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C battery

The C battery, commonly known as size C and designated as 14 in the ANSI standard and R14 in the IEC 60086 standard, is a cylindrical dry cell battery measuring 50 mm in length and 26.2 mm in diameter, with a typical nominal voltage of 1.5 V for primary alkaline versions.^[1]^[2] It serves as a versatile power source for medium-drain portable devices, offering higher capacity than smaller AA batteries while being more compact than D cells, with alkaline models providing capacities ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 mAh.^[1]^[3] Common chemistries include alkaline manganese dioxide for disposable cells, which deliver reliable performance and long shelf life due to their potassium hydroxide electrolyte, and rechargeable options like nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) at 1.2 V with capacities typically ranging from 2,500 to 5,000 mAh for repeated use in cost-sensitive applications.^[1]^[4] Lithium variants, such as Li-SOCl₂, offer higher voltages up to 3.6 V and extended lifespans for industrial or low-drain professional equipment.^[1]^[5] These batteries find widespread use in everyday items like flashlights, remote controls, toys, radios, and cameras, as well as in specialized tools such as smart meters and moderate-power industrial devices, balancing energy density with affordability.^[1]^[6] Their design adheres to international standards ensuring interchangeability across manufacturers, though performance varies by chemistry and discharge rate.^[1]

Physical Specifications

Dimensions and Weight

The C battery adheres to standardized physical dimensions defined by international norms, measuring 50 mm (1.9685 inches) in length and 26.2 mm (1.0315 inches) in diameter, with manufacturing tolerances of ±0.5 mm for length and ±0.2 mm for diameter to ensure compatibility across devices.^[1]^[7] This form factor is cylindrical, with a flat positive terminal at one end—often featuring a small dimple to facilitate stacking and electrical contact—and a flat negative terminal at the opposite end, promoting secure fitment in battery compartments without specialized holders.^[8] Weight variations depend on the battery's chemistry and construction, typically ranging from 65-70 grams for alkaline primary cells due to their dense electrolyte and steel casing.^[8] Zinc-carbon primary cells are lighter at 45-50 grams, reflecting simpler internal materials and reduced density.^[9] NiMH secondary cells weigh 70-80 grams, influenced by the metal hydride electrodes and protective casing for rechargeability.^[10] Slight differences in overall dimensions and weight arise between primary and rechargeable variants, primarily from internal construction choices like thicker steel casings in primaries for durability versus optimized electrode spacing in rechargeables to accommodate cycling.^[8]^[10]

Voltage and Capacity

C batteries, depending on their chemistry, exhibit nominal voltages of 1.5 volts for primary alkaline and zinc-carbon variants, 3.6 volts for lithium primary variants such as Li-SOCl₂, while secondary nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) cells operate at 1.2 volts.^[11]^[12] These voltages represent the standard open-circuit potential under typical conditions, providing consistent power output for devices until the cutoff threshold, typically 0.8 volts for primaries and 1.0 volts for rechargeables.^[13] Capacity in C batteries varies significantly by type and discharge conditions, with alkaline primaries offering up to 8,000 milliampere-hours (mAh) at a low 0.1C rate (approximately 800 mA for an 8,000 mAh cell), zinc-carbon primaries reaching up to 3,800 mAh under similar low-drain scenarios, lithium primaries (Li-SOCl₂) typically 7,000 to 9,000 mAh, and NiMH secondaries providing up to 6,000 mAh.^[13]^[14]^[15] Higher discharge rates reduce effective capacity due to increased internal resistance and heat generation; for instance, an alkaline C battery's capacity drops to approximately 4,000 mAh at a 1C rate (8,000 mA), as illustrated by discharge curves that show a steeper voltage decline and reduced runtime under heavy loads.^[13]^[16] Zinc-carbon cells experience even more pronounced capacity loss at elevated rates, limiting their suitability for high-drain applications.^[14] Energy density, a measure of stored energy per unit mass, stands at approximately 140-160 watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) for alkaline C batteries, reflecting their efficient zinc-manganese dioxide chemistry, while zinc-carbon variants achieve a lower ~70 Wh/kg due to less optimal material utilization. These figures are derived from typical cell weights around 66 grams and average discharge voltages near 1.2 volts across the operational range.^[13] Several factors influence the realized capacity of C batteries. Optimal performance occurs at temperatures of 20-25°C, where chemical reactions proceed efficiently; at 0°C, capacity can decrease by about 20% owing to slowed ion mobility and increased viscosity in the electrolyte.^[17] Shelf life also plays a key role, with alkaline C batteries retaining roughly 80% of their initial capacity after 5-7 years of storage under moderate conditions (e.g., 21°C and 50% relative humidity), thanks to low self-discharge rates below 3% annually.^[18] The larger physical size of C batteries compared to AA cells contributes to their higher absolute capacities, enabling longer runtime in moderate-drain devices.^[13]

Battery Chemistry

Primary Cells

Primary cells for C-sized batteries are non-rechargeable electrochemical systems designed for one-time use, relying on irreversible chemical reactions to generate electrical energy. These batteries typically deliver a nominal voltage of 1.5 V and are suited for moderate to low-drain applications due to their disposable nature and fixed capacity. The most common chemistries include alkaline manganese dioxide and zinc-carbon variants, with lithium-based options being less prevalent in this form factor. Alkaline primary cells, standardized as IEC LR14 for the C size, feature a gelled zinc powder anode, a cathode composed of high-purity electrolytic manganese dioxide mixed with a carbon conductor, and an aqueous potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This configuration enables efficient ion transport and minimizes internal resistance, supporting sustained performance. The overall discharge reaction is given by:

\ce{Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O -> ZnO + 2MnOOH}

This process consumes water and produces zinc oxide and manganese oxyhydroxide, driving electron flow from the anode to the cathode.^[19] Zinc-carbon primary cells, designated IEC R14 for C size, employ a zinc alloy anode, a manganese dioxide cathode blended with carbon black for enhanced conductivity and moisture retention, and an electrolyte of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride in water (Leclanché type). These batteries are noted for their lower production cost compared to alkaline types, though they exhibit shorter operational life. The primary discharge reaction is:

\ce{2MnO2 + 2NH4Cl + Zn -> ZnCl2 + 2NH3 + Mn2O3 + H2O}

This acidic electrolyte facilitates the reaction but contributes to higher corrosion rates over time.^[20] Lithium-based primary cells for C size are typically lithium-thionyl chloride (Li-SOCl₂) chemistry, designated as ER26500 or similar, used in low-drain industrial applications such as meters and sensors. These feature a lithium metal anode, a thionyl chloride cathode, and a non-aqueous salt electrolyte, delivering a nominal 3.6 V output with high energy density (up to 9 Ah capacity) and extended shelf life of 10-20 years. They perform well in extreme temperatures from -55°C to 85°C and offer low self-discharge rates. While 1.5 V lithium-iron disulfide (Li-FeS₂) cells are available as drop-in replacements for alkalines, they are primarily produced in AA and AAA sizes, with limited availability in C format.^[21]^[22] In terms of performance, alkaline C cells provide 5-6 times the service life of zinc-carbon equivalents in medium-drain scenarios, such as intermittent flashlight use, due to their higher energy density and better resistance to voltage drop. Both types carry leakage risks from electrolyte corrosion, but zinc-carbon batteries are more susceptible owing to their acidic composition, potentially leading to device damage if not monitored.^[23]^[20]

Secondary Cells

Secondary cells, or rechargeable C-sized batteries, utilize reversible electrochemical reactions to enable multiple charge-discharge cycles, distinguishing them from primary cells through their capacity for repeated use. The most common chemistry for C-sized secondary batteries is nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), designated under the IEC standard as HR14. These batteries feature a positive electrode of nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), a negative electrode composed of a metal hydride alloy that absorbs hydrogen, and an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide, which facilitates the reversible oxidation-reduction reactions during charging and discharging.^[24]^[25]^[26] The reversible nature of these reactions allows NiMH C batteries to achieve 500-1000 charge cycles under typical conditions, providing sustained performance over time compared to the single-use design of primaries. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) C-sized batteries, while once used, are now rare due to the toxicity of cadmium, a heavy metal that poses environmental and health risks. Emerging lithium-ion technologies are available in C-sized packs for specific applications, but standard single cylindrical lithium-ion C cells remain uncommon due to form factor and safety considerations in consumer formats.^[26]^[27]^[28] Charging NiMH C batteries requires careful parameters to maintain longevity and prevent damage: a per-cell voltage of 1.4-1.6 V during the process, with recommended rates of 0.1C to 0.3C to minimize overheating and gassing. Self-discharge occurs at a rate of 15-20% per month at room temperature, higher than lithium-based alternatives but manageable with periodic recharging.^[29]^[30]^[31] Cycle life in NiMH batteries is influenced by factors such as depth of discharge (DoD), where deeper discharges reduce overall cycles; for example, an 80% DoD typically yields around 500 cycles, while shallower discharges extend this further. The memory effect, once a concern in older nickel-based chemistries, is minimal in modern NiMH designs, allowing flexible partial charging without significant capacity loss. Unlike primaries, which maintain a higher nominal voltage of 1.5 V, NiMH cells operate at 1.2 V nominally, affecting device compatibility but enabling efficient recharging.^[26]^[32]^[33]

History and Standardization

Origins and Early Development

The C battery size originated in the late 19th century as part of the evolution toward more compact dry cells for portable lighting devices. Around 1900, the National Carbon Company, later known as Eveready, introduced the C cell—also referred to as the "#1 dry cell"—to power the first "baby" flashlights, which were smaller handheld torches designed for everyday carry.^[34]^[35] This innovation replaced the bulkier No. 6 dry cell, a six-inch zinc-carbon battery previously used in larger lanterns and early electric devices, enabling greater portability in applications like personal illumination.^[36] The letter "C" designation emerged in the early 1900s as part of an informal sizing system (A, B, C, D) that reflected increasing cell diameters, with the C size measuring approximately 1 inch in diameter and 1.97 inches in length to suit medium-power needs.^[34] Key milestones in the C battery's development included formal standardization efforts in the 1920s. In 1917, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) began formalizing the alphabet nomenclature for battery sizes, assigning letters A through J in approximate order of increasing size.^[37] This was refined in 1924 when industry representatives and government agencies established a uniform classification system, officially designating the C size within the sequence and retaining legacy names like No. 6 for larger cells.^[38] During World War II, the U.S. military adopted the C cell as the BA-42 specification for 1.5-volt dry cells in signaling devices and portable equipment, boosting production and reliability for field use.^[39] The C battery's market role evolved through the mid-20th century, peaking in popularity during the 1950s and 1960s for toys, lanterns, and household appliances amid postwar consumer growth.^[34] By 2007, however, it represented only 4% of U.S. alkaline primary battery sales, overshadowed by smaller AA and AAA sizes in modern electronics.^[40]

Modern Standards and Designations

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard 60086 series governs the specifications for primary and secondary batteries, including the C-size format. For primary cells, the designation is R14 for zinc-carbon types and LR14 for alkaline variants, while secondary nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) cells use HR14. These codes are part of IEC 60086-1, which outlines dimensions (typically 26.2 mm diameter by 50 mm height), nominal voltages (1.5 V for primaries and 1.2 V for NiMH), terminal configurations, and mandatory labeling for chemical composition, capacity, and safety warnings to facilitate global interchangeability and user safety.^[41] The standard also includes discharge test procedures in IEC 60086-2 to verify performance under various loads. In the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), formerly in collaboration with the American Standards Association (ASA), classifies the C-size primary battery under size 14A in standards like ANSI C18.3M, ensuring compatibility with devices through defined electrochemical systems and performance criteria. Common industry markings, such as MX1400 for alkaline C cells, align with these specifications to indicate voltage stability and capacity ratings, supporting seamless integration in consumer electronics.^[42] Regionally, the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) designate the C-size battery as UM-2 (or SUM-2 in some contexts), aligning closely with IEC dimensions and voltages for domestic manufacturing and export compliance. In the former Soviet Union and Russia, the historical Type 343 designation was used for C-size cells, maintaining equivalent physical and electrical parameters for military and civilian applications.^[43] The IEC 60086 series underwent significant revisions in its 2021 edition, with technical amendments issued in 2022 (e.g., IEC 60086-1:2021/AC:2022-07), refining test methods and nomenclature without altering core C-size dimensions, which have remained stable since the 1920s. As of November 2025, a draft fourteenth edition (prEN IEC 60086-1:2025) is under preparation, confirming no changes to C-size specifications. These updates incorporate enhanced safety protocols and encourage environmental labeling, such as indications of recyclability and compliance with directives like the EU's Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), which restricts materials like mercury and cadmium in batteries to minimize ecological impact. No major dimensional changes have occurred, preserving backward compatibility across global markets.^[44]^[45]

Applications and Performance

Common Uses

C batteries, also known as size C or IEC LR14 (alkaline) and R14 (zinc-carbon), are widely employed in medium-drain devices that require reliable power over extended periods without frequent replacement.^[46] These batteries power a variety of household and portable electronics, balancing capacity with moderate current output suitable for intermittent or continuous low-to-moderate loads.^[47] One of the most prevalent applications is in flashlights and lanterns, where C batteries provide sustained illumination for emergency lighting, camping, or general household use.^[48] Their size allows for efficient energy delivery in these devices, often lasting hundreds of hours under typical beam settings.^[47] Portable radios and communication devices also commonly utilize C batteries, enabling operation in off-grid scenarios such as outdoor activities or power outages.^[46] In recreational and educational contexts, C batteries are standard in motorized toys, including remote-controlled vehicles and battery-operated playsets, due to their ability to handle short bursts of higher power demands.^[49] Remote controls for appliances like garage doors, ceiling fans, and home entertainment systems frequently incorporate them, benefiting from the batteries' longevity in low-drain, sporadic usage patterns.^[47] Additionally, C batteries find use in certain musical instruments, such as electronic keyboards and amplifiers for portable setups, where steady voltage supports audio output without significant performance degradation.^[1] They are also employed in some safety and detection devices, such as gas leak sensors, ensuring dependable operation in critical monitoring roles.^[1] While less common in modern high-tech gadgets due to the shift toward smaller form factors, C batteries remain essential for legacy and rugged applications prioritizing durability over compactness.^[50]

Advantages and Comparisons

C batteries provide significant advantages in capacity over smaller sizes like AA and AAA, offering approximately 2-3 times the energy storage for the same chemistry, which translates to extended runtime in medium-drain applications.^[51] For instance, alkaline C batteries typically deliver 6000-8000 mAh, compared to 2000-2850 mAh for AA batteries, enabling longer operation in devices such as flashlights.^[52] In primary alkaline cells, this higher capacity results in lower cost per hour of use due to comparable cost per kWh across sizes, with C cells at around $170/kWh versus $175/kWh for AA.^[53] However, C batteries have notable disadvantages, including their bulkier dimensions relative to AA and AAA sizes, which limits their suitability for compact, portable electronics, and a higher initial purchase price per unit.^[54] Their reduced prevalence in modern devices also contributes to availability challenges in retail settings.^[55] In comparisons, C batteries hold about half the capacity of D batteries (12000-18000 mAh for alkaline D), making them adequate yet more compact for low- to medium-drain uses like radios, whereas D batteries excel in prolonged high-drain scenarios.^[52] Relative to AA batteries, C sizes perform better in high-power applications such as motorized toys, providing sustained output without frequent replacements, while AA batteries are preferred for lightweight, portable gadgets.^[51] Runtime can be approximated by the equation t = \frac{C}{I}, where t is time in hours, C is capacity in mAh, and I is current in mA; for example, a C battery at 8000 mAh under a 250 mA load yields about 32 hours, far exceeding an AA battery's 10 hours at 2500 mAh.^[16] Market trends indicate a decline in C battery usage since the 2000s, driven by advancements in lithium-ion rechargeables that offer higher efficiency in smaller formats like AA, reducing the need for larger cylindrical cells in consumer products.^[56]

Environmental and Safety Aspects

Recycling and Impact

C batteries, typically alkaline or zinc-carbon primary cells, consist of materials that contribute to their environmental footprint across the lifecycle. The composition includes a steel casing comprising approximately 10% of the weight, which is highly recyclable, along with zinc (approximately 18%) and manganese dioxide (approximately 40%) that can be recovered through processing.^[57] Trace amounts of mercury, once used to prevent zinc corrosion, have been phased out in most jurisdictions since the 1990s following regulatory initiatives like the European Portable Battery Association's 1985 program and the U.S. Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996.^[58]^[59] Production of these batteries involves energy-intensive mining for zinc and manganese, leading to habitat disruption and emissions, while the steel casing adds to resource extraction demands.^[57] During usage and disposal, primary C batteries exacerbate waste challenges due to their single-use nature and larger volume compared to AA or AAA sizes, which increases landfill space requirements and potential leachate risks from corroding casings. Globally, primary alkaline batteries generate over 120,000 metric tons of waste annually, with C-size variants contributing disproportionately to volume in household hazardous waste streams.^[60] If landfilled, heavy metals like zinc and manganese can leach into soil and groundwater, posing toxicity risks to ecosystems, though modern formulations minimize such hazards compared to earlier mercury-containing versions.^[61] Recycling mitigates these impacts, with C batteries being up to 95% recyclable through hydrometallurgical processes that selectively recover zinc via acid leaching and electrowinning, often achieving over 99% metal extraction efficiency for zinc and manganese. Programs such as Call2Recycle in North America accept C-size alkaline batteries at no cost to participants, processing them to recover valuable metals and divert waste from landfills, with facilities employing shredding, separation, and chemical recovery techniques.^[62]^[63]^[64] Sustainability trends are shifting toward rechargeable alternatives like nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) C batteries, which reduce overall waste by enabling hundreds of cycles and avoiding single-use disposal, thereby lowering the environmental burden from frequent production and landfilling. The European Union's Battery Regulation (EU) 2023/1542, updating the 2006 Directive, mandates collection rates for portable batteries reaching 63% by 2027 and 73% by 2030 to promote circular economy practices and minimize ecological harm.^[65]^[66]

Usage Safety

C batteries, like other alkaline types, pose leakage risks due to their potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte, which is highly corrosive and can damage devices or skin upon contact.^[67] Leakage often occurs from self-discharge over time, especially in high-temperature or humid environments, manifesting as white crystalline deposits (potassium carbonate) on terminals from reaction with atmospheric CO2.^[68] To prevent this, store C batteries in cool conditions between 10°C and 25°C with relative humidity below 65%, and remove them from unused devices periodically.^[69] Short-circuiting C batteries can generate excessive heat, leading to rupture or fire; this hazard arises if positive and negative terminals contact metal objects or each other.^[70] Users should avoid loose storage in metal containers and employ insulated battery holders, particularly when using multiple cells in series or parallel configurations.^[68] Lithium-based C battery variants carry additional fire risks from thermal runaway, an exothermic reaction that can reach 180-200°C and propagate if cells are damaged or overheated.^[71] For safe disposal, never incinerate C batteries, as sealed contents can explode under heat; instead, tape terminals to prevent shorting and follow local regulations distinguishing primary (non-rechargeable) from secondary (rechargeable) types.^[69] Safety standards such as UL 2054 outline testing for household batteries, including alkaline C cells, to ensure resistance to abuse conditions like overcharge in rechargeables and external short circuits.^[72] Lithium C variants undergo UL 1642 evaluation for thermal stability and venting to mitigate runaway risks.^[73]

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Table 2 estimates the capability and cost per kWh of primary batteries. AAA cell, AA cell, C cell, D cell, 9 Volt. Capacity (alkaline), 1,150mAh, 2,850mAh ...
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Comparison of AA, AAA, C, and D Batteries
Larger than AA and AAA batteries, C batteries offer more power capacity. They're cylindrical in shape, and you'd find them in devices that require a ...
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Alkaline Battery Market Size, Share | CAGR of 4.5%
AA batteries dominated the alkaline battery segment in 2024, holding a 58.3% market share. The Consumer Electronics segment led the alkaline battery industry in ...
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BU-103: Global Battery Markets
Specific energy is the capacity a battery can hold in watt-hours per ... (Wh/l), not power density (W/kg). Should the differences in power density be ...
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[PDF] life cycle impacts of alkaline batteries with a - EPBA
Approximately 80% of portable batteries manufactured in the US are so-called alkaline dry cells with a global annual production exceeding 10 billion units.
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[PDF] EPBA Sustainability Initiatives Pioneering the removal of mercury ...
In 1985, EPBA members launched an initiative to remove mercury from alkaline manganese batteries. At the time, mercury accounted for 1% of the total weight ...
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Mercury in Batteries | US EPA
Mar 6, 2025 · The Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 prohibits the use of mercury in all other types of batteries. With the ...
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Alkaline Battery Market Size, Trends, Growth | 2033 Report
Alkaline batteries currently account for over 60% of all primary batteries sold globally ... This results in over 120,000 metric tons of alkaline battery waste ...
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Environmental impact of emerging contaminants from battery waste
The full impact of novel battery compounds on the environment is still uncertain and could cause further hindrances in recycling and containment efforts.
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[PDF] Recycling Zinc from Alkaline batteries - Chalmers Publication Library
A leaching time of 30 minutes, 2 M hydrochloric acid as the leaching media and a liquid-solid ratio of 7. mLg-1, resulted in a >95 % recovery of Zn in the ...
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https://www.call2recycle.org/faqs/
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Process for the recycling of alkaline and zinc–carbon spent batteries
Aug 10, 2025 · Nearly 99% of zinc and 20% of manganese are extracted after 3h, at 80°C with 10% w/v pulp density and 1.5M sulphuric acid concentration. The ...
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The Environmental Impact of NiMH Batteries: A Sustainable Power ...
Dec 17, 2024 · From reducing electronic waste to simplifying recycling and avoiding harmful heavy metals, the benefits of NiMH batteries are clear.
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https://eu.jackery.com/blogs/buying-advice/guide-to-eu-battery-regulation
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Alkaline Batteries Handling Precautions for Safe Use
Alkaline batteries are a safe and reliable power source when used correctly. However, if mishandled, the batteries may leak, overheat, or even rupture.
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[PDF] Article Information Sheet/Safety Data Sheet - Energizer
All Energizer Alkaline Manganese Dioxide-Zinc have zero added mercury. MATERIAL OR INGREDIENT. CAS #. %/wt. Graphite. 7782-42-5. 2-6. Manganese Dioxide. 1313-13 ...
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[PDF] Alkaline Manganese Dioxide Battery Product Safety, Transportation ...
NEVER dispose of cells or batteries in fires. Batteries should be stored at temperatures between 10°C and 25°C with relative humidity not exceeding 65%.Missing: ingestion standards
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[PDF] Safety Data Sheet
Do not throw batteries into fire. Avoid deep discharge. Do not short-circuit batteries Use recommended charging time and current. (b) Conditions for safe ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
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[PDF] Batteries Can be Choking Hazards
May 26, 2010 · The majority of kids who choke on such batteries are under the age of 4. Pediatricians say you should always be aware of what your kids are ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] SAFETY DATA SHEET
May 1, 2015 · Choking may occur with the smaller size batteries. If exposed to a leaking battery, rinse mouth and surrounding areas with running water for at ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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What is thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries
The temperature of the battery cell can skyrocket to over 600 C. From the start of the thermal runaway, the battery might ignite or even explode within minutes.
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Battery Safety Testing and Certification - UL Solutions
UL 2054, the Standard for Household and Commercial Batteries; UL 1989, the Standard for Valve Regulated or Vented Batteries; UL 4200A, the Standard for Products ...Lithium Battery Testing And... · Global Battery Safety... · Battery Safety Guide For...
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Battery Certification Services for Cell Manufacturers - UL Solutions
UL Solutions offers battery certification services including testing to industry standards, safety testing, and performance testing, including capacity and ...Testing Lithium-Ion Cell... · Battery Cell And Related... · Battery Safety Testing And...