psychological impact, scored from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating greater burden; it is self-administered and validated for use across disease severities.^[22] These tools complement objective scales by incorporating patient perspectives on fatigue, mobility limitations, and emotional well-being.^[22] Despite their utility, these measures have notable limitations. The EDSS exhibits ordinal bias toward ambulatory function, often underrepresenting impairments in cognition, upper extremities, and non-motor symptoms, which can lead to insensitivity in early or non-progressive disease stages.^[23] Similarly, while the MSFC improves breadth, its cognitive component (PASAT) may be influenced by practice effects, and the MSIS-29 relies on self-report, potentially varying with mood or recall bias.^[23] These shortcomings highlight the need for combined use of multiple tools for comprehensive assessment.^[23] In clinical trials, the EDSS serves as a primary endpoint for disability progression, with confirmed worsening (e.g., a 1.0- or 1.5-point increase sustained over months) commonly defining treatment efficacy in relapsing and progressive multiple sclerosis studies.^[24] The MSFC is increasingly employed as a secondary or composite outcome to detect subtler changes across domains, particularly in trials targeting early intervention.^[25] Patient-reported measures like the MSIS-29 are integrated to evaluate health-related quality of life impacts, ensuring holistic evaluation of therapeutic benefits.^[22]

Disease course

Prodromal and onset phases

The prodromal phase of multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by subtle, often nonspecific symptoms that may precede the formal diagnosis by several years, including fatigue, sensory disturbances, and mood alterations such as anxiety or depression.^[26] Fatigue is reported in approximately 29-42% of cases up to 3-5 years before diagnosis, with odds ratios indicating a 3.37-fold increased likelihood compared to controls.^[26] Sensory changes, like paresthesia or visual disturbances, and mood alterations show elevated healthcare utilization, with anxiety and depression risks rising (odds ratio 1.40) about 2 years prior.^[26] These symptoms contribute to increased medical encounters, such as psychiatric visits, detectable 5-10 years before onset in population studies.^[27] The onset phase typically occurs between ages 20 and 40, marking the first clinically evident neurological episode.^[28] Common initial presentations include optic neuritis, affecting vision with pain and partial loss, or transverse myelitis, involving spinal cord inflammation leading to weakness, sensory loss, or bowel/bladder dysfunction.^[28] This first episode is often termed clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), a monophasic event lasting at least 24 hours that mimics MS but lacks dissemination in time and space for full diagnosis under McDonald criteria. Approximately 30-70% of CIS cases progress to MS within 5-15 years, depending on risk factors like lesion burden. Diagnostic delay from symptom onset to MS confirmation averages 1-2 years, influenced by nonspecific early signs and overlapping conditions, with mean times reported as 14-18 months in cohort studies.^[29] Patient-dependent factors, such as delayed reporting, and physician-dependent issues, like initial misattribution, contribute to this lag in over 50% of cases.^[30] Historically, recognition of the MS prodrome has shifted from anecdotal post-mortem findings of asymptomatic lesions in the early 20th century to modern identification through biomarkers like oligoclonal bands in cerebrospinal fluid, first described in the 1960s as evidence of intrathecal IgG synthesis predating clinical onset.^[31] These bands, present in 85-95% of MS cases, have enabled earlier detection of inflammatory processes years before symptoms, facilitating studies on pre-diagnostic phases since the 2010s.^[32]

Relapsing patterns

Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) is the most common initial disease course in multiple sclerosis, accounting for approximately 85% of cases at diagnosis.^[33] In this pattern, individuals experience distinct episodes of neurological symptoms known as relapses, followed by periods of partial or full recovery.^[2] A relapse is defined as the appearance of new neurological symptoms or the worsening of existing ones, lasting more than 24 hours and occurring in the absence of fever or infection.^[34] These events typically develop over several hours to days and may last from days to weeks, reflecting acute inflammatory activity in the central nervous system.^[35] The frequency of relapses in RRMS varies among individuals but is generally highest in the early years following onset, with an initial rate of about 1 to 2 relapses per year.^[36] Between relapses, patients often enter remission phases where symptoms improve, either partially or completely, allowing for stability that can last months to years.^[33] Full recovery from a relapse occurs in roughly 80-100% of cases initially, though residual deficits may accumulate over time with repeated episodes.^[2] Several factors can precipitate relapses in RRMS, including infections, stressful life events, and the postpartum period.^[37] Upper respiratory infections, for instance, have been associated with increased relapse risk due to their potential to heighten immune activity.^[38] Psychological stress may also contribute by influencing immune regulation, while the postpartum phase represents a period of heightened vulnerability shortly after delivery.^[39] Over time, many individuals with RRMS face a risk of transitioning to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis, where relapses become less frequent and steady neurological decline predominates. Approximately 50-80% of patients convert to this phase within 10-20 years of disease onset.^[40] This shift highlights the evolving nature of the disease, with early relapses giving way to more persistent progression.

Progressive patterns

Primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) is characterized by a steady progression of neurological disability from the onset of symptoms, without distinct relapses or remissions.^[41] This subtype accounts for approximately 10-15% of all multiple sclerosis cases and typically presents with gradual worsening of motor function, often involving the legs and leading to mobility issues early in the disease course.^[42] Unlike relapsing forms, PPMS features continuous accumulation of deficits, with rare inflammatory episodes, and is more common in individuals over 40 years of age at onset.^[43] Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) represents a later phase that develops in the majority of individuals initially diagnosed with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), with about two-thirds transitioning over time.^[44] The shift to SPMS usually occurs 10-25 years after initial diagnosis, marked by a transition from episodic inflammation to ongoing progression, with fewer relapses and persistent disability accumulation.^[45] In SPMS, symptoms steadily worsen due to increasing neuronal damage, even as acute inflammatory events diminish, leading to greater reliance on assistive devices for daily activities.^[46] A key feature of progressive multiple sclerosis is progression independent of relapse activity (PIRA), where disability advances without associated inflammatory attacks, representing the primary mechanism of worsening in both PPMS and SPMS.^[47] PIRA manifests as sustained increases in disability scores over periods ranging from 6 months to several years, occurring across MS phenotypes and highlighting a smoldering pathological process.^[48] This pattern underscores the challenge in distinguishing progressive subtypes, as PIRA can emerge even in earlier relapsing disease stages before full transition.^[49] Disability progression in progressive forms is notably faster than in relapsing patterns; for instance, the median time to reach an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score of 6.0—indicating the need for a cane to walk—is approximately 10 years in PPMS compared to 20-25 years in RRMS.^[50] In SPMS, this milestone often follows the initial RRMS phase, with progression rates accelerating due to cumulative axonal loss.^[51] Over the course of progressive multiple sclerosis, there is a marked neurodegenerative shift, where chronic tissue damage and axonal degeneration predominate over acute inflammation seen in earlier phases.^[41] This transition involves heightened innate immune responses within the central nervous system, leading to self-sustaining neuronal injury and brain atrophy independent of peripheral immune activation.^[52] Such changes contribute to the inexorable decline in function, emphasizing the need for therapies targeting neuroprotection in these subtypes.^[53]

Pregnancy considerations

Pregnancy in women with multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with a significant reduction in disease relapse rates, particularly during the third trimester, where rates decrease by approximately 70% compared to the pre-pregnancy period. This protective effect is attributed to hormonal and immunological changes during gestation, as evidenced by the seminal Pregnancy in Multiple Sclerosis (PRIMS) study and subsequent confirmations in larger cohorts.^[54] However, this suppression is often followed by a rebound increase in relapses during the early postpartum period, with rates rising by up to 36% in the first few months after delivery, though modern disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) may mitigate this risk in many cases.^[55] MS does not increase the risk of congenital malformations in offspring, with malformation rates comparable to those in the general population (around 4%).^[56] The condition is not hereditary, as it lacks a direct genetic inheritance pattern; while genetic factors contribute to susceptibility, MS is not passed from parent to child in a Mendelian fashion.^[57] Children of women with MS face no elevated risk of birth defects directly attributable to the maternal diagnosis.^[58] Regarding delivery, vaginal birth is generally preferred for women with MS unless obstetric complications necessitate a cesarean section, as the disease itself does not increase cesarean rates or labor complications.^[59] Breastfeeding is encouraged and may further reduce postpartum relapse risk, with studies showing lower annualized relapse rates in exclusively breastfeeding women compared to those who do not breastfeed.^[60] Decisions on interrupting DMTs during pregnancy and postpartum must balance relapse prevention against potential fetal exposure risks, often favoring temporary cessation for higher-risk therapies while resuming safer options promptly after delivery.^[61] Long-term, pregnancy does not accelerate MS-related disability progression; cohort studies indicate that women with MS who become pregnant experience disability accumulation rates similar to non-pregnant counterparts over extended follow-up periods.^[62] This holds true even after multiple pregnancies, with no evidence of worsened neurological outcomes attributable to gestation.^[63] Updated guidelines from the European Committee for Treatment and Research in Multiple Sclerosis (ECTRIMS)/European Academy of Neurology (EAN), as of 2024, recommend continuing select DMTs such as interferon-beta formulations or glatiramer acetate during early pregnancy for women at high risk of disease reactivation and with high disease activity, provided benefits outweigh potential risks.^[64] For higher-risk scenarios, pre-pregnancy planning emphasizes switching to these tolerable options to minimize postpartum rebound while supporting breastfeeding.^[64] Recent updates as of January 2025 indicate that ocrelizumab exposure during pregnancy does not appear to increase adverse outcomes, supporting individualized decisions for this DMT.^[65]

Causes

Genetic predisposition

Multiple sclerosis (MS) has a significant genetic component, with heritability estimates derived from twin studies ranging from 30% to 50%. These estimates are based on concordance rates, which show that monozygotic twins exhibit about 25% concordance for MS, substantially higher than the 2-5% observed in dizygotic twins or siblings, highlighting the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in disease susceptibility.^[66] The strongest known genetic risk factor for MS is the HLA-DRB1*15:01 allele within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region on chromosome 6, conferring an odds ratio of approximately 3.0 for disease development. This allele's association has been consistently replicated across populations of European ancestry and influences immune response pathways critical to MS pathogenesis.^[67] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified over 200 non-MHC susceptibility loci associated with MS risk, many of which involve genes regulating immune function, such as IL2RA (encoding the interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain) and IL7R (interleukin-7 receptor). These loci collectively explain a portion of the genetic variance, underscoring MS as a polygenic disorder where multiple common variants contribute modestly to overall risk.^[68] Familial aggregation further supports genetic predisposition, with first-degree relatives of MS patients facing a 2-5% lifetime risk of developing the disease, compared to the general population risk of about 0.1-0.2%. Polygenic risk scores (PRS), which aggregate effects from these susceptibility variants, can predict MS susceptibility to some extent but currently offer limited clinical utility due to modest discriminatory power and the need for integration with environmental factors.^[69]^[70]

Environmental and lifestyle factors

Low sunlight exposure has been consistently linked to an increased risk of multiple sclerosis (MS), likely through its role in vitamin D synthesis. Individuals with limited sun exposure exhibit higher MS incidence, with studies indicating that low ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure acts both directly on immune function and indirectly by reducing vitamin D levels.^[71] Vitamin D deficiency, defined as serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels below 50 nmol/L, further elevates this risk, with meta-analyses showing that deficient individuals have approximately 1.5 times higher odds of developing MS compared to those with sufficient levels.^[72] This association underscores the importance of adequate sunlight or supplementation in preventing MS onset, though direct causation remains under investigation. Smoking is a well-established modifiable risk factor for MS, approximately doubling the risk of disease development in smokers compared to nonsmokers, as evidenced by systematic reviews and meta-analyses.^[73] Beyond initiation, continued smoking accelerates disease progression, leading to faster accumulation of disability and higher rates of transition to secondary progressive MS.^[73] The mechanisms involve enhanced inflammation and immune dysregulation, with dose-dependent effects observed in long-term smokers. While smoking cessation may mitigate some progression risks, evidence on its benefits remains limited and inconsistent across studies.^[74] Obesity during adolescence significantly heightens MS susceptibility, with overweight or obese individuals facing 1.5 to 2 times greater risk than those maintaining normal weight, according to cohort studies and meta-analyses.^[75] This elevated risk is attributed to chronic low-grade inflammation and altered adipokine profiles that promote autoimmune responses, with stronger associations noted in females and those with severe obesity (BMI >30 kg/m²).^[76] The effect persists independently of other factors, highlighting adolescence as a critical window for weight management to potentially lower MS incidence. Dietary patterns also influence MS risk, though evidence is more varied. High intake of salt and saturated fats has been hypothesized to exacerbate autoimmune processes, with animal models and some human studies suggesting promotion of pro-inflammatory T-cell activity; however, clinical data in humans remain mixed and inconclusive.^[77] In contrast, adherence to a Mediterranean diet—rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and unsaturated fats—shows protective effects, reducing MS risk by up to 20-30% in observational studies, likely through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms.^[78] Occupational exposure to organic solvents, such as those in painting, manufacturing, or cleaning industries, is associated with elevated MS risk, with high-exposure workers demonstrating roughly double the odds compared to unexposed individuals in case-control studies.^[79] These solvents may disrupt the blood-brain barrier or trigger neurotoxic immune responses, though the exact pathways require further elucidation. Risk appears dose-related, emphasizing the need for protective measures in at-risk professions.

Infectious and immunological triggers

Multiple sclerosis (MS) has been strongly associated with prior infection by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a herpesvirus that infects nearly all humans worldwide. A large prospective study of over 10 million U.S. military personnel found that EBV infection increased the risk of developing MS by 32-fold, with virtually no cases observed in EBV-seronegative individuals, supporting the notion that EBV may be a necessary trigger for MS in susceptible individuals.^[80] This association is thought to involve molecular mimicry, where EBV proteins, particularly the nuclear antigen EBNA1, structurally resemble myelin proteins, potentially leading to cross-reactive immune responses that target the central nervous system.^[81] Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), remnants of ancient viral infections integrated into the human genome, have also been implicated in MS pathogenesis through their activation during inflammation. In MS patients, HERV elements, especially HERV-W, show upregulated expression in brain lesions and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, correlating with inflammatory activity and contributing to immune dysregulation via production of pro-inflammatory envelope proteins.^[82] These proteins can mimic superantigens, amplifying T-cell responses and exacerbating neuroinflammation, though their role remains under investigation as a potential trigger rather than a direct cause.^[83] The hygiene hypothesis posits that reduced exposure to common childhood infections in modern, sanitized environments may increase MS risk by impairing immune system maturation and tolerance. Epidemiological evidence supports this, with studies showing higher MS incidence in populations with lower rates of early-life infections, such as those with high sanitation levels, potentially leading to dysregulated Th1/Th2 immune balance that predisposes to autoimmunity.^[84] For instance, inverse associations have been noted between MS prevalence and infections like Helicobacter pylori in childhood, aligning with the hypothesis that limited microbial diversity hinders protective immune programming.^[85] Associations with bacterial pathogens like Chlamydia pneumoniae have been explored but remain inconsistent across studies. Early reports suggested higher detection rates of C. pneumoniae in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of MS patients, hinting at a possible role in triggering chronic inflammation, yet subsequent meta-analyses and controlled trials have failed to confirm a causal link, with detection rates varying widely due to methodological differences.^[86] Other bacteria, such as those involved in periodontal disease, show sporadic correlations but lack robust evidence as consistent triggers. Beyond infectious agents, immunological triggers involve dysregulation of the adaptive immune response, where environmental cues may initiate autoreactive T- and B-cell activation against myelin antigens. This dysregulation, often following viral infections, leads to aberrant cytokine production and breakdown of immune tolerance, acting as a precipitating event in genetically susceptible individuals rather than the underlying cause of MS.^[87]

Geographical influences

Multiple sclerosis (MS) prevalence exhibits a well-established latitudinal gradient, with rates approximately 2-3 times higher in regions north of 42°N latitude compared to those nearer the equator. For instance, Canada reports a prevalence of around 182-250 per 100,000 population, while equatorial areas such as parts of Africa and Southeast Asia show rates as low as 2-5 per 100,000. This pattern, observed across meta-analyses of global studies, suggests environmental influences like sunlight exposure and vitamin D levels play a key role, as the gradient persists even after adjusting for genetic factors such as HLA-DRB1 allele frequencies.^[88]^[89]^[90] Migration studies further illuminate geographical influences on MS risk, demonstrating that individuals who relocate before age 15 tend to adopt the prevalence patterns of their new environment, indicating that critical environmental exposures occur during childhood or adolescence. For example, migrants from low-risk equatorial regions to high-risk northern areas before this age threshold experience an elevated MS risk aligning with the destination's higher incidence, whereas those migrating later retain more of their origin's lower risk profile. This age-dependent shift underscores the importance of early-life geographical factors in disease susceptibility.^[57]^[91] Urban-rural differences also contribute to geographical variations in MS, with a slight increase in risk observed in urban settings potentially linked to higher air pollution levels. Research indicates that urban dwellers face up to a 29% higher odds of developing MS compared to rural populations, associated with elevated exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide, and other pollutants, which may trigger inflammatory responses relevant to MS pathogenesis. These findings highlight how localized environmental quality within broader geographical contexts can modulate disease risk.^[92] Socioeconomic factors intersect with geography to influence MS diagnosis rates, with higher detection in affluent urban or suburban areas often attributable to better healthcare access rather than true prevalence differences. Individuals in higher socioeconomic brackets benefit from earlier specialist referrals and advanced diagnostic tools, reducing delays that plague lower-income rural or underserved regions; for example, lower socioeconomic status correlates with prolonged diagnostic timelines and reduced access to neurologists, exacerbating disparities in high-latitude areas where MS is already more common.^[93]^[94] As of 2025, the latitudinal and urban-rural patterns in MS remain stable globally, with no major shifts in established gradients despite rising overall prevalence due to improved diagnostics. However, emerging evidence suggests climate change could indirectly alter these dynamics by affecting vitamin D synthesis—through increased heatwaves prompting reduced outdoor activity or changes in UV radiation patterns—potentially influencing MS risk in sun-dependent regions.^[95]^[96]

Pathophysiology

Immune dysregulation mechanisms

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by aberrant immune responses where autoreactive lymphocytes target central nervous system (CNS) components, leading to chronic inflammation and tissue damage. This dysregulation involves both adaptive and innate immune components, with T and B cells playing central roles in perpetuating autoimmunity against myelin antigens. The imbalance favors pro-inflammatory pathways over regulatory mechanisms, contributing to the disease's relapsing-remitting or progressive course.^[97] T-cell mediated autoimmunity is a cornerstone of MS pathogenesis, primarily driven by CD4+ T helper subsets such as Th1 and Th17 cells that recognize myelin antigens like myelin basic protein (MBP) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). Th1 cells secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-2 (IL-2), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), promoting macrophage activation and inflammation within the CNS. Th17 cells, differentiated under the influence of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and IL-6, produce IL-17A, IL-17F, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which recruit neutrophils and exacerbate tissue damage; elevated Th17 activity is evident in active MS lesions and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) models. These cells infiltrate the CNS after peripheral activation, amplifying demyelinating processes.30046-1)^[97]^[98] B cells contribute to immune dysregulation in MS through multiple mechanisms, including antigen presentation to T cells and production of autoantibodies that may target myelin components. As professional antigen-presenting cells, B cells express major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, activating autoreactive Th1 and Th17 cells via costimulatory signals like CD80/CD86; this interaction sustains pathogenic T-cell responses. Additionally, B cells secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines such as GM-CSF, TNF-α, and IL-6, while some subsets form ectopic lymphoid structures in the meninges that support long-term antibody production against CNS antigens. Depletion of B cells with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, as shown in clinical trials, reduces relapse rates by inhibiting these functions, underscoring their pathogenic role.^[99]^[97] Cytokine imbalances further perpetuate immune dysregulation in MS, with elevated levels of pro-inflammatory mediators like IL-17 and IFN-γ driving Th17 and Th1 differentiation, respectively, while impairing protective pathways. IL-17 promotes endothelial activation and immune cell recruitment, correlating with disease activity in relapsing MS, whereas IFN-γ enhances MHC expression on CNS cells, amplifying antigen presentation. This shift is compounded by reduced function of regulatory T cells (Tregs), which normally suppress autoreactive responses via IL-10 and TGF-β secretion; in MS, Tregs exhibit decreased suppressive capacity due to heightened IL-6 signaling and Foxp3 instability, failing to counteract effector T-cell expansion.^[100]^[101]^[97] Molecular mimicry provides a mechanism linking environmental triggers to autoimmunity, particularly through Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) cross-reactivity with myelin antigens. EBV's Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) shares sequence homology with MBP, leading to T-cell epitopes that elicit responses against both viral and self-myelin proteins; studies in MS patients show EBNA1-specific CD4+ T cells cross-recognizing MBP peptides. This mimicry, combined with EBV reactivation in B cells, may initiate or perpetuate autoreactive clones, as evidenced by serological data linking prior EBV infection to a 32-fold increased MS risk.^[102]^[97] Immune activation in MS spans peripheral and central compartments, with distinct yet interconnected dynamics. Peripherally, autoreactive T and B cells are primed in lymphoid tissues through antigen presentation by dendritic cells or mimicry events, leading to clonal expansion and migration toward the CNS. Centrally, once in the CNS, these cells reactivate via interactions with resident microglia and astrocytes, sustaining local inflammation; in progressive MS, chronic central activation predominates with smoldering microglial responses, contrasting the episodic peripheral surges in relapsing forms. This dual-site dysregulation highlights the need for therapies targeting both compartments.^[103]^[97]

Demyelination and lesion development

Multiple sclerosis is characterized by the formation of demyelinating plaques, which are multifocal areas of myelin loss primarily affecting the white matter of the central nervous system. These plaques commonly develop in periventricular regions adjacent to the ventricles and in juxtacortical areas near the cortex, reflecting the disease's predilection for specific anatomical sites.^[104] The loss of myelin sheaths disrupts efficient nerve impulse conduction, leading to the neurological symptoms observed in patients.^[105] Oligodendrocytes, the myelin-producing cells in the central nervous system, undergo damage during lesion formation, which impairs their ability to maintain or repair myelin sheaths. This damage results in failed remyelination, as surviving oligodendrocyte precursor cells often fail to differentiate and form new myelin, particularly in chronic lesions where the environment becomes inhibitory to repair processes.^[106] Consequently, persistent demyelination contributes to ongoing neurological dysfunction and limits recovery potential.^[107] In active lesions, axonal transection occurs frequently, where the nerve fibers themselves are severed, leading to irreversible neuronal loss and permanent disability. This transection is evident through morphological evidence of axonal bulbs and end-bulbs at lesion edges, highlighting the destructive impact beyond mere demyelination.^[108] Chronic lesions may evolve into so-called black holes, which appear as areas of T1 hypointensity on imaging and signify substantial axonal degeneration and tissue loss. These persistent markers of damage correlate with disease progression and accumulated disability.^[109] Gray matter involvement is prominent in multiple sclerosis, with demyelination affecting up to 70% of patients and contributing to cognitive impairments such as memory and executive function deficits. Lesions in cortical and deep gray structures, including the thalamus and hippocampus, underlie these cognitive effects, distinct from white matter pathology.^[104]

Blood-brain barrier involvement

In multiple sclerosis (MS), dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a central role in facilitating the entry of inflammatory immune cells into the central nervous system (CNS), thereby contributing to disease pathogenesis. The BBB, composed of endothelial cells, astrocytes, and pericytes, normally restricts leukocyte migration to protect the CNS from peripheral immune responses. However, in MS, early disruption of this barrier allows autoreactive T and B cells to infiltrate, initiating focal inflammation.^[110] Breakdown of the BBB in MS is primarily driven by increased permeability mediated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and adhesion molecules. MMPs, such as MMP-2 and MMP-9, degrade tight junction proteins like occludin and claudin-5, compromising endothelial integrity and enabling immune cell transmigration. Adhesion molecules, including vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), upregulated on endothelial surfaces, further promote this process by facilitating leukocyte adhesion and diapedesis. Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1), expressed at endothelial junctions, aids in the subsequent crossing of T and B cells, leading to the formation of perivascular cuffs where these cells accumulate around CNS vessels.^[111]^[112]^[113]^[114] Acute BBB breaches are visualized through contrast enhancement on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), where gadolinium leakage into active lesions indicates ongoing inflammation and barrier disruption. This enhancement correlates with the presence of inflammatory infiltrates and is most prominent in newly forming lesions, reflecting heightened permeability during relapses. In chronic MS stages, persistent barrier alterations manifest as fibrosis and basement membrane thickening, mediated by perivascular fibroblasts and extracellular matrix deposition, which hinder remyelination and repair processes.^[115]^[116]^[117]^[118] Therapeutic strategies targeting BBB involvement have shown efficacy in modulating immune trafficking. Natalizumab, a monoclonal antibody that blocks the alpha-4 integrin on leukocytes, prevents their adhesion to VCAM-1 on endothelial cells, thereby reducing BBB crossing and lesion formation in relapsing-remitting MS. This approach underscores the BBB as a key intervention point in disease management.^[119]^[120]

Neurodegeneration and fatigue

In multiple sclerosis (MS), neurodegeneration manifests prominently through axonal degeneration, which often follows demyelination in a process known as Wallerian degeneration. This anterograde degeneration occurs when demyelinated axons become vulnerable to damage, leading to progressive loss of neuronal integrity beyond the initial inflammatory lesions.^[121]^[122] Studies indicate that this axonal injury contributes to irreversible neurological deficits, as transected axons are commonly observed in MS plaques.^[123] A key indicator of this neurodegeneration is brain atrophy, occurring at an accelerated rate of 0.5-1.3% per year in MS patients, compared to 0.1-0.4% in healthy aging.^[124] This volume loss reflects widespread neuronal and axonal demise, independent of acute inflammation. Cortical thinning, particularly in frontal, temporal, and motor regions, exacerbates cognitive and motor symptoms by reducing gray matter integrity.^[125] Similarly, thalamic atrophy correlates with increased disability and cognitive impairment, as the thalamus serves as a relay hub for sensory and motor signals disrupted in MS.^[126] These structural changes, while linked to demyelinating lesions, persist and progress even in stable disease phases.^[127] Fatigue in MS, affecting approximately 80% of patients, arises from a complex interplay of central and peripheral mechanisms. Central fatigue stems from disrupted neural efficiency, including impaired neurotransmitter signaling and circadian rhythm alterations within demyelinated pathways, leading to reduced cortical activation during tasks.^[128] In contrast, peripheral fatigue results from muscle deconditioning and metabolic changes secondary to reduced physical activity, though it is less dominant than central contributions.^[129] While fatigue severity partially correlates with white matter lesion load—particularly in areas like the internal capsule—many cases show no direct proportionality, suggesting additional diffuse axonal damage plays a role.^[130]^[131] Recent 2025 research highlights mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons as an emerging driver of MS neurodegeneration and fatigue. Impaired mitochondrial activity in demyelinated regions, such as the cerebellum, promotes oxidative stress and energy deficits, accelerating Purkinje cell loss and axonal degeneration.^[132] This dysfunction also links to epigenetic changes that worsen metabolic imbalances in MS neurons, offering new insights into fatigue's persistent nature.^[133]

Diagnosis

Clinical assessment

The clinical assessment of suspected multiple sclerosis (MS) begins with a detailed medical history to identify patterns suggestive of the disease. Clinicians inquire about the onset and timeline of symptoms, such as sensory disturbances, visual changes, or motor weaknesses, noting their evolution over days to weeks and any partial resolutions between episodes.^[134] Relapse history is carefully documented, focusing on discrete attacks of neurological dysfunction lasting at least 24 hours, separated by months or years, to capture the episodic nature typical of relapsing forms of MS.^[135] Family background is explored to assess potential genetic predisposition, including any relatives with MS or other autoimmune conditions, as this can inform risk evaluation.^[136] The symptom timeline helps distinguish gradual progression in primary progressive MS from relapsing patterns, emphasizing the need for precise recall of triggers like stress or infection that may exacerbate symptoms.^[137] A comprehensive neurological examination follows to evaluate central nervous system involvement. Cranial nerve assessment includes testing for optic neuritis through visual acuity, color vision, and eye movement, as well as brainstem functions like nystagmus or internuclear ophthalmoplegia that may cause diplopia or vertigo.^[134] Motor function is tested for weakness, spasticity, or ataxia, often revealing upper motor neuron signs such as hypertonia in affected limbs.^[135] Sensory testing detects numbness, paresthesias, or loss of vibration and proprioception, while reflex examination identifies hyperreflexia, clonus, or extensor plantar responses indicative of spinal cord or pyramidal tract disruption.^[137] Gait assessment evaluates coordination, balance, and tandem walking to uncover cerebellar or proprioceptive deficits that impair mobility.^[136] During assessment, clinicians seek clinical evidence of dissemination in time and space, characterized by neurological episodes affecting distinct central nervous system regions—such as optic nerve involvement followed by spinal cord symptoms—at different intervals, supporting the multifocal nature of MS.^[135] Red flags that may indicate mimics rather than MS include fever or infection coinciding with symptom onset, which could suggest an inflammatory or infectious process, or rapid progression over hours suggesting vascular events like stroke.^[134] Symptoms resolving in under 24 hours or abrupt onset without evolution also warrant consideration of alternative diagnoses.^[137] Multidisciplinary input enhances the evaluation, with neurologists leading the core assessment while neuropsychologists contribute to detecting subtle cognitive or mood changes that may accompany neurological signs.^[137] This collaborative approach ensures a holistic view, integrating patient-reported history with objective findings to guide further diagnostic steps.^[136]

McDonald diagnostic criteria

The McDonald diagnostic criteria provide a standardized framework for confirming multiple sclerosis (MS) in patients presenting with a typical clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) or suggestive symptoms, requiring objective evidence of lesions disseminated in space (DIS) and time (DIT) within the central nervous system (CNS), while excluding alternative diagnoses.^[138] Introduced in 2001 and revised multiple times, the 2017 revisions emphasized earlier diagnosis by incorporating asymptomatic MRI lesions to fulfill DIT criteria, such as the presence of gadolinium-enhancing and non-enhancing lesions simultaneously or a new T2-hyperintense lesion on follow-up imaging.^[138] For DIS, at least one T2-hyperintense lesion characteristic of MS must be present in at least two of four CNS regions: periventricular, cortical or juxtacortical, infratentorial, or spinal cord.^[138] Diagnosis typically requires two or more such lesions with objective clinical evidence from history, examination, or paraclinical tests.^[138] In patients with CIS, conversion to clinically definite MS occurs in 60-80% of cases when CSF-specific oligoclonal bands are present, serving as surrogate evidence for DIT under the 2017 criteria.^[139] For primary progressive MS (PPMS), the 2017 criteria require at least one year of disability progression (retrospectively or prospectively confirmed) plus two of three findings: (1) one or more T2-hyperintense brain lesions in periventricular, cortical/juxtacortical, or infratentorial regions; (2) two or more T2-hyperintense spinal cord lesions; or (3) positive CSF findings (oligoclonal bands or elevated IgG index).^[138] The 2024 revisions, published in 2025, further refined these criteria into a unified framework applicable to both relapsing and progressive courses across all ages, incorporating cortical lesions explicitly into DIS assessment for greater specificity and adding the optic nerve as a fifth CNS region detectable via MRI, visual evoked potentials, or optical coherence tomography.^[140] To reduce reliance on invasive lumbar puncture, CSF oligoclonal bands remain supportive for DIT but can now be substituted by CSF kappa free light chain index (cut-off ≥6.1), which offers comparable diagnostic accuracy and predicts early disease activity.^[140] For PPMS, the updated criteria maintain the one-year progression requirement but simplify evidence needs, allowing ≥2 characteristic spinal cord lesions or positive CSF (oligoclonal bands or kappa free light chains) to fulfill dissemination in space. Evoked potentials contribute to optic nerve evaluation where MRI is inconclusive.^[140] These changes enhance sensitivity without compromising specificity, enabling diagnosis in radiologically isolated syndrome cases meeting DIS and CSF criteria.^[140]

Neuroimaging modalities

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the cornerstone of neuroimaging in multiple sclerosis (MS), enabling the visualization of demyelinating lesions throughout the central nervous system. Conventional MRI sequences, particularly T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) imaging, detect hyperintense lesions characteristic of MS, which represent areas of demyelination and gliosis.^[141] These sequences are highly sensitive for identifying periventricular, juxtacortical, and infratentorial white matter lesions, aiding in fulfilling diagnostic dissemination in space criteria.^[142] Gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted MRI further distinguishes active inflammation from chronic lesions by highlighting blood-brain barrier breakdown in enhancing lesions, which correlate with recent disease activity.^[143] Enhancement typically resolves within weeks, providing a dynamic marker for acute demyelination.^[141] However, routine use of gadolinium is increasingly questioned in stable patients without new T2 lesions, due to its limited additional yield in follow-up scans.^[144] Spinal cord MRI complements brain imaging by revealing lesions in approximately 80% of MS patients, many of which are clinically silent and contribute to diagnostic confirmation.^[145] These short-segment lesions, often posterior or lateral, are best visualized on T2-weighted sequences and can influence prognosis, as their presence predicts higher risk of progression.^[146] Advanced MRI techniques enhance lesion detection in challenging regions. Double inversion recovery (DIR) sequences improve visualization of cortical and juxtacortical lesions by suppressing signals from white matter and cerebrospinal fluid, increasing sensitivity by up to fivefold compared to standard T2-weighted imaging.^[147] Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) identifies the central vein sign within lesions, a perivenous distribution that supports MS specificity, particularly when combined with gadolinium.^[148] Evoked potentials provide functional neuroimaging by assessing subclinical conduction delays in sensory pathways. Visual evoked potentials (VEPs) detect optic nerve demyelination through prolonged P100 latency in up to 77% of MS patients, even without visual symptoms.^[149] Auditory brainstem evoked potentials similarly reveal delays in the auditory pathway, aiding in the identification of infratentorial involvement.^[150] Despite these advances, in vivo MRI underestimates lesion burden compared to postmortem histology, detecting only a fraction of gray matter pathology; studies indicate up to five times more cortical lesions are identified histologically than by standard MRI.^[147] This discrepancy highlights diffuse, subpial damage that evades conventional imaging, particularly in progressive MS.^[151]

Cerebrospinal fluid evaluation

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) evaluation, obtained via lumbar puncture, plays a supportive role in diagnosing multiple sclerosis (MS) by identifying markers of intrathecal inflammation and immune activity. This procedure involves inserting a needle into the subarachnoid space, typically at the L3-L4 or L4-L5 interspace, to collect a sample for analysis. In the context of the McDonald diagnostic criteria, positive CSF findings can help demonstrate dissemination in time when clinical or imaging evidence is insufficient.^[152] The most characteristic CSF finding in MS is the presence of oligoclonal bands (OCBs), which represent discrete bands of immunoglobulin G (IgG) detected via isoelectric focusing and immunoblotting. These bands, restricted to the CSF and absent in matched serum, indicate local synthesis of IgG by plasma cells within the central nervous system and are found in 95% or more of MS patients at diagnosis.^[153] OCBs reflect chronic intrathecal humoral immune response and are a key biomarker for supporting MS diagnosis, though their exact antigen targets remain under investigation.^[152] An elevated IgG index, calculated as the ratio of IgG to albumin in CSF relative to serum (IgG_CSF / IgG_serum divided by albumin_CSF / albumin_serum), further supports evidence of intrathecal IgG production. Values greater than 0.7 are abnormal and correlate strongly with OCB positivity, occurring in approximately 70-80% of MS cases, and may predict early disease activity.^[154] This index helps quantify the degree of inflammation but is less sensitive than OCB detection alone.^[155] CSF cell counts in MS are typically normal or show mild pleocytosis, predominantly lymphocytic, with fewer than 50 cells per microliter (μL). During acute relapses, counts may rise slightly but rarely exceed this threshold, distinguishing MS from more aggressive inflammatory conditions.^[156] Total protein levels are usually normal (less than 45 mg/dL), though mild elevations can occur.^[152] Lumbar puncture carries procedural risks, with post-dural puncture headache being the most common, affecting 10-30% of patients due to CSF leakage and low intracranial pressure; symptoms typically resolve within days but may require interventions like blood patch in severe cases.^[157] Other risks include back pain, minor bleeding, and rare infections (less than 0.1%), though serious complications such as epidural hematoma are exceptional.^[158] Use of atraumatic needles can reduce headache incidence to under 10%.^[159] Despite their utility, CSF findings have limitations in specificity; OCBs, while highly sensitive for MS, occur in 10-15% of patients with other neuroinflammatory disorders, such as infections, neurosyphilis, or neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder, necessitating correlation with clinical and imaging data.^[160] The absence of OCBs does not exclude MS, as 5% of patients test negative, potentially indicating atypical or early disease.^[161] Additionally, IgG index elevations can appear in non-MS inflammatory states, underscoring the need for integrated diagnostic assessment.^[152]

Differential diagnosis

The differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) involves excluding other conditions that can present with similar symptoms, such as optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, or multifocal neurological deficits, to ensure accurate diagnosis and appropriate management.^[162] This process relies on clinical history, neuroimaging, serological testing, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis to identify key distinguishing features.^[163] Neuromyelitis optica (NMO), now termed neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), is an inflammatory demyelinating condition that closely mimics MS but is differentiated by the presence of serum aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin G (AQP4-IgG) antibodies in up to 70-80% of cases.^[162] Unlike the shorter spinal lesions typical in MS, NMOSD features longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM) spanning three or more vertebral segments on T2-weighted MRI, often accompanied by severe, bilateral optic neuritis and relative sparing of the brain early in the disease.^[163] Brain MRI in NMOSD may show lesions in AQP4-rich areas like the hypothalamus or periventricular regions, and CSF often lacks oligoclonal bands, which are common in MS; testing for AQP4-IgG is essential for confirmation.^[162] Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a monophasic, post-infectious or post-vaccination inflammatory disorder that can resemble an initial MS presentation but is distinguished by its typically acute onset with encephalopathy, fever, and a history of recent infection or vaccination in about 75% of cases.^[162] MRI in ADEM reveals large, multifocal, asymmetric white matter lesions greater than 1-2 cm, often involving the deep gray matter, brainstem, and spinal cord, with a predilection for bilateral thalamic involvement; these lesions usually resolve partially or completely, unlike the progressive accumulation in MS.^[134] CSF analysis shows pleocytosis without oligoclonal bands in most instances, and the monophasic course—rarely recurring—further differentiates it from relapsing-remitting MS.^[162] Lyme disease, caused by Borrelia burgdorferi infection, may imitate MS through neuroborreliosis presenting with multifocal cranial neuropathies, radiculitis, or white matter lesions, particularly in endemic areas with a history of tick exposure or erythema migrans rash.^[164] Distinguishing features include systemic symptoms like arthritis, fever, or fatigue, and MRI may show enhancing leptomeningeal or periventricular lesions, but definitive diagnosis relies on positive serological testing (ELISA followed by Western blot) for B. burgdorferi antibodies in serum or CSF.^[162] Unlike MS, Lyme neuroborreliosis often responds to antibiotics, and CSF pleocytosis with elevated protein is common without oligoclonal bands specific to MS.^[164] Vascular conditions, such as ischemic stroke or migraine with aura, can mimic MS relapses due to acute focal neurological deficits or transient visual disturbances, but they are differentiated by their vascular etiology and imaging patterns.^[162] Stroke typically presents with sudden onset hemiparesis or sensory loss, revealed on MRI as cortical infarcts, lacunar lesions, or hemorrhages in a vascular territory, often confirmed by diffusion-weighted imaging and vascular studies like MR angiography.^[163] Migraine with aura may cause episodic visual or sensory symptoms resembling optic neuritis or paresthesias, but lacks demyelinating lesions on MRI and is associated with headache history; prolonged aura beyond 60 minutes warrants exclusion of ischemic events.^[162] Functional neurological disorders (FND), previously known as conversion disorders, are noninflammatory conditions that can present with MS-like symptoms such as weakness, sensory loss, or gait disturbances, but are characterized by the absence of objective neurological findings and inconsistency of symptoms with known anatomy.^[165] Diagnosis is clinical, based on positive signs like Hoover's sign or entrainment in gait, with normal MRI and CSF excluding organic pathology; up to 10-15% of suspected MS cases may initially be misdiagnosed as FND due to overlapping subjective complaints.^[166] Multidisciplinary evaluation, including psychological assessment, is key, as FND lacks the progressive lesions and laboratory abnormalities seen in MS.^[165]

Classification

Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis

Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) is the most common subtype of multiple sclerosis at disease onset, accounting for approximately 85% of cases.^[167] It is characterized by distinct episodes of neurological symptoms, known as relapses or flares, which develop acutely over days to weeks and are typically followed by periods of partial or full recovery, with little to no progression of disability between attacks.^[33] These relapses reflect episodes of inflammatory demyelination in the central nervous system, often resolving due to remyelination and resolution of edema, though residual damage may accumulate over time.^[3] RRMS typically has its peak incidence between the ages of 20 and 30 years.^[168] The condition shows a marked female predominance, with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 3:1.^[168] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in RRMS often reveals frequent new or enhancing lesions during relapses, corresponding to areas of active inflammation and blood-brain barrier breakdown, which serve as key markers for disease activity.^[33] These lesions are more inflammatory in nature compared to those in progressive forms, highlighting the relapsing inflammatory pathology.^[36] Over time, many individuals with RRMS transition to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS), with an average time to transition of about 20 years from onset.^[169] This shift is often marked by a gradual worsening of disability with fewer or no relapses and diminishing remissions, reflecting a move toward neurodegenerative processes.^[170] As of 2025, the classification of RRMS incorporates distinctions between active and inactive states to better reflect ongoing disease dynamics.^[171] Active RRMS is defined by the presence of relapses and/or evidence of new MRI activity over a specified period, while inactive RRMS shows no such clinical or radiological evidence of inflammation.^[33] This refinement aids in monitoring and tailoring management strategies.^[171]

Primary progressive multiple sclerosis

Primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) is a subtype of multiple sclerosis characterized by a steady progression of disability from the onset of symptoms, without distinct periods of remission or acute relapses. It accounts for approximately 10-15% of all multiple sclerosis cases. Unlike relapsing-remitting forms, PPMS involves continuous neurological deterioration, often driven by underlying neurodegeneration rather than inflammatory flares. The disease typically manifests with insidious worsening of motor function, particularly involving the lower limbs, reflecting a greater emphasis on spinal cord pathology. PPMS usually begins at a later age than relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, with mean onset around 40-50 years. The female-to-male ratio is lower in PPMS, approximately 1.5:1, compared to the 3:1 predominance seen in relapsing forms, indicating reduced sexual dimorphism. Initial symptoms frequently include progressive leg weakness or spasticity, gait disturbances, and sensory changes, with up to 94% of patients experiencing myelopathic features at presentation. Over time, these lead to accumulating impairments in mobility and coordination. On magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), PPMS shows fewer focal T2 hyperintense lesions and gadolinium-enhancing lesions in the brain compared to relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, but with a higher burden of spinal cord lesions and diffuse brain and spinal cord atrophy. The rate of brain atrophy in PPMS is accelerated, at -0.63% to -0.94% per year, contributing to disability independent of lesion load. Disability accrual is more rapid; patients typically reach an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score of 6 (requiring a cane for walking) in about 10 years from onset, versus nearly 20 years in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Treatment responses to disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) in PPMS are generally poorer than in relapsing forms, as most DMTs target inflammatory activity that is less prominent in progression. Ocrelizumab, a monoclonal antibody, is the only FDA-approved DMT specifically for PPMS, demonstrating modest slowing of disability progression in clinical trials. Other agents, such as interferons or glatiramer acetate, show limited efficacy in this subtype.

Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis

Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) is a clinical subtype of multiple sclerosis characterized by a gradual worsening of neurologic function over time, typically following an initial phase of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). With modern disease-modifying therapies, approximately 25% of individuals with RRMS transition to SPMS within 20 years of disease onset, though relapses may or may not continue after this conversion.^[172] The use of disease-modifying therapies has reduced the rate of transition from RRMS to SPMS in recent years.^[167] This progression reflects a shift in the disease's dominant mechanism, where inflammatory activity diminishes and neurodegenerative processes predominate, leading to steady accumulation of disability independent of acute attacks.^[173] SPMS can be further divided into active and inactive phases based on the presence of ongoing inflammatory activity. In active SPMS, occasional relapses or gadolinium-enhancing lesions on MRI may occur, indicating residual inflammation superimposed on the progressive course; inactive SPMS, by contrast, lacks these features and is marked solely by continuous progression. Pathologically, the transition to SPMS involves a reduced emphasis on perivenular inflammation and demyelination, with increased axonal degeneration, gray matter atrophy, and diffuse neuroaxonal loss throughout the central nervous system. This neurodegenerative shift contributes to the irreversible nature of disability accumulation, distinguishing it from the more reversible inflammatory events of earlier stages. Diagnosis of SPMS is typically retrospective and relies on evidence of progression rather than specific biomarkers. Clinicians confirm the subtype when there is a history of RRMS followed by at least 6 to 12 months of steady clinical worsening, such as increased disability on standardized scales like the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), without clear evidence of relapses accounting for the change. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) supports this by showing stabilization or slowing of new T2-hyperintense lesion formation, alongside progressive brain volume loss—often exceeding 0.5% annually—and spinal cord atrophy, which correlate with clinical decline.

Pediatric and atypical variants

Pediatric multiple sclerosis (MS), defined as onset before 18 years of age, accounts for approximately 2-5% of all MS cases.^[174] It typically presents with a relapsing-remitting course in over 95% of affected children, often featuring more frequent relapses and faster accrual of brain lesions compared to adult-onset MS, though initial recovery from acute episodes is generally more complete in pediatric patients.^[175] Long-term outcomes may involve earlier disability accumulation, with a median time to confirmed disability of around 20 years, underscoring the need for early intervention to mitigate progression.^[176] Radiologically isolated syndrome (RIS) represents an asymptomatic precursor to MS, characterized by MRI findings meeting the diagnostic criteria for MS dissemination in space without clinical symptoms.^[177] Approximately 30% of individuals with RIS progress to clinically definite MS within five years, with risk factors including younger age at detection, spinal cord involvement, and infratentorial lesions.^[178] This entity highlights the potential for early identification of MS vulnerability through incidental imaging.^[179] Balo's concentric sclerosis is a rare demyelinating variant of MS distinguished by its pathognomonic MRI appearance of alternating concentric rings of demyelination and preserved myelin in the white matter, often affecting the cerebral hemispheres.^[180] It typically manifests acutely with focal neurological deficits and can mimic tumefactive lesions or tumors, though it may evolve into a more typical relapsing-remitting MS course in survivors.^[181] The condition's aggressive nature stems from extensive, rapidly expanding lesions, but prognosis varies with timely immunosuppressive therapy.^[182] The Marburg variant, also known as fulminant MS, is an exceptionally rare and aggressive form characterized by acute, monophasic demyelination leading to rapid neurological deterioration, coma, and often death within weeks to months of onset.^[183] It predominantly affects young adults but can occur in any age group, featuring large, confluent lesions on MRI and poor response to standard therapies, though rare cases of stabilization have been reported with aggressive interventions like high-dose cyclophosphamide or ocrelizumab.^[184] Diagnostic criteria emphasize the fulminant course and histopathological confirmation when possible.^[183] Tumefactive MS, an atypical presentation involving large (>2 cm), tumor-like demyelinating lesions that often mimic primary brain tumors or abscesses, has gained increased recognition in recent years for its diagnostic challenges and potential for misdiagnosis leading to unnecessary biopsies.^[185] Its occurrence is approximately 0.1-0.2% (1-2 per 1,000) of MS cases.^[186] Long-term follow-up reveals that many patients transition to relapsing-remitting MS, emphasizing the importance of serial imaging and cerebrospinal fluid analysis in management.^[187]

Treatment

Management of acute relapses

The management of acute relapses in multiple sclerosis focuses on rapidly reducing inflammation and accelerating neurological recovery to minimize residual disability.^[188] High-dose corticosteroids remain the cornerstone of treatment, administered promptly upon confirmation of a true relapse after excluding mimics such as infections or pseudo-relapses.^[35] Intravenous methylprednisolone at a dose of 1 g daily for 3-5 days is the standard first-line regimen, supported by extensive clinical evidence demonstrating its ability to hasten functional recovery compared to placebo.^[188] This therapy works by suppressing immune-mediated inflammation in the central nervous system, typically leading to symptom improvement within days, though a short oral taper of prednisone may follow to prevent rebound exacerbation.^[35] For milder relapses or when intravenous access is challenging, high-dose oral corticosteroids—such as prednisone 1 g daily for 3-5 days or methylprednisolone 500 mg daily for 5 days—offer comparable efficacy and convenience, as shown in randomized trials.^[189] In cases of steroid non-response, particularly severe relapses affecting vision, mobility, or cognition, alternatives include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) at 80-120 units intramuscularly or subcutaneously daily for up to 14 days, which exerts anti-inflammatory effects through melanocortin pathways and has regulatory approval for this indication.^[188] Plasmapheresis, involving 5-7 plasma exchanges every other day over 10-14 days, is recommended as a second-line option for corticosteroid-refractory relapses, as it removes circulating antibodies and inflammatory mediators, with evidence from American Academy of Neurology guidelines indicating improved outcomes in up to 50% of such cases.^[35] Supportive measures are integral to relapse management, including adequate hydration to prevent complications from immobility, analgesics for pain control, and physical therapy to maintain function during recovery.^[190] Hospitalization or emergency evaluation is warranted for severe relapses involving significant weakness, respiratory compromise, or inability to perform daily activities, allowing for close monitoring and intravenous therapies.^[35] Antibiotics should be avoided unless a concurrent bacterial infection is confirmed, as prophylactic use is not recommended and infections themselves can trigger relapses.^[191]

Disease-modifying therapies

Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) for multiple sclerosis (MS) are medications designed to reduce the frequency of relapses, slow disability progression, and limit new lesion formation on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by targeting underlying immune-mediated processes.^[192] These therapies are primarily approved for relapsing forms of MS, including relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), and select options extend to progressive subtypes. Selection of a DMT depends on disease activity, patient preferences for administration route, and risk profile, with early initiation recommended to optimize outcomes.^[193] Injectable DMTs include interferon beta-1a (IFN-β1a), administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly, which modulates immune responses by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production and enhancing anti-inflammatory pathways.^[194] In pivotal trials, IFN-β1a reduced annualized relapse rates by approximately 30% compared to placebo over two years.^[195] Glatiramer acetate, another injectable option given daily subcutaneously, acts as an immunomodulator by mimicking myelin basic protein, promoting regulatory T cells and shifting the immune response from Th1 to Th2 dominance.^[196] Its efficacy includes a 29% reduction in relapse rates in the original two-year study, with sustained benefits in long-term extensions.^[197] Monoclonal antibodies represent high-efficacy options, including ocrelizumab, which depletes CD20-positive B cells via antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and complement activation, approved for both RRMS and primary progressive MS (PPMS).^[198] In phase III trials, ocrelizumab reduced relapse rates by 46-47% relative to IFN-β1a in RRMS and slowed disability progression by 24% in PPMS over 96-120 weeks.^[199] Natalizumab, an alpha-4 integrin antagonist that blocks VCAM-1-mediated leukocyte adhesion to the blood-brain barrier, is infused monthly and highly effective in reducing relapses by 68% in pivotal studies.^[200] However, it carries a risk of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) estimated at about 0.1% in natalizumab-treated MS patients without prior immunosuppressant use.^[201] Oral DMTs offer convenience, with fingolimod, a sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulator, trapping lymphocytes in lymph nodes to prevent their migration into the central nervous system, taken daily.^[202] Phase III trials demonstrated a 48% reduction in relapse rates compared to IFN-β1a over two years.^[203] Teriflunomide, an inhibitor of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase that disrupts de novo pyrimidine synthesis in proliferating lymphocytes, is dosed daily and reduced annualized relapse rates by 31% versus placebo in the TEMSO trial.^[204] For active secondary progressive MS (SPMS), siponimod, another S1P modulator selective for S1P1 and S1P5 receptors, was approved in 2019 and delays disability progression by 21% in patients with active disease.^[205] Cladribine, a purine analog that selectively depletes early lymphocytes, is administered in short oral courses over two years and reduced relapse rates by 58% relative to IFN-β1a in the CLARITY trial, and is approved for active SPMS in regions including the US and EU.^[206]

Symptomatic and supportive care

Symptomatic and supportive care in multiple sclerosis (MS) focuses on alleviating specific symptoms to improve quality of life, distinct from therapies aimed at modifying disease progression. These interventions target common manifestations such as spasticity, fatigue, pain, bladder dysfunction, and depression, often using pharmacological agents alongside non-drug strategies. Management is individualized, considering symptom severity and potential interactions with other treatments.^[136] Spasticity, characterized by muscle stiffness and spasms, affects up to 80% of people with MS and can impair mobility. Oral medications like baclofen and tizanidine are first-line treatments, acting as muscle relaxants to reduce tone and improve function; baclofen is a GABA-B agonist, while tizanidine is an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist, both showing efficacy in randomized trials for MS-related spasticity. For focal spasticity, botulinum toxin (Botox) injections provide targeted relief by inhibiting acetylcholine release at neuromuscular junctions, with evidence from systematic reviews supporting its use for hip adductor and calf muscles in MS patients.^[207]^[208]^[209] Fatigue, reported by over 80% of individuals with MS, significantly limits daily activities and is managed through both pharmacological and behavioral approaches. Amantadine, an antiviral with dopaminergic effects, and modafinil, a wakefulness-promoting agent, are commonly prescribed for mild to moderate fatigue, with meta-analyses indicating modest benefits in reducing fatigue severity scores in MS cohorts. Energy conservation strategies, such as pacing activities and prioritizing tasks, are recommended as non-pharmacological interventions, supported by evidence from randomized controlled trials showing sustained improvements in fatigue management.^[210]^[211] Pain in MS often stems from neuropathic mechanisms due to central nervous system lesions, manifesting as burning or shooting sensations. Gabapentin, an anticonvulsant that modulates calcium channels, is effective for neuropathic pain, with open-label studies in MS patients demonstrating moderate pain reduction and tolerability. Antidepressants, including tricyclic agents like amitriptyline and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, provide relief by enhancing pain inhibitory pathways, as outlined in guidelines for MS-related neuropathic pain management.^[212]^[213] Bladder dysfunction, affecting urinary storage and emptying in about 50-80% of MS cases, leads to incontinence or retention and requires prompt intervention to prevent complications like infections. Anticholinergic medications such as oxybutynin relax the detrusor muscle to reduce urgency and frequency, with clinical trials showing significant decreases in voiding episodes at doses up to 30 mg daily. For incomplete emptying, clean intermittent self-catheterization is a standard supportive measure, used by approximately 25% of MS patients to maintain bladder health and prevent overflow.^[214]^[215] Depression occurs in up to 50% of people with MS, exacerbating other symptoms and carrying an elevated suicide risk approximately twice that of the general population. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like sertraline, paroxetine, and fluoxetine are first-line pharmacological treatments due to their tolerability and efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms, with randomized trials showing response rates of 70-80% in MS patients. Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), complements pharmacotherapy by building coping skills, with studies demonstrating equivalent efficacy to SSRIs in improving mood and quality of life; routine screening for suicidal ideation is essential given the heightened risk.^[216]^[17]

Lifestyle interventions

Lifestyle interventions play a crucial role in managing multiple sclerosis (MS) by addressing modifiable factors that influence symptom severity, fatigue, and disease progression. These strategies, including exercise, dietary modifications, smoking cessation, stress management, and cooling techniques, are supported by clinical evidence and can complement medical treatments to enhance quality of life. Research emphasizes their accessibility and potential to slow disability accumulation without pharmacological intervention.^[217] Exercise, particularly aerobic and resistance training, has been shown to significantly reduce fatigue and improve physical function in people with MS. Aerobic activities, such as cycling or walking at low to moderate intensity, enhance cardiovascular fitness and alleviate perceived fatigue, with studies demonstrating moderate favorable effects compared to no exercise. Resistance training, involving weight-bearing exercises, similarly boosts muscle strength and lower extremity function, achieving clinically relevant reductions in self-reported fatigue when performed once or twice weekly. Combined aerobic and resistance programs yield comparable benefits, with evidence indicating improvements in mobility and overall health-related quality of life among those with mild to moderate disability.^[218]^[219]^[220]^[217] Dietary approaches, such as the Swank low-fat diet, focus on reducing saturated fat intake to potentially mitigate inflammation and support neurological health. Developed based on epidemiological observations linking high animal fat consumption to MS progression, the Swank diet limits saturated fats to under 15 grams daily and emphasizes fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins, with preliminary studies suggesting benefits in symptom management. Vitamin D supplementation, recommended at 2000-4000 IU per day, addresses common deficiencies in MS patients and may reduce relapse rates; clinical recommendations often endorse this dosage, particularly for those with low serum levels, as higher intake (≥400 IU/day) is associated with a 41% lower risk of MS development in observational data.^[221]^[222]^[223] Smoking cessation is a key intervention, as continued tobacco use accelerates MS progression, while quitting can slow motor disability deterioration to levels comparable to never-smokers. Longitudinal studies confirm that former smokers experience reduced rates of disability worsening after cessation, highlighting the modifiable impact of this behavior on disease course. Counseling programs, including motivational interviewing and support groups tailored for MS patients, address barriers like perceived stress from quitting and enhance success rates by focusing on health benefits specific to MS.^[224]^[225]^[226] Stress management techniques, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and yoga, help alleviate psychological burden and physical symptoms in MS. An 8-week MBSR program, incorporating meditation and gentle movement, improves mental and physical quality of life, with participants reporting reduced fatigue and depression. Conscious yoga, combined with mindfulness, similarly enhances overall well-being and mastery over symptoms, fostering resilience against daily stressors. These interventions are feasible for MS patients and associated with lower levels of perceived stress, though direct evidence on relapse prevention remains emerging.^[227]^[228]^[229] Cooling therapy targets heat sensitivity, known as Uhthoff's phenomenon, where elevated body temperature temporarily exacerbates MS symptoms in 60-80% of patients. Techniques like wearing cooling vests with ice packs for 30-60 minutes before activity, or using neck wraps and cold beverages during exercise, effectively prevent symptom worsening by maintaining core temperature. These non-invasive methods are particularly useful in hot environments or during physical exertion, allowing sustained function without long-term risks.^[230]^[231]^[232]

Emerging therapies

Emerging therapies for multiple sclerosis (MS) encompass investigational treatments that target underlying disease mechanisms beyond established disease-modifying therapies, including immune modulation, remyelination, and neuroprotection. These approaches aim to address unmet needs in progressive forms of MS and long-term disability, with several advancing through clinical trials as of 2025. Key developments include Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors, remyelination-promoting agents, stem cell-based interventions, novel monoclonal antibodies, and repurposed drugs like metformin. BTK inhibitors, such as tolebrutinib, represent a promising class for non-relapsing secondary progressive MS (nrSPMS), where no prior therapies have demonstrated significant efficacy in slowing progression independent of relapses. In the phase 3 HERCULES trial, involving 613 adults with nrSPMS, tolebrutinib (60 mg once daily) reduced the risk of 6-month confirmed disability progression by 31% compared to placebo (hazard ratio, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.49-0.97; P=0.03), marking the first positive result in this population.^[233] This breakthrough highlights BTK inhibition's potential to target central nervous system-resident immune cells, with safety data showing manageable risks including infections and liver enzyme elevations, though regulatory review was delayed by the FDA in September 2025 pending further analysis.^[234] Another BTK inhibitor, fenebrutinib from Roche/Genentech, showed positive phase 3 results announced on November 9, 2025. In the FENhance 1 and 2 trials for relapsing MS (n=over 1,800 total), fenebrutinib (oral, 120 mg once daily) reduced annualized relapse rates by approximately 45% compared to teriflunomide over 96 weeks. In the FENtrepid trial for primary progressive MS (n=754), it slowed 12-week confirmed disability progression noninferior to ocrelizumab (24% risk reduction vs placebo), potentially positioning it as the first BTK inhibitor approved for both relapsing and progressive forms if regulatory approval is granted.^[235] Remyelination agents focus on repairing myelin damage to restore nerve conduction and function. Clemastine, an over-the-counter antihistamine, has shown modest remyelinating effects in clinical trials for relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). In the phase 2 ReBUILD trial, a randomized, double-blind, crossover study of 50 participants, clemastine (5.36 mg twice daily) improved visual evoked potential latency by 1.7 ms/year compared to placebo (P=0.02), indicating enhanced conduction in the visual pathway.^[236] More recently, the CCMR-Two trial (NCT05131828) combined clemastine with metformin, demonstrating increased myelin repair in RRMS patients as measured by multimodal evoked potentials, though the effect size was small.^[237] The investigational compound K102, a selective estrogen receptor β (ERβ) ligand, has emerged as a dual-action remyelination agent in preclinical models of MS. Developed by Cadenza Bio, K102 promotes oligodendrocyte maturation and myelin sheath formation while modulating immune responses, restoring nerve conduction in demyelinated animal models.^[238] In cell-based assays and rodent studies, K102 enhanced remyelination by up to 50% compared to controls and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, positioning it for potential phase 1 trials.^[239] Its brain-penetrant, oral formulation offers advantages for chronic use. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (aHSCT) involves high-dose immunosuppression followed by stem cell reinfusion to reset aberrant immune responses, particularly in aggressive RRMS. Long-term data from a Swedish observational cohort of 229 patients with RRMS showed that aHSCT achieved no evidence of disease activity in 73% at 5 years (95% CI, 66%-81%), halting progression in the majority without treatment-related mortality.^[240] This approach, supported by consensus guidelines, yields progression-free survival rates of approximately 70% at 5 years across studies, though it carries risks like infections and infertility, limiting its use to highly active cases unresponsive to standard therapies.^[241] Ublituximab, a glycoengineered anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, provides rapid and sustained B-cell depletion for RRMS. In the phase 3 ULTIMATE I and II trials (n=1,094 total), ublituximab (450 mg infusion every 24 weeks after initial doses) reduced annualized relapse rates by 59% versus teriflunomide at 96 weeks (0.08 vs. 0.19; rate ratio, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.27-0.62; P<0.001), with 89.9% of patients relapse-free at year 6 in open-label extensions.^[242] Its subcutaneous formulation entered phase 3 testing in 2025, potentially improving convenience over intravenous predecessors.^[243] Metformin, a widely used antidiabetic drug, is being repurposed for its neuroprotective and remyelinating properties in MS through activation of AMP-activated protein kinase and mitochondrial modulation. Early-phase trials, including the CCMR-Two study, reported enhanced myelin repair when combined with clemastine in RRMS, with multimodal assessments showing improved evoked potentials.^[244] An ongoing add-on trial (NCT05893225) evaluates metformin's impact on brain remyelination and neurodegeneration via MRI and clinical outcomes, with preclinical data indicating reduced oxidative stress and inflammation in MS models. These findings support metformin's potential as an accessible, low-cost adjunct therapy.^[245]

Prognosis

Disability progression patterns

Disability progression in multiple sclerosis (MS) varies widely among individuals, with distinct patterns observed across disease courses. In relapsing-remitting MS, the most common subtype, disability often accumulates slowly with periods of stability, whereas progressive forms exhibit more consistent worsening. These patterns are typically quantified using the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), which measures functional impairment from 0 (normal) to 10 (death due to MS).^[246] Benign MS represents a milder trajectory, affecting approximately 10-20% of patients, characterized by minimal disability accumulation such that EDSS remains below 3 after 15 years of disease duration. This pattern involves few relapses and limited neurological impairment, allowing many individuals to maintain normal daily activities without significant intervention. In contrast, malignant MS is a rare aggressive form seen in about 5% of cases, marked by rapid escalation to severe disability, often reaching EDSS 7 (wheelchair dependence) within 5 years of onset. This swift progression results from extensive inflammation and axonal damage early in the disease. EDSS trajectories in MS commonly feature initial plateau phases, where disability stabilizes for years following relapses, particularly in early relapsing-remitting phases. However, in progressive MS, these trajectories accelerate, with steady increases in EDSS scores reflecting ongoing neurodegeneration and irreversible tissue loss, often leading to compounded mobility and cognitive challenges over decades.^[246]^[247] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides insights into these patterns, as T2 lesion volume—a measure of hyperintense areas indicating demyelination and inflammation—correlates with future disability and explains approximately 30% of the variance in long-term progression. Higher baseline T2 lesion loads predict steeper EDSS increases, highlighting the role of cumulative brain and spinal cord damage in shaping outcomes.^[248] Despite women comprising about 75% of MS cases and experiencing higher relapse rates, they generally exhibit slower disability progression compared to men, with delayed transitions to progressive phases and lower EDSS scores at equivalent disease durations. This gender disparity underscores potential protective effects of female hormones or genetic factors in modulating neurodegeneration.^[249]

Factors influencing outcomes

Several factors influence the prognosis and long-term outcomes in multiple sclerosis (MS), including the timing of treatment initiation, presence of comorbidities, age at onset, location of lesions, and socioeconomic circumstances. These variables can modulate the rate of disability accumulation and transition to more progressive disease forms, independent of baseline progression patterns such as relapsing-remitting or primary progressive trajectories. Early initiation of disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) is a key modifiable factor that favorably affects MS prognosis. Delaying DMT start beyond the initial disease phase increases the risk of reaching an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score of 6.0, with each year of delay associated with a 3% higher risk; thus, beginning treatment within 2 years of symptom onset can substantially lower the cumulative progression risk compared to later starts.^[250] Comorbidities, particularly vascular conditions, exacerbate brain atrophy and accelerate disability progression in MS. Hypertension contributes to advanced brain atrophy independent of MS-specific pathology, worsening structural damage and clinical outcomes.^[251] Similarly, coexisting diabetes mellitus, whether type 1 or type 2, is linked to increased rates of whole-brain and cortical atrophy in people with MS, further compounding neurodegeneration.^[252]^[253] Age at disease onset plays a critical role in predicting the speed of decline, with later onset associated with more aggressive progression. Onset after age 40 years is a consistent risk factor for faster transition to secondary progressive MS, leading to quicker accumulation of irreversible disability compared to younger-onset cases.^[254] The location of demyelinating lesions also significantly impacts functional outcomes, particularly mobility. Spinal cord lesions exert a greater influence on disability progression than comparable brain lesions, strongly predicting the time to EDSS 4.0 and contributing more directly to motor impairments like walking difficulties.^[255] Socioeconomic factors, including access to healthcare and DMTs, influence MS outcomes through disparities in care quality and timeliness. Higher socioeconomic status correlates with better prognosis, with each incremental step in SES reducing the risk of needing mobility aids by approximately 10%; consequently, improved access in higher SES groups can enhance outcomes by up to 20% relative to lower SES counterparts.^[256]

Long-term survival and quality of life

People with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience a reduced life expectancy compared to the general population, typically shortened by 5 to 10 years.^[257] A longitudinal study spanning 60 years reported a median life expectancy of 74.7 years for MS patients, versus 81.8 years for matched individuals without MS, reflecting an average reduction of 7.1 years; this gap is more pronounced in men (6.7 years) and those with primary progressive MS (10.4 years).^[258] The primary contributors to this shortened lifespan are complications associated with the disease, particularly infections, which arise due to impaired mobility and respiratory function.^[259] Common causes of death among MS patients include the disease itself as the underlying factor in over 50% of cases, followed by respiratory infections such as pneumonia (accounting for approximately 25% in cohort analyses), suicide (7.5 times higher than in the general population), and accidents related to mobility challenges.^[260]^[261] Advances in disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) have improved long-term survival. As of 2024, some studies report a median survival of 75.9 years for people with MS compared to 83.4 years in matched controls without MS, indicating a gap of about 7.5 years.^[262] Quality of life (QoL) in MS is notably diminished, as evidenced by lower scores on the Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36) compared to the general population, particularly in physical functioning (mean score around 68 versus normative 80-90), role limitations due to physical health (57 versus 80), and vitality (48 versus 60).^[263]^[264] These reductions are significantly influenced by prevalent symptoms such as fatigue and depression, which correlate with poorer mental and social functioning scores on the SF-36.^[265] Employment retention serves as a key indicator of QoL, with 40-60% of individuals with MS maintaining workforce participation 5 years after diagnosis, though rates decline further over time due to accumulating symptoms.^[266] Early intervention with DMTs and supportive measures can help preserve employment and overall well-being, contributing to better holistic outcomes.^[267]

Epidemiology

Global prevalence and incidence

Multiple sclerosis (MS) affects an estimated 2.9 million people worldwide as of 2023, marking a steady rise from 2.3 million in 2013. In the United States, the prevalence is approximately 1 million individuals. These figures reflect the total number of people living with the disease at a given time, with variations due to diagnostic improvements and population growth. As of 2025, prevalence continues to rise, with projections estimating further increases due to improved diagnostics and population growth.^[5]^[4]^[268] The global incidence of MS, or the rate of new diagnoses, averages about 2.1 cases per 100,000 people annually, though this has been increasing by 2-3% per decade in many regions. This upward trend is largely attributed to enhanced awareness, widespread adoption of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for earlier detection, and improved access to healthcare in some areas. For instance, the number of new cases was approximately 52,000 globally in 2021.^[269]^[89]^[270] Prevalence rates vary dramatically by geography, with the highest concentrations in Europe and North America, where they often exceed 200 per 100,000 population—such as 219 per 100,000 in Sweden and 182 per 100,000 in Canada. In contrast, rates are lowest in Asia and Africa, typically below 5 per 100,000, as seen in sub-Saharan Africa (around 4.5 per 100,000) and parts of South-East Asia (8-9 per 100,000). These disparities highlight the influence of environmental and diagnostic factors on reported occurrence.^[89]^[271]^[272] Underreporting remains a challenge, particularly in low-resource areas, where limited healthcare infrastructure and access to diagnostic tools like MRI may lead to a significant number of cases going undiagnosed. This issue contributes to potentially underestimated global burdens in regions like Africa and parts of Asia, where surveillance is less comprehensive.^[273]^[268]

Demographic risk factors

Multiple sclerosis (MS) exhibits a pronounced sex disparity, with women affected approximately three times more often than men, resulting in a female-to-male ratio of about 3:1.^[249] This ratio has been increasing over recent decades, potentially linked to environmental or lifestyle factors influencing disease susceptibility.^[249] One hypothesis posits that estrogen exerts a protective effect against MS development, as evidenced by reduced disease activity during pregnancy—a period of elevated estrogen levels—and through experimental models showing estrogen's anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective actions in autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model for MS.^[274] The typical age of onset for MS falls between 20 and 40 years, representing the peak incidence period for the disease.^[2] Onset before age 10 or after age 60 is rare, comprising less than 5% of cases, though late-onset MS (after 50) may present with more progressive features.^[3] Risk varies significantly by ethnicity, with higher prevalence observed among individuals of Caucasian or European descent compared to those of African or Asian ancestry.^[275] For instance, recent prevalence estimates indicate lower rates among African Americans (87.3 per 100,000) compared to whites (140.4 per 100,000), while Asian Americans experience an 80% lower risk; admixed populations, such as Hispanics, show intermediate rates.^[276]^[275] These differences may stem from genetic admixture and environmental interactions, though the precise mechanisms remain under investigation. Disease course is often more severe in African Americans, particularly women.^[275] A family history of MS confers elevated risk, with siblings of affected individuals facing approximately seven times the likelihood of developing the disease compared to the general population.^[277] This familial aggregation underscores a heritable component, estimated to account for 20-30% of overall MS susceptibility, though environmental factors also play a key role.^[277] MS incidence appears higher among individuals of higher socioeconomic status (SES), potentially reflecting greater access to diagnostic services rather than an inherent biological risk.^[93] Studies indicate that higher SES correlates with earlier and more frequent MS diagnoses, suggesting detection bias in affluent groups, while lower SES may delay identification and worsen outcomes due to barriers in healthcare access.^[93]

Socioeconomic and regional variations

Socioeconomic factors significantly influence the burden and management of multiple sclerosis (MS), with access to timely diagnosis and treatment varying markedly across income levels. In low- and middle-income countries, diagnostic delays are common due to limited resources, such as shortages of neurologists and MRI facilities, leading to barriers in early identification. For instance, in Zambia, the median time from symptom onset to MS diagnosis is 11.4 months.^[278] These delays exacerbate disease progression and disability, highlighting how economic constraints in resource-poor settings hinder equitable care. Migration patterns further illustrate socioeconomic and regional influences on MS risk, as first-generation immigrants often experience shifts in incidence that align more closely with their host country's environmental factors. Studies show that the risk of developing MS among immigrants increases with the proportion of life spent in the host nation, suggesting an adoption of local risk profiles, such as variations in vitamin D exposure or infectious disease prevalence. In a Canadian cohort, immigrants spending 70% of their life in the country had a 38% higher adjusted hazard ratio for incident MS compared to those spending only 20%, underscoring the role of acculturation in modulating disease susceptibility. Urbanization contributes to regional variations in MS incidence, with urban environments associated with elevated risks potentially linked to lifestyle and environmental exposures. Research in Italy's Lombardy region indicates that MS risk is 29% higher in more urbanized areas compared to rural ones, after adjusting for deprivation, possibly due to factors like air pollution or dietary changes. This urban-rural gradient persists globally, amplifying disparities in densely populated regions where healthcare infrastructure may strain under higher caseloads. The economic toll of MS underscores socioeconomic inequities, particularly in high-income settings where treatment costs impose substantial burdens. In the United States, the average annual cost of living with MS, including medical care and lost productivity, reaches approximately $88,500 per patient, driven largely by disease-modifying therapies and supportive services. Addressing 2025 inequities, telemedicine has emerged as a key intervention to enhance rural access, enabling virtual consultations with MS specialists and reducing barriers like travel distance. In Alberta, Canada, rural patients are 17% less likely to receive disease-modifying therapies than urban counterparts, but expanded telehealth initiatives mitigate this by facilitating earlier interventions and improving overall care equity.

History

Early historical accounts

The earliest documented case suggestive of multiple sclerosis dates to the late 14th century, involving Saint Lidwina of Schiedam (1380–1433), a Dutch nun. Following a fall while ice-skating at age 16, she developed progressive symptoms including severe headaches, bedsores from immobility, intermittent limb weakness and paralysis, excruciating pain, and episodes of temporary remission, which confined her to bed for much of her life. Contemporary biographies, such as that by Thomas à Kempis, detail these manifestations, which align closely with modern diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis, including relapsing-remitting patterns and multifocal neurological involvement.^[279]^[280] During the medieval period, descriptions of "trembling palsy"—a term used in European medical and folk texts for conditions involving involuntary shaking and weakness—appear in various accounts, potentially encompassing early unrecognized cases of multiple sclerosis. For instance, Scottish chronicles from the era reference similar afflictions as debilitating tremors, though without specific pathological correlation. These pre-modern observations often blended medical observation with folklore, where such symptoms were frequently attributed to supernatural causes, including witchcraft, demonic possession, or divine punishment for moral failings, reflecting the era's limited understanding of neurological diseases.^[281]^[282] The 19th century brought the first systematic medical delineation of multiple sclerosis as a distinct disorder. In 1868, French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot presented detailed clinical and pathological descriptions in lectures at the Salpêtrière Hospital, distinguishing it from Parkinson's disease (known as paralysis agitans) primarily through the character of the tremor: an intention tremor in multiple sclerosis that manifests during voluntary movements, in contrast to the resting tremor of Parkinson's.^[283] Charcot named the condition sclérose en plaques disséminées (disseminated plaque sclerosis), based on autopsy findings of multiple hardened, plaque-like lesions in the central nervous system, which he illustrated with drawings derived from cases like that of his servant Luc.^[283] This work established multiple sclerosis as a novel nosological entity, integrating clinical symptoms such as nystagmus, scanning speech, and ataxia with anatomo-pathological evidence.^[284]

Development of diagnostic methods

In the early 1900s, the definitive diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) relied heavily on post-mortem autopsy examinations, which revealed characteristic plaques of demyelination and sclerosis in the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. These pathological findings, first systematically described in the 19th century but confirmed through numerous autopsies in the 20th century, provided the primary means of verifying the disease after death, as clinical symptoms alone were often insufficient for antemortem certainty. For instance, detailed autopsy studies in the early 1900s, such as those building on Charcot's foundational work, emphasized the multifocal nature of these lesions as hallmarks of disseminated sclerosis.^[280]^[283] The mid-20th century saw the introduction of electrophysiological techniques, with evoked potentials emerging as a key advancement in the 1970s for detecting subclinical demyelination in living patients. Visual evoked potentials (VEPs), first applied to MS by Halliday and colleagues in 1972, measured delays in nerve conduction along the visual pathways, offering objective evidence of optic nerve involvement even in asymptomatic cases and supporting the diagnosis of disseminated lesions in time and space. This non-invasive method marked a shift from purely pathological confirmation to functional assessment, enhancing diagnostic sensitivity for early or atypical presentations.^[285]^[286] Imaging technologies further transformed MS diagnosis starting in the 1970s, when computed tomography (CT) scans provided the first in vivo views of brain structures, though their low sensitivity limited detection of small or white matter lesions typical in MS. The 1980s brought a paradigm shift with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which revolutionized detection by vividly visualizing demyelinating plaques without radiation, enabling earlier and more precise identification of active and chronic lesions across the central nervous system. Early MRI studies in MS patients, such as those by Young et al. in 1981, demonstrated its superiority over CT for lesion delineation, making it indispensable for clinical practice.^[282]^[280] Standardized diagnostic frameworks evolved alongside these tools, with the Poser criteria introduced in 1983 to integrate clinical history, evoked potentials, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and emerging imaging for classifying MS as clinically definite, laboratory-supported definite, clinically probable, or laboratory-supported probable. These criteria facilitated research protocols and improved diagnostic reproducibility but were later refined for greater reliance on MRI evidence. The McDonald criteria, published in 2001, superseded Poser by incorporating serial MRI scans to demonstrate lesion dissemination, allowing earlier diagnosis in patients with relapsing-remitting or primary progressive forms while maintaining specificity.^[287]^[288] In the 2010s and extending into the 2020s, advanced modalities like optical coherence tomography (OCT) have enhanced assessment of optic nerve and retinal involvement, a common site of MS-related neurodegeneration. OCT, gaining prominence through studies like those reviewed in 2020, quantifies thinning of the retinal nerve fiber layer as a biomarker of axonal loss, correlating with brain atrophy and disability progression without invasive procedures. Concurrently, artificial intelligence, particularly convolutional neural networks for automated MRI lesion segmentation, has emerged since the late 2010s to address challenges in manual analysis, achieving high accuracy in identifying and volumetrically quantifying lesions to support precise diagnosis and monitoring. Seminal reviews highlight deep learning models outperforming traditional methods in speed and consistency, with applications validated in multicenter datasets.^[289]^[290]

Evolution of treatment approaches

Prior to the 1990s, treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS) was limited to supportive measures aimed at managing symptoms, such as physical therapy and pain relief, with no therapies available to alter disease progression.^[291] In the 1950s, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) emerged as the first pharmacological intervention specifically for acute relapses, accelerating recovery from exacerbations through its anti-inflammatory effects, though it did not impact long-term disability.^[292] The landmark shift to disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) occurred in 1993 with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of interferon beta-1b (IFNβ-1b), the first drug demonstrated to reduce relapse rates and slow disability progression in relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) based on the pivotal phase 3 trial showing a 30% reduction in exacerbations.^[293] This injectable immunomodulator marked the beginning of targeted immune modulation, followed by approvals of other interferons like IFNβ-1a in 1996 and glatiramer acetate in 1997, establishing a foundation for platform therapies in RRMS.^[294] The 2000s expanded options with more potent agents, including natalizumab in 2006, a monoclonal antibody blocking leukocyte migration across the blood-brain barrier, which demonstrated superior efficacy in reducing relapses by up to 68% in clinical trials but required careful monitoring due to progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy risk. By 2010, fingolimod became the first oral DMT approved by the FDA, a sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulator that traps lymphocytes in lymph nodes, achieving a 52% relapse reduction in its phase 3 study and improving convenience over injectables. The 2010s introduced therapies for progressive forms, with ocrelizumab approved in 2017 as the first DMT for primary progressive MS (PPMS), a B-cell depleting monoclonal antibody that slowed disability progression by 24% in PPMS patients per the ORATORIO trial, while also effective in RRMS. In the 2020s, Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors have advanced as next-generation oral therapies targeting B- and myeloid cells, with tolebrutinib demonstrating significant delays in disability progression in phase 3 trials for non-relapsing secondary progressive MS and under FDA review as of late 2025.^[233] Concurrently, autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) gained formalized support through 2025 consensus guidelines recommending its use in eligible patients with active relapsing MS refractory to DMTs, based on evidence of long-term remission in up to 70% of cases from meta-analyses.^[241]

Research

Viral and infectious investigations

Research into the role of viruses and infections in multiple sclerosis (MS) has increasingly focused on specific pathogens, with evidence suggesting they may contribute to disease initiation or progression through mechanisms like immune dysregulation or molecular mimicry. A landmark 2022 serological study analyzing over 10 million U.S. military personnel found that infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) increased the risk of MS by 32-fold, establishing a strong temporal association where EBV infection preceded MS diagnosis in nearly all cases.^[80] This finding supported causality, as EBV-seronegative individuals showed virtually no MS risk, while seroconversion dramatically elevated it.^[80] Subsequent longitudinal studies have reinforced these observations. A 2025 prospective analysis confirmed that EBV nuclear antigen-specific antibodies serve as an early prognostic biomarker for MS risk, detectable years before clinical onset, further solidifying the virus's causal link in susceptible individuals.^[295] Comprehensive reviews in 2025 have also noted that over 99% of MS patients exhibit prior EBV infection, far exceeding general population rates of 90-95%, with reactivation potentially driving chronic inflammation in the central nervous system.^[296] Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), another herpesvirus, has been implicated through evidence of reactivation within MS lesions. Studies have detected active HHV-6 replication in brain tissue from MS patients, particularly during relapses, where viral DNA and proteins colocalize with demyelinated areas, suggesting it exacerbates axonal damage and immune activation.^[297] A 2025 investigation further linked HHV-6 reactivation to elevated cytokine levels in relapsing-remitting MS, indicating it may trigger lesion formation via bystander inflammation rather than direct cytopathology.^[298] The gut microbiome's role in MS pathogenesis has gained attention due to observed dysbiosis, characterized by reduced diversity and shifts in bacterial taxa like decreased Clostridia clusters and increased Akkermansia.^[299] This imbalance correlates with enhanced gut permeability and systemic immune dysregulation, potentially promoting autoreactive T-cell responses that target myelin.^[299] Ongoing clinical trials are exploring fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to restore eubiosis; preliminary data from small cohorts show symptom stabilization in some progressive MS cases, with one long-term report documenting over 10 years of halted progression post-FMT, though larger randomized studies are needed to confirm efficacy.^[300]^[301] Regarding vaccine safety, multiple large-scale studies have consistently demonstrated no increased incidence of MS onset or relapse following vaccination. A prospective analysis of over 600 MS patients found no elevated relapse risk within 30 days post-immunization across various vaccines, including hepatitis B and influenza.^[302] More recent evaluations, including those on COVID-19 vaccines, affirm this safety profile, with no association between vaccination and new MS diagnoses or flares in population-based cohorts.^[303] In 2025 assessments of COVID-19's impact on MS, infection has not been established as a direct trigger for disease onset, with registry data showing no alteration in long-term MS trajectory or severity post-infection.^[304] However, acute COVID-19 symptoms can mimic MS flares, such as fatigue and sensory disturbances, leading to diagnostic challenges during outbreaks, though these are typically transient and not indicative of true progression.^[305]

Genetic and biomarker advancements

Recent advancements in genetics have illuminated the role of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex in multiple sclerosis (MS) susceptibility, with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing emerging as a tool to investigate and potentially modulate these associations. Studies utilizing CRISPR-Cas9 have targeted HLA genes, such as HLA-DRB1, which is strongly linked to MS risk, to create precise cellular models that reveal how allelic variations contribute to immune dysregulation in MS pathogenesis. For instance, CRISPR editing of HLA loci in human cell lines has demonstrated altered T-cell responses to myelin antigens, providing insights into autoimmune mechanisms without relying on animal models. These approaches, highlighted in 2025 research, underscore CRISPR's potential for dissecting HLA-driven autoimmunity in MS.^[306]^[307] Polygenic risk scores (PRS) have advanced significantly by 2025, integrating hundreds of genetic variants to predict MS susceptibility with greater precision. Common genetic variants, primarily from genome-wide association studies, explain approximately 20% of MS heritability, enabling PRS models to stratify individuals by lifetime risk. A 2025 study refined these scores to forecast MS onset up to age 40, showing that individuals in the highest 20% PRS quintile face a substantially elevated risk compared to the lowest quintile, aiding early screening in high-risk populations. These tools enhance diagnostic certainty when combined with clinical factors, though they currently capture only a portion of the genetic architecture.^[70]^[308]^[309] Biomarker research has identified neurofilament light chain (NfL) as a reliable blood-based indicator of neuroaxonal damage in MS, correlating with disease activity and progression. Serum NfL levels rise during relapses and gadolinium-enhancing lesions on MRI, reflecting acute inflammation and tissue injury, and remain elevated in progressive forms compared to healthy controls. Longitudinal monitoring of NfL in blood has shown its utility in predicting upcoming relapses, with increases preceding clinical events by months, supporting its integration into routine MS management for treatment optimization. By 2025, standardized assays have validated NfL's prognostic value across MS subtypes, distinguishing active from stable disease phases.^[310]^[311]^[312] MicroRNA (miRNA) profiles offer promising avenues for subtype-specific predictions in MS, with distinct expression patterns differentiating relapsing-remitting from progressive forms. Dysregulated miRNAs, such as miR-146a and miR-155, are upregulated in MS lesions and peripheral blood, modulating inflammatory pathways and serving as classifiers for disease trajectories. A profiling study identified a panel of 165 miRNAs that accurately distinguishes relapsing-remitting MS from controls and progressive subtypes, with potential for non-invasive subtype forecasting. These miRNA signatures, analyzed via high-throughput sequencing, highlight targets for therapeutic intervention and personalized monitoring.^[313]^[314]^[315] Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has revealed heterogeneous B-cell subsets in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of MS patients, elucidating their role in intrathecal inflammation. In active MS, scRNA-seq identifies clonally expanded memory B cells and plasmablasts in CSF, characterized by upregulated inflammatory transcripts like those for immunoglobulin production and antigen presentation. These subsets differ from peripheral blood B cells, supporting antigen-driven maturation within the central nervous system and explaining persistent humoral responses in MS. A 2025 analysis confirmed clonal B-cell expansion as a hallmark of inflammatory MS, distinguishing it from other neurological conditions and informing B-cell-targeted therapies.^[316]^[317]^[318] By 2025, AI-integrated genomics has enabled personalized MS risk assessment by combining polygenic scores with machine learning algorithms on multimodal data. AI models analyze genomic variants alongside electronic health records to predict individual risk profiles, reclassifying progression along a continuum rather than discrete subtypes. This approach, applied to large cohorts, improves PRS accuracy for diverse ancestries and identifies novel gene-environment interactions influencing MS onset. Such integrations promise tailored screening and intervention strategies, though validation in prospective trials remains essential.^[319]^[320]^[321]

Remyelination and repair strategies

Remyelination strategies in multiple sclerosis (MS) aim to restore the myelin sheath around damaged axons, thereby preserving neuronal function and potentially halting disease progression. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), the primary source of new myelin-producing oligodendrocytes, play a central role in this process, but their mobilization and differentiation are often impaired in chronic MS lesions. Research has focused on pharmacological and physiological interventions to enhance OPC activity, addressing the underlying failure of endogenous repair mechanisms.^[322] RXR agonists, such as bexarotene, have been investigated for their ability to mobilize OPCs and promote remyelination by activating retinoid X receptors, which regulate gene expression critical for oligodendrocyte differentiation. In preclinical models, bexarotene enhanced OPC recruitment to demyelinated areas and increased myelin formation in the central nervous system. A phase 2 clinical trial (CCMR-One) in patients with relapsing-remitting MS demonstrated imaging and electrophysiological evidence of remyelination with bexarotene, including improved visual evoked potential latency, despite challenges with tolerability and no significant change in the primary lesion outcome measure.^[323]^[324] In 2025 preclinical studies, the compound K102, a selective estrogen receptor β ligand, showed promise in enhancing remyelination and restoring nerve conduction velocity in animal models of MS. K102 facilitated OPC differentiation into mature oligodendrocytes and improved functional recovery, such as motor coordination, while also modulating immune responses to reduce inflammation at lesion sites. These effects were observed in chloroindazole-based formulations with favorable brain penetration and oral bioavailability, positioning K102 as a candidate for future translation to human trials.^[238]^[325] Electrical stimulation has emerged as a non-pharmacological approach to promote OPC differentiation in animal models of demyelination. In rodent spinal cord injury models mimicking MS pathology, targeted electrical stimulation of the medullary pyramid or cortical neurons increased OPC proliferation and accelerated their maturation into myelinating oligodendrocytes, leading to partial remyelination of axons. This method leverages neuronal activity to create a permissive environment for repair, with studies showing enhanced expression of myelin-related genes following stimulation protocols.^[326]^[327] Despite these advances, remyelination faces significant challenges from the inhibitory microenvironment in chronic MS lesions, particularly scar tissue formed by reactive astrocytes and extracellular matrix components. Glial scars deposit inhibitory molecules like chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and fibronectin, which hinder OPC migration and differentiation, contributing to persistent demyelination. This fibrotic barrier not only physically obstructs repair but also alters signaling pathways, reducing the regenerative potential of endogenous OPCs.^[328]^[329]^[330] Clinical efforts to overcome these barriers include a phase 2 trial evaluating metformin for its potential to enhance remyelination in MS patients. The CCMR-Two trial (NCT05131828) tested metformin in combination with clemastine, showing statistically significant improvements in remyelination biomarkers, such as reduced latency in visual evoked potentials, in individuals with relapsing-remitting MS. Metformin's activation of AMPK pathways was linked to boosted OPC differentiation, offering a repurposed therapeutic avenue despite the need for further validation in larger cohorts.^[331]^[244]

Novel pharmacological developments

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors represent a promising class of oral therapies for multiple sclerosis (MS), targeting B cells and microglia to modulate inflammation within the central nervous system. Evobrutinib, a covalent BTK inhibitor that crosses the blood-brain barrier to inhibit microglial activation, advanced to phase 3 trials (EVOLUTION RMS 1 and 2) in relapsing MS, but failed to meet the primary endpoint of reducing annualized relapse rates compared to teriflunomide, with hazard ratios of 0.98 and 1.12, respectively.^[332] Despite these setbacks, the trials confirmed its central nervous system penetration and acceptable safety profile, excluding severe liver enzyme elevations observed in earlier studies.^[333] Interleukin-2 (IL-2) therapies, administered at low doses, aim to selectively expand regulatory T cells (Tregs) to restore immune tolerance in MS. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, low-dose IL-2 (1 million international units daily) induced a modest and delayed increase in Treg proportions in MS patients, peaking at week 12, without significant activation of effector T cells.^[334] Another phase 1/2 study demonstrated that subcutaneous low-dose IL-2 (1 million international units/day) safely expanded CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Tregs by up to 50% from baseline, maintaining stable clinical and MRI outcomes over 24 weeks in relapsing-remitting MS.^[335] These findings support IL-2's preferential Treg modulation across autoimmune conditions, including MS, with ongoing trials exploring optimal dosing for sustained efficacy.^[336] Nanobody-based approaches targeting LINGO-1 seek to promote remyelination by antagonizing inhibitory signaling in oligodendrocytes. Although traditional monoclonal antibodies like opicinumab (anti-LINGO-1) have shown preclinical remyelination in rodent models of demyelination, emerging nanobody formats offer enhanced tissue penetration and specificity for CNS repair in MS.^[337] Preclinical studies indicate that anti-LINGO-1 nanobodies inhibit the LINGO-1/NgR1/p75 receptor complex, enhancing oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin sheath formation in cuprizone-induced demyelination models, with up to 30% improvement in remyelinated axons compared to controls.^[338] Clinical translation of these nanobodies remains in early phases, building on phase 2 data from related anti-LINGO-1 antibodies that demonstrated modest optic nerve remyelination in acute optic neuritis.^[339] In November 2025, positive phase 3 results from the FENhance 1 and 2 trials were announced for fenebrutinib, a highly selective, reversible BTK inhibitor, in relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). These studies showed fenebrutinib reduced annualized relapse rates by 67% versus placebo and demonstrated near-complete suppression of disease activity (no relapses, MRI lesions, or disability progression) in 92% of patients over 96 weeks in open-label extensions.^[340] Its brain-penetrant properties enable dual peripheral and central anti-inflammatory effects, with a favorable safety profile including low infection rates; FDA approval is pending submission and review.^[341] Combination therapies are under investigation to enhance efficacy in progressive MS forms. Ongoing trials, such as those evaluating ocrelizumab (an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody) combined with siponimod (a sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulator), aim to address both peripheral B-cell depletion and central neuroinflammation, with preliminary data suggesting additive reductions in disability progression.^[342] These approaches build on individual drug approvals, targeting complementary pathways to slow neurodegeneration.^[343]

Other emerging areas

Research into the gut-brain axis has highlighted the role of the intestinal microbiota in modulating neuroinflammation associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). Dysbiosis in the gut microbiome has been linked to increased immune activation that contributes to central nervous system inflammation in MS models. Studies in animal models of MS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), demonstrate that probiotics can restore microbial balance, thereby reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production and ameliorating disease severity. For instance, administration of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains in EAE mice has shown decreased T-cell infiltration into the brain and spinal cord, leading to lower clinical scores of paralysis.^[344]^[345]^[346] Probiotic interventions targeting the gut-brain axis also influence the blood-brain barrier integrity, preventing leakage that exacerbates MS pathology. In rodent models, probiotics like VSL#3 have upregulated regulatory T-cells in the gut, which suppress systemic inflammation and indirectly protect against demyelination. These findings suggest that modulating the gut microbiota could serve as an adjunct therapy to dampen autoimmune responses in MS, though human trials are still emerging to validate these preclinical observations.^[347]^[348] Exercise has emerged as a neuroprotective strategy in MS by promoting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) upregulation, which supports neuronal survival and plasticity. Aerobic and resistance training regimens in MS patients have been shown to elevate serum BDNF levels acutely and chronically, correlating with improved motor function and reduced fatigue. In a 2025 study, moderate-intensity cycling increased BDNF release immediately post-exercise in individuals with relapsing-remitting MS, suggesting a mechanism for counteracting neurodegeneration.^[349]^[350] The neuroprotective effects of exercise extend to remyelination processes, as BDNF enhances oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation in preclinical models. Meta-analyses indicate that structured physical activity programs, such as progressive resistance training, yield sustained BDNF elevations over 12 weeks, associated with better cognitive outcomes in MS cohorts. These interventions highlight exercise as a non-pharmacological approach to foster neuroprotection, particularly in early disease stages.^[351]^[352] Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning applied to wearable device data offer predictive capabilities for MS relapses by analyzing patterns in gait, activity, and physiological metrics. Wearables like accelerometers and smartwatches capture subtle changes in mobility and heart rate variability, which machine learning algorithms process to forecast inflammatory events with high accuracy. A 2024 study using random forest models on wearable sensor data from MS patients achieved 85% sensitivity in predicting relapse risk up to 30 days in advance, enabling proactive interventions.^[353]^[354] These AI-driven tools integrate multimodal data, including sleep patterns and step counts, to model disease trajectories beyond traditional clinical assessments. In a 2025 analysis, deep learning networks trained on wearable-derived features outperformed conventional predictors in identifying subclinical progression, potentially reducing relapse frequency through timely adjustments in disease-modifying therapies. Such applications underscore the shift toward personalized, real-time monitoring in MS management.^[355]^[356] Climate change poses challenges for MS through its influence on vitamin D levels and symptom exacerbation, with modeling efforts projecting altered disease patterns under global warming scenarios. Rising temperatures and shifting UV exposure patterns may reduce outdoor activity in heat-sensitive MS patients, indirectly affecting vitamin D synthesis. Epidemiological models incorporating climate projections indicate that global warming may widen regional disparities in MS prevalence, as reduced vitamin D in urbanized, heat-affected populations amplifies genetic risk factors. These simulations emphasize the need for adaptive strategies, such as fortified supplementation, to mitigate the projected 10-25% rise in MS-related healthcare burdens by 2050 in vulnerable areas.^[357]^[358] In 2025, quantum computing advancements have accelerated protein folding simulations, offering new avenues for understanding proteins relevant to neurological diseases. Quantum algorithms, such as those developed by IonQ and Kipu Quantum, solved complex folding problems for proteins up to 20 amino acids, surpassing classical methods in accuracy for intrinsically disordered regions. Collaborations like Cleveland Clinic and IBM have applied quantum methods to predict structures of neurological disease-related proteins, including those involved in oligodendrocyte function. These computational tools reduce simulation times from years to hours, facilitating high-throughput screening for candidates in neurological research.^[359]^[360]^[361]

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[78]
Is the hygiene hypothesis relevant for the risk of multiple sclerosis?
The hygiene hypothesis, suggesting that low exposure to pathogens early in life can increase the risk for immune-mediated diseases, has been proposed.
[79]
Environmental factors in early childhood are associated with ...
Oct 6, 2011 · Conclusions. The hygiene hypothesis may play a role in the occurrence of MS and could explain disease distribution and increasing incidence.<|control11|><|separator|>
[80]
Role of Chlamydia pneumoniae in Multiple Sclerosis
This discrepancy in results is similar to inconsistencies in findings reported for the association between C. pneumoniae infection and atherosclerosis; some ...
[81]
Multiple Sclerosis and Autoimmunity: A Veiled Relationship - PMC
Apr 19, 2022 · MS and type 1 diabetes (T1D) are chronic disorders caused by immune system dysregulation. Despite disparities in the organ systems targeted and ...
[82]
Latitude is significantly associated with the prevalence of ... - PubMed
Apr 8, 2011 · There is a striking latitudinal gradient in multiple sclerosis (MS) prevalence, but exceptions in Mediterranean Europe and northern ...
[83]
Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Global, Regional, National and ...
Feb 10, 2025 · This study assesses the global, regional, national and sub-national burden of MS and predicts future trends.Missing: climate | Show results with:climate
[84]
Continuous Rise in MS Prevalence Worldwide Over 3 Decades
Feb 12, 2025 · By country, Sweden had the highest MS prevalence at 219 cases per 100,000 population. Next were Canada, with a prevalence of 182 per 100,000 ...
[85]
MS risk in immigrants in the McDonald era - PubMed Central - NIH
MS risk declined gradually with age at migration, but considerable risk of developing MS persisted even with migration after 15 years of age, in contrast to ...Immigrants · Ms Cases · Risk Factors For Ms In The...
[86]
Urban air quality and associations with pediatric multiple sclerosis
Our results indicate that the odds for MS increased in the more urban settings with increased levels of air pollution. Our study has limitations. Environmental ...
[87]
Social determinants of health in multiple sclerosis - PMC - NIH
Nov 11, 2022 · Substantial associations exist between socioeconomic status and MS disability risk factors, such as smoking, obesity and comorbid disease, which ...
[88]
Socioeconomic, health-care access and clinical determinants of ...
Socioeconomic status, including income and healthcare access, amongst others, may also have a role in affecting diagnostic delay or therapy prescription.
[89]
Neurological and mental health in the era of climate change - Frontiers
Additionally, climate change might impact vitamin D synthesis (if people avoid sun exposure during heat extremes or if atmospheric changes alter UV levels) ...
[90]
Climate change impacts the symptomology and healthcare of ...
Jul 15, 2025 · Climate change impacts the symptomology and healthcare of multiple sclerosis patients through fatigue and heat sensitivity - A systematic review ...
[91]
Multiple sclerosis: molecular pathogenesis and therapeutic ... - Nature
Oct 2, 2025 · MS is driven primarily by autoreactive adaptive immune cells that infiltrate and promote damage within the CNS. Dysregulation of immune effector ...
[92]
Th1 Versus Th17: Are T Cell Cytokines Relevant in Multiple Sclerosis?
Although MS is speculated to be a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease directed against myelin proteins, the cause of the disease is unknown. It has been known ...Missing: seminal papers
[93]
The role of B cells in multiple sclerosis: current and future therapies
In this review, we summarize current knowledge regarding the complex roles of B cells in MS pathogenesis and current and potential future B cell-directed ...
[94]
Regulatory T cell therapy for multiple sclerosis - PubMed Central - NIH
Dec 28, 2022 · This T cell population expresses both interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-17 and possibly contributes to disease activity. Th22 cells are a ...Missing: imbalance | Show results with:imbalance
[95]
Regulatory T cell therapy promotes TGF-β and IL-6-dependent pro ...
Aug 16, 2025 · Under inflammatory conditions, some Tregs can be transformed into IL-17- and IFN-γ-secreting pathogenic T cells and lose Foxp3 expression.
[96]
Epstein-Barr virus and multiple sclerosis - Science
Jan 13, 2022 · There are multiple reports suggesting that molecular mimicry might induce MS. Serum antibodies from MS patients to the EBV small capsid protein ...
[97]
Common Peripheral Immunity Mechanisms in Multiple Sclerosis and ...
The involvement of peripheral inflammation mechanisms and immune cells in MS and AD provides strong evidence of immune dysregulation, but it is unclear whether ...
[98]
Multiple sclerosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
Nov 8, 2018 · The pathological hallmark of MS is the accumulation of demyelinating lesions that occur in the white matter and the grey matter of the brain and ...
[99]
Multiple Sclerosis | New England Journal of Medicine
Jan 10, 2018 · Inflammatory demyelination is easily visible on MRI, as are changes in the blood–brain barrier that accompany its early development. Figure 1 ...
[100]
Premyelinating Oligodendrocytes in Chronic Lesions of Multiple ...
This report describes oligodendrocytes in chronic lesions of multiple sclerosis that extend multiple processes that associate with but fail to myelinate axons.
[101]
The Molecular Basis for Remyelination Failure in Multiple Sclerosis
Aug 3, 2019 · Here, we review the molecular factors contributing to remyelination failure in MS by inhibiting OPC and NSC differentiation or modulating microglial behavior.
[102]
Axonal Transection in the Lesions of Multiple Sclerosis
Jan 29, 1998 · Transected axons are common in the lesions of multiple sclerosis, and axonal transection may be the pathologic correlate of the irreversible neurologic ...
[103]
Multiple Sclerosis Lesions and Irreversible Brain Tissue Damage
On spin-echo T1-weighted images, a proportion of T2 hyperintense lesions (hereafter referred to as “black holes”) appears hypointense to the surrounding normal- ...
[104]
Reviewing the Significance of Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption in ...
Aug 4, 2021 · With MS, the breakdown of the BBB is an early essential step in the initiation and, to a lesser extent, the maintenance of an autoimmune attack ...
[105]
The Significance of Matrix Metalloproteinases in ... - PubMed Central
The major pathological outcomes of the disease are the loss of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and the development of reactive astrogliosis and MS plaque.
[106]
Intrinsic blood–brain barrier dysfunction contributes to multiple ...
During MS, the endothelial cells of the BBB change their immune phenotype by upregulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion ...
[107]
The Blood-Brain Barrier, Chemokines and Multiple Sclerosis - PMC
PECAM-1 appears to play a role in guiding leukocytes to interendothelial junctions. In vitro and in vivo studies utilizing PECAM-1 blocking antibodies have ...
[108]
PECAM-1 Stabilizes Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity and Favors ...
Apr 5, 2019 · PECAM-1 and gelatinase B coexist in vascular cuffs of multiple sclerosis lesions. ... PECAM-1 in leukocyte migration through the perivascular ...
[109]
Characterizing contrast-enhancing and re-enhancing lesions in ...
In multiple sclerosis (MS), contrast-enhancing lesions (CELs) in T1-weighted postcontrast MRI are considered markers of blood–brain barrier breakdown.
[110]
Evolution of the Blood-Brain Barrier in Newly Forming Multiple ...
New lesions enhance with gadolinium on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), reflecting disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Single time point results from ...
[111]
Multiple Sclerosis: Destruction and Regeneration of Astrocytes in ...
Jan 3, 2019 · Both show marked thickening of the basement membrane ... Blood-brain barrier abnormalities in longstanding multiple sclerosis lesions.<|control11|><|separator|>
[112]
LETTER TO THE EDITOR - PMC
The perivascular fibrosis in MS appears to be very similar to the extensive collagen deposition around veins and venules we have shown to occur in leukoaraiosis ...
[113]
Natalizumab in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment: From Biological Effects ...
Sep 24, 2020 · Natalizumab, a monoclonal antibody directed against the alpha chain of the VLA-4 integrin (CD49d), is a potent inhibitor of cell migration toward the tissues ...
[114]
The discovery of natalizumab, a potent therapeutic for multiple ...
Oct 29, 2012 · A humanized antibody to α4 integrin, natalizumab, was approved for the treatment of relapsing remitting MS.Abstract · The Historical Context · Figure 1<|control11|><|separator|>
[115]
Axonal degeneration in multiple sclerosis: can we predict and ...
Aug 27, 2014 · Axonal degeneration is a major determinant of permanent neurological impairment during multiple sclerosis (MS).
[116]
A Wallerian degeneration pattern in patients at risk for MS | Neurology
Conclusions: This series suggests that Wallerian degeneration, implying axonal injury, may occur as a sequela of acute demyelinating lesions in patients ...
[117]
Relationship of acute axonal damage, Wallerian degeneration, and ...
Mar 17, 2017 · Our data indicate that in multiple sclerosis, ongoing demyelination in focal lesions is associated with axonal degeneration in the perilesional white matter.
[118]
AI-driven MRI analysis reveals brain atrophy patterns in benign ...
May 8, 2025 · While brain atrophy occurs in normal aging at the rate of 0.1–0.3 % per year, in MS, the annual rate increases to 0.5–1.3 % at all stages of the ...Missing: yearly | Show results with:yearly
[119]
Focal thinning of the cerebral cortex in multiple sclerosis | Brain
Highly significant focal atrophy was found predominantly in temporal, frontal and motor areas compared with normal controls. Significant cortical thinning in ...Multiple Sclerosis Patients... · Cortical Thickness And... · Acknowledgement<|separator|>
[120]
Thalamic Injury and Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis - Frontiers
Thalamic volume is inversely correlated with a physical disability and cognitive impairment in MS (33). There are likely several mechanisms for thalamic volume ...
[121]
Brain atrophy in multiple sclerosis: mechanisms, clinical relevance ...
Aug 10, 2019 · Cortical atrophy was the best predictor of poor cognitive functioning, even when mild impairment was detected. Poorcognitive functioning has ...
[122]
Central fatigue in multiple sclerosis: a review of the literature - PMC
Central fatigue in MS is associated with neurotransmitters disruptions as well as circadian rhythm disorders, but the evidence is not strong.
[123]
The pathophysiology of motor fatigue and fatigability in multiple ...
Motor fatigue can either result from lesions in cortical networks or motor pathways (“primary fatigue”) or it may be a consequence of detraining with subsequent ...
[124]
Correlation between fatigue and brain atrophy and lesion load in ...
Dec 15, 2007 · These results suggest that among MS patients with low disability those with high-fatigue show higher WM and GM atrophy and higher lesion ...
[125]
The neural basis of fatigue in multiple sclerosis - NIH
Neuroimaging studies have yielded divergent results regarding a correlation between fatigue severity and MRI lesion load, number and volume of gadolinium- ...
[126]
Decreased mitochondrial activity in the demyelinating cerebellum of ...
Jun 16, 2025 · This study demonstrates that mitochondrial dysfunction, linked to inflammatory demyelination, plays a critical role in Purkinje cell loss and axon degeneration.
[127]
Epigenetic and Mitochondrial Metabolic Dysfunction in Multiple ...
Apr 3, 2025 · MS may eventually cause neurodegeneration, which is characterised by the loss of neurons and brain mass and worsens impairment [15, 16]. While ...
[128]
Clinical presentation and diagnosis of multiple sclerosis - PMC
A clinical attack must last at least 24 hours in the absence of fever or infection. In primary progressive MS, symptoms would be expected to have a gradual and ...
[129]
Multiple Sclerosis Clinical Presentation - Medscape Reference
Mar 12, 2024 · A patient may be rated according to several clinical disability scales, on the basis of findings on the history and physical examination.History · Physical Examination · Clinical Rating Scales
[130]
Multiple sclerosis - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic
Nov 1, 2024 · There are no specific tests for MS. The diagnosis is given by a combination of medical history, physical exam, MRIs and spinal tap results.
[131]
Multiple Sclerosis: A Primary Care Perspective - AAFP
A patient history, neurologic examination, and application of the 2017 McDonald Criteria are needed to accurately diagnose MS (Table 5). Diagnosis relies on the ...
[132]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2421806122
[133]
Conversion of clinically isolated syndrome to multiple sclerosis
Jun 4, 2020 · The conversion rate from clinically isolated syndrome to multiple sclerosis has been documented at 30% to 82% in previous studies.
[134]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7385797/
[135]
Magnetic resonance monitoring of lesion evolution in multiple ...
Conventional magnetic resonance imaging in multiple sclerosis. T2-FLAIR (left) and gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted (right) sequences. T2-FLAIR image shows ...
[136]
Assessment of lesions on magnetic resonance imaging in multiple ...
Jun 17, 2019 · In multiple sclerosis, these lesions are usually well depicted using T2-FLAIR but may be better detected/localized with specialized MRI ...Multiple Sclerosis Lesion... · Juxtacortical Or Cortical... · Gadolinium-Enhancing Lesions
[137]
Diagnostic value of alternative techniques to gadolinium-based ...
Aug 23, 2019 · Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) increase lesion detection and improve disease characterization for many cerebral pathologies investigated with MRI.
[138]
Gd contrast administration is dispensable in patients with MS without ...
Jul 16, 2018 · Gd contrast administration is dispensable in patients with MS without new T2 lesions on follow-up MRI.
[139]
Ultra-high field spinal cord MRI in multiple sclerosis
Nov 29, 2021 · It is reported that approximately 80% of MS patients have spinal cord lesions (Bot et al., 2004. 4. Bot, JC ∙ Barkhof, F ∙ Polman, CH ...
[140]
Recurrence and Prognostic Value of Asymptomatic Spinal Cord ...
Jan 26, 2021 · Asymptomatic spinal demyelinating lesions occurred in 15% of clinically stable MS patients within a median period of 14 months and conferred an ...
[141]
Grey matter lesions in MS: From histology to clinical implications
This review provides a summary of the main histopathological and MRI findings of cortical lesions in MS and discusses their possible clinical implications.
[142]
SWI enhances vein detection using gadolinium in multiple sclerosis
Mar 18, 2015 · Gadolinium seems to improve the visibility of veins inside multiple sclerosis WM lesions when using SWI, and this appears to be remarkably conspicuous.
[143]
[Visual Evoked Potentials in Multiple Sclerosis] - PubMed
Abnormalities in visual evoked potentials were found in 77 percent of the cases. In particular, there was delayed latency, that is, a slowing of retino-cortical ...
[144]
Auditory central pathways in children and adolescents with multiple ...
Children and adolescents with MS had abnormal BAEP responses, with delayed neural conduction between the cochlear nucleus and the lateral lemniscus.
[145]
Gray Matter Pathology in MS: Neuroimaging and Clinical Correlations
Current MRI techniques allow the direct visualization of gray matter demyelinating lesions, the quantification of diffuse damage to normal appearing gray matter ...
[146]
The Cerebrospinal Fluid in Multiple Sclerosis - PMC - PubMed Central
Apr 12, 2019 · The hallmark of MS-specific changes in CSF is the detection of oligoclonal bands (OCB) which occur in the vast majority of MS patients.
[147]
Oligoclonal IgG antibodies in multiple sclerosis target patient ...
Feb 21, 2020 · IgG oligoclonal bands (OCBs) are present in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of more than 95% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), ...Missing: evaluation | Show results with:evaluation
[148]
IgG Index Revisited: Diagnostic Utility and Prognostic Value in ...
Aug 20, 2020 · Conclusions: IgG index > 0.7 predicts OCB positivity at the initial attack of MS and is prognostic of early disease activity. IgG index serves ...
[149]
The diagnostic value of IgG index versus oligoclonal bands in ...
An immunoglobulin G index >0.7 has a positive predictive value >99% for oligoclonal bands. An elevated immunoglobulin G index adds diagnostic value versus ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[150]
Cerebrospinal fluid in multiple sclerosis - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The CSF is clear and colorless in all patients with MS, and most patients have normal cell counts and total protein levels. Even during an acute exacerbation, ...
[151]
Assessment: Prevention of post–lumbar puncture headaches
The frequency of PLPHA was 36% in their own series of 105 normal individuals, 30% in 317 patients with diagnostic LPs, and 2% definite and 2% probable in 100 ...
[152]
Consensus guidelines for lumbar puncture in patients with ...
May 18, 2017 · Brain and spinal hemorrhage and spinal epidural or subdural hematoma are rare but potentially serious complications of an LP. For example, in ...
[153]
A Case of Prolonged Delayed Postdural Puncture Headache in a ...
The incidence of PDPH after lumbar puncture can be reduced from 36% to 0–9% with the use of an atraumatic needle size 24 gauge (G)/0.56 mm rather than a ...
[154]
Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Differential Diagnosis of Multiple ...
Feb 1, 2023 · It should be noted that CSF findings typical of MS are not specific to MS. OCBs in CSF have nearly 86% specificity and more than 95% ...
[155]
Absence of Oligoclonal Bands in Multiple Sclerosis - NIH
Jul 13, 2023 · The absence of OCBs unique to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) does not exclude MS but should be considered a warning for potential misdiagnosis [8] ...
[156]
Differential diagnosis of suspected multiple sclerosis: a consensus ...
We developed guidelines for MS differential diagnosis, focusing on exclusion of potential MS mimics, diagnosis of common initial isolated clinical syndromes.
[157]
Multiple Sclerosis: Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis - PMC
Neuromyelitis optica (NMO), also called as Devic's syndrome, is a rare idiopathic IIDD which typically involves optic nerves and spinal cord with recurrent ...
[158]
Demyelinating Disorders of the Central Nervous System - PMC
A few infections must also be considered in the differential diagnosis of MS. Both Lyme disease and syphilis may cause multifocal white matter lesions. HTLV‐1 ...
[159]
Functional neurological disorder and multiple sclerosis
Feb 21, 2021 · Multiple sclerosis (MS) and functional neurological disorder (FND) are both diagnostically challenging conditions which can present with similar symptoms.
[160]
Differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis - Neurology.org
May 1, 2019 · ... problems like migraine, fibromyalgia, and functional neurologic disorders, rather than rare inflammatory disorders. Many alternative ...
[161]
Types of Multiple Sclerosis | MSAA
Jul 12, 2024 · This type of MS is referred to as relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). Approximately 80 to 85% of MS patients are initially diagnosed with this form ...Missing: 20-30 female male 3:1 lesions transition
[162]
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) in Adults - DynaMed
The typical age of onset is 39-41 years. Fulminant multiple sclerosis is a rare phenotype with a severe rapidly progressive course, resulting in significant ...
[163]
Determination of Multiple Sclerosis Subtypes - VA.gov
Most people with RRMS transition to SPMS after an average of 10- 20 years after diagnosis. In SPMS, there is gradual worsening of MS signs/symptoms between ...1996 Ms Subtypes Consensus · Relapsing-Remitting Ms... · Secondary-Progressive Ms...Missing: 20-30 female male 2025 classification
[164]
Advances in the understanding and management of multiple ...
Approximately 50 % of patients with RRMS transition to secondary progressive MS (SPMS) within 19 years from the date of onset. The progression of SPMS may be ...Missing: female | Show results with:female
[165]
Types of MS | Multiple Sclerosis - MS International Federation
Apr 10, 2025 · RRMS can be categorised by whether it is active or not active (someone who has active MS experiences relapses and/or evidence of new MRI ...
[166]
Pediatric multiple sclerosis: a review - PMC - PubMed Central
Mar 9, 2018 · 98% of pediatric MS patients present with a relapsing–remitting (RR) course, compared with 84% of adult patients [2]. Relapses appear to be more ...Discussion · Diagnostic Criteria · Abbreviations
[167]
Pediatric multiple sclerosis: Clinical features and outcome - PMC
Aug 30, 2016 · Most pediatric patients with MS recover well from these early relapses, and cumulative physical disability is rare in the first 10 years of ...Demographic Features · Table 3 · Measuring Clinical Disease...
[168]
Paediatric Multiple Sclerosis: Update on Diagnostic Criteria, Imaging ...
The overall prognosis of childhood-onset MS tends to be worse than adult-onset MS. Generally, paediatric patients have a median time of 20 years to fixed ...<|separator|>
[169]
Radiologically Isolated Syndrome: A Review for Neuroradiologists
Radiologically isolated syndrome refers to an entity in which white matter lesions fulfilling the criteria for multiple sclerosis occur in individuals ...<|separator|>
[170]
Predicting conversion to multiple sclerosis in patients with ...
Several independent observational cohort studies have shown that, within 5 years after detection of RIS, up to 30% of patients will experience a symptomatic ...
[171]
The radiologically isolated syndrome diagnosis, prognosis and ...
Jan 17, 2025 · Radiologically isolated syndrome (RIS) is the earliest documented stage in the disease continuum of multiple sclerosis (MS).Missing: progression | Show results with:progression
[172]
Balo's concentric sclerosis a rare variant of multiple sclerosis in a ...
Oct 28, 2022 · Balo's concentric sclerosis (BCS) is a rare neuroinflammatory disease characterized by concentric rings of white matter demyelination. · Brain ...
[173]
Balo's concentric sclerosis: an update and comprehensive ... - PubMed
Nov 27, 2018 · Balo's concentric sclerosis (BCS) is considered a variant of multiple sclerosis characterized by concentric lamella of alternating demyelinated and partially ...
[174]
Balo Concentric Sclerosis: A Rare Variant of Multiple Sclerosis With ...
Jun 15, 2025 · BCS is a rare and aggressive demyelinating disorder characterized by its distinctive MRI findings of concentric rings. The patient's rapid ...
[175]
Proposed Diagnostic Criteria and Management of Marburg Variant ...
Apr 9, 2024 · The rare Marburg variant of MS is characterized by life-threatening severity, a fulminant disease course, and poor response to therapy.
[176]
Marburg Multiple Sclerosis Variant: Complete Remission with Very ...
Dec 2, 2021 · Marburg variant is a severe and fulminant pseudotumor form of multiple sclerosis (MS) with high morbidity and mortality rates.
[177]
Tumefactive demyelinating lesions: A literature review of recent ...
Tumefactive demyelinating lesion is a variant of multiple sclerosis that is a diagnostic challenge. Tumefactive demyelinating lesion requires extensive work-up ...
[178]
a case report of tumefactive multiple sclerosis mimicking intracranial ...
Sep 30, 2025 · Tumefactive multiple sclerosis (TMS) is a rare and severe variant of MS, characterized by large, tumor-like demyelinating lesions in the central ...
[179]
Cerebral tumefactive demyelinating lesions: clinical spectrum, long ...
Aug 11, 2025 · Our findings demonstrate that TDLs represent a radiological phenotype associated within a spectrum of neuroinflammatory disorders, ...
[180]
Treatment of Acute Relapses in Multiple Sclerosis - PMC
Systemic corticosteroids and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) have broad regulatory approval and remain the most established and validated treatment options ...
[181]
Recommendations for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple ...
Dec 22, 2021 · Relapses are defined as clinical episodes lasting at least 24 h, in the absence of fever, infection or acute concurrent medical illness [2].
[182]
Managing relapses | MS Trust
May 1, 2022 · Take care of yourself as you usually would, such as resting, drinking plenty to avoid dehydration, taking suitable painkillers to lower a ...
[183]
Multiple Sclerosis Relapse: Corticosteroids Key - - Practical Neurology
Jan 29, 2024 · High-dose corticosteroids are generally the first line of treatment for MS relapse. ... In addition, corticosteroids are immunosuppressants, ...
[184]
Disease-Modifying Therapies for MS | National MS Society
Research shows early and ongoing treatment with an approved DMT can help reduce MS relapses, delay progression of disability and limit new inflammation.Oral Therapies · Infused Therapies · Injectable Therapies Shots...
[185]
Disease Modification & DMT's for MS - National MS Society
The FDA has approved several DMTs for the treatment of relapsing forms of MS, which include clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), relapsing-remitting disease ( ...
[186]
Approved Beta Interferons in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis
Three interferons are marketed for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. In its pivotal trial, one of them demonstrated impressive ...
[187]
Multiple Sclerosis: Therapeutic Update | JAMA Neurology
Interferon beta-1b (Betaseron, Berlex, Richmond, Calif) has been shown to reduce the frequency of relapses by about 30% in a trial involving 372 patients ...<|separator|>
[188]
Mechanism of action of glatiramer acetate in multiple sclerosis and ...
GA is an approved drug for multiple sclerosis (MS) that slows the progression of disability and reduces relapse rate, and it exhibits a very high safety profile ...
[189]
Disease-Modifying Drugs for Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis ...
The primary outcome measure was the effect of the drug on the relapse rate. In the original 2-year study, glatiramer therapy reduced the relapse rate by 29%. At ...<|separator|>
[190]
Ocrelizumab versus Interferon Beta-1a in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis
Dec 21, 2016 · Ocrelizumab was associated with lower rates of disease activity and progression than interferon beta-1a over a period of 96 weeks.Missing: β1a | Show results with:β1a
[191]
Ocrelizumab versus Placebo in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis
Dec 21, 2016 · Among patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis, ocrelizumab was associated with lower rates of clinical and MRI progression than placebo.Ocrelizumab Versus Placebo... · Efficacy · Clinical End Points<|separator|>
[192]
A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Natalizumab for ...
Mar 2, 2006 · Natalizumab reduced the risk of the sustained progression of disability and the rate of clinical relapse in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis.
[193]
Molecular diagnostic tests to predict the risk of progressive multifocal ...
Among patients receiving 1–24 infusions of natalizumab the risk of developing PML is low (0.7 per 1000 patients and 1.8 per 1000 with prior use of ...
[194]
Sphingosine 1‐phosphate receptor modulators in multiple sclerosis ...
Feb 16, 2024 · The FDA recently approved an orally disintegrating fingolimod tablet for the treatment of adult patients with RMS, which provides faster onset ...
[195]
Study Details | NCT00340834 | Efficacy and Safety of Fingolimod in ...
This study assessed the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of 2 doses of oral fingolimod versus interferon β-1a to reduce the frequency of relapsesMissing: pivotal | Show results with:pivotal
[196]
Teriflunomide, an inhibitor of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase for the ...
Both teriflunomide and leflunomide are inhibitors of the mitochondrial enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, which is critically involved in pyrimidine synthesis ...
[197]
Novartis receives FDA approval for Mayzent® (siponimod), the first ...
Mar 27, 2019 · Novartis receives FDA approval for Mayzent® (siponimod), the first oral drug to treat secondary progressive MS with active disease.
[198]
Cladribine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 20, 2023 · The European Medicines Agency (EMA) granted cladribine final approval in August of 2017 for relapsing multiple sclerosis. In 2019, the US ...
[199]
The symptomatic management of multiple sclerosis - PMC
Medication is usually effective for relieving spasticity.[17] These neurochemical modulators are dose-titrated to get the most benefit. Baclofen, tizanidine ...
[200]
Treatments for spasticity and pain in multiple sclerosis: a systematic ...
There is good evidence that both BT and intrathecal baclofen are effective in reducing spasticity, and both are associated with functional benefit. However, ...
[201]
Symptomatic therapy in multiple sclerosis: a review for a multimodal ...
(1988) Tizanidine versus baclofen in the treatment of spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. ... (2000) Botulinum toxin (Dysport) treatment of hip ...
[202]
Management of Fatigue in Persons with Multiple Sclerosis - PMC
The most commonly used agents for pharmacological treatment for fatigue in pwMS include amantadine, modafinil, and pemoline (9). The NICE guidelines (26) ...
[203]
The pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for the ...
Oct 15, 2017 · Yoga and energy conservation/fatigue management programs had strong evidence supporting use in management of MSRF.
[204]
Multiple sclerosis-induced neuropathic pain - PubMed Central - NIH
Open-label investigation of the efficacy of gabapentin in 25 patients with MS-associated neuropathic pain showed that although patients reported moderate to ...
[205]
Neuropathic Pain in Multiple Sclerosis—Current Therapeutic ... - NCBI
MANAGEMENT OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS–RELATED NEUROPATHIC PAIN Temporary pain relief is often achieved through antidepressants and anticonvulsants. However, all ...Abstract · Introduction · Neuropathic Pain · Multiple Sclerosis–Induced...
[206]
Treatment of lower urinary tract symptoms in multiple sclerosis patients
Mar 16, 2017 · High oxybutynin doses (up to 30 mg) engendered statistically significant decreases in the number of voids in 24 hours, nocturia, and ...
[207]
The prevalence of urinary catheterization in women and men with ...
This study is the first of its kind to demonstrate the significant 1 in 4 rate of urinary catheterization in patients with MS.
[208]
Depression in Multiple Sclerosis: A Review of Assessment and ...
The present paper is focused on current knowledge on diagnosis, assessment, and therapeutic interventions for depression in the context of multiple sclerosis.
[209]
Effects of Exercise Training on Fitness, Mobility, Fatigue, and Health ...
Among those with mild to moderate disability from MS, there is sufficient evidence that exercise training is effective for improving both aerobic capacity and ...
[210]
Is Aerobic or Resistance Training the Most Effective Exercise ...
Conclusions: AT and RT appear equally highly effective in terms of improving lower extremity physical function and perceived fatigue in PwMS. Clinicians can ...
[211]
Effect of Exercise Interventions On Perceived Fatigue in People With ...
Exercise interventions appear to elicit a moderately favorable effect on fatigue in people with MS when compared with usual care or a no-exercise comparison ...
[212]
High-intensity resistance training in people with multiple sclerosis ...
In conclusion, we demonstrate that participation in once or twice weekly HIRT is associated with a clinically relevant reduction in self-reported fatigue scores ...
[213]
Review of Two Popular Eating Plans within the Multiple Sclerosis ...
The Swank diet is a low-fat, low-saturated fat eating pattern developed in 1948 by Dr. Roy Swank based on epidemiological evidence that increased consumption of ...
[214]
Vitamin D and Multiple Sclerosis: A Comprehensive Review - PMC
In addition, women who used vitamin D supplements (≥ 400 IU/day) had a 41% reduced risk of developing MS compared to non-users. Having higher levels of 25(OH)D ...
[215]
Vitamin D Supplementation Practices among Multiple Sclerosis ...
Dec 8, 2022 · Professionals recommended vitamin D supplementation in 55.4% of patients, generally 4000 IU/day, and only 63.31% of patients have had ...1. Introduction · 3. Results · 4. DiscussionMissing: Swank | Show results with:Swank<|separator|>
[216]
The impact of smoking cessation on multiple sclerosis disease ...
When smokers quit, there is a slowing in the rate of motor disability deterioration so that it matches the rate of motor decline in those who have never smoked.Missing: counseling | Show results with:counseling
[217]
Quitting smoking slows down MS progression | MS Trust
Apr 11, 2023 · This study clearly showed that smoking increases the rate at which disability progresses, but if you quit smoking then your progression slows down.Missing: counseling | Show results with:counseling
[218]
Barriers and motivators for tobacco smoking cessation in people ...
This study aimed to explore knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about smoking and quitting, and quitting support needs in Australian people with MS.Missing: slowing counseling
[219]
Mindfulness-based stress reduction for people with multiple sclerosis
May 16, 2017 · The objective of this study was to test the feasibility and likely effectiveness of a standard MBSR course for people with MS.
[220]
The Effect of Group Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction and ...
Dec 1, 2016 · The study findings revealed that group MBSR and conscious yoga program have significantly improved the physical and mental quality of life in MS ...
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