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Cabaletta

A cabaletta is the lively, fast-paced concluding section of a two-part operatic aria, typically following a slower, more lyrical cantabile or cavatina, and characterized by a uniform, animated rhythm that allows for vocal bravura and ornamentation.^[1]^[2] In the structure of 19th-century Italian bel canto opera, this form emerged as a standard component of solo vocal scenes, often linked by a brief transitional recitative or parlante to heighten dramatic contrast and showcase the singer's technical agility.^[3] The term derives from the Italian "cavalletta," meaning grasshopper, evoking the leaping, repetitive quality of its melody, which originated as a simple popular aria style before evolving into a formalized operatic convention around the early 1800s.^[4] Prominent in works by composers such as Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti, the cabaletta served to resolve emotional tension with energetic display, though its prominence waned in later Romantic opera as Verdi and others favored more integrated dramatic forms.^[5]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

The cabaletta is the second, faster section of a two-part aria or duet in 19th-century Italian opera, typically following a slower cantabile, which serves as the lyrical introductory portion.^[1] This structure emerged as a standard convention in operatic composition, where the cabaletta provides a dynamic contrast to the preceding reflective or expressive segment. Characterized by a lively tempo and uniform rhythm, the cabaletta employs a repetitive strophic form, usually consisting of two stanzas that are sung in succession, often with the second featuring added vocal decorations by the performer.^[1] It concludes with a virtuosic coda designed to showcase the singer's technical skill and agility, emphasizing bravura elements such as rapid scales and embellishments.^[2] Unlike broader aria forms, the term specifically denotes this concluding, high-energy "bravura" part rather than the entire musical number. The cabaletta is intrinsically linked to the bel canto style of vocal writing, which prioritized beauty of tone and virtuosic display.^[6]

Etymology

The term "cabaletta" entered musical lexicon in the early 19th century as an Italian designation for a lively, concise operatic movement. It received its earliest documented definition in Pietro Lichtenthal's Dizionario e bibliografia della musica (1826), where it is described as a "pensieretto musicale, brano di musica di pochi versi, che si canta con movimento vivo, e che ha per lo più un ritmo animato e brillante" (a short musical thought, a piece of music with few verses, sung with lively movement and typically featuring an animated and brilliant rhythm).^[7] Etymological analysis points to possible roots in the Italian word cobola, signifying a couplet or stanza, which mirrors the repetitive, strophic elements inherent in the form.^[8]^[7] An alternative derivation links it to cavallo (horse), evoking the galloping, propulsive rhythm that animates such passages.^[7] Another theory traces it to cavalletta (grasshopper), suggesting the leaping, repetitive quality of its melody.^[4] While some scholars speculate on connections to variant terms like cabaletto appearing in isolated 18th-century writings, no reliable attestations of "cabaletta" exist prior to the early 19th century.^[7] The word quickly became tied to the concluding segments of two-part arias in bel canto opera.^[7]

Historical Development

Origins in 18th-Century Opera

The cabaletta form emerged as an evolution from the da capo arias prevalent in Baroque opera, where the standard A-B-A structure often featured a contrasting B section with quicker tempo and heightened energy to provide emotional release. By the mid-18th century, composers began experimenting with these contrasting sections, incorporating faster closing parts that emphasized rhythmic drive and vocal display, laying the groundwork for the cabaletta's distinctive role as a climactic conclusion. An early example appears in Christoph Willibald Gluck's opera Paride ed Elena (1770), where the aria “Le belle immagini” includes a short, animated concluding portion that foreshadows the form's later development.^[8] In the late 18th century, Italian opera seria and opera buffa saw significant innovations in aria structures, influenced by composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Giovanni Paisiello. Mozart's operas, including Così fan tutte (1790) and La clemenza di Tito (1791), frequently employed rondò arias with tempo contrasts—a slow introductory section followed by a faster, refrain-based part—that served as direct precursors to the cantabile-cabaletta binary. Paisiello, a leading figure in opera buffa during the 1780s, contributed proto-cabalettas through similar two-tempo constructions. These forms prioritized narrative progression over the elaborate ornamentation of earlier styles.^[9] This period marked a key transition toward the two-part (slow-fast) aria format, particularly in opera buffa, where dramatic contrast and character revelation took precedence over repetitive structures. Composers increasingly abandoned the full da capo repeats, opting instead for simpler, repetitive concluding sections that built to an emotional climax through accelerating rhythms and vocal agility. These changes reflected broader shifts in operatic aesthetics, favoring concise, action-oriented conclusions that propelled the plot forward. This foundational evolution set the stage for the cabaletta's refinement in the subsequent bel canto era.^[9]

Peak in Bel Canto Era

The cabaletta attained its zenith during the bel canto era of early-to-mid 19th-century Italian opera, with Gioachino Rossini playing a pivotal role in its rise during the 1810s. Rossini standardized the form as an essential concluding element in nearly all major arias, transforming it into a vehicle for rhythmic energy and vocal brilliance that aligned with the era's etymological roots in dynamic, leaping motion. In operas such as L'italiana in Algeri (1813), cabalettas appear frequently across characters' numbers, integrating seamlessly into ensembles and solos to propel dramatic momentum while highlighting singers' technical prowess.^[10] This prominence continued under Vincenzo Bellini and Gaetano Donizetti in the 1830s, who refined the cabaletta to accentuate vocal agility through elaborate coloratura passages and scales, infusing it with greater emotional intensity to convey characters' inner turmoil or triumphant resolve. Bellini's operas, for example, often feature cabalettas that balance lyrical expression with virtuosic demands, while Donizetti's works extend this to ensemble contexts, ensuring the form's versatility in sustaining audience engagement. These composers elevated the cabaletta beyond mere display, embedding it within broader scene structures that underscored bel canto's focus on melodic beauty and interpretive depth.^[11] The peak of "cabalettismo"—a term denoting the pervasive use of cabalettas—manifested in Giuseppe Verdi's Attila (1846), where the form dominates the score, appearing in the majority of scenes to drive narrative climaxes and patriotic fervor. Contemporary critics, such as those reviewing the Venice premiere, highlighted this as the height of the style's exuberance, reflecting Verdi's early mastery in blending bel canto traditions with emerging dramatic intensity.^[12] Within this cultural milieu, the cabaletta enabled renowned singers to demonstrate extraordinary virtuosity, captivating audiences amid the competitive operatic scene of Milan until broader stylistic evolutions in the 1860s shifted priorities toward continuous musical discourse.^[13]

Musical Structure and Characteristics

Components of the Form

The cabaletta follows a standard two-stanza structure, with the first stanza introducing the principal melody at a lively allegro tempo, typically accompanied by an orchestral ritornello, while the second stanza repeats the melody with added vocal embellishments such as coloratura passages to showcase the singer's agility.^[11] This repetition allows for progressive intensification, often culminating in an acceleration known as più mosso toward the stanza's close, heightening the dramatic energy.^[6] The form's strophic nature ensures textual and musical symmetry across the stanzas, reinforcing the cabaletta's role as a concise yet explosive conclusion to the aria.^[11] A key component preceding the cabaletta proper is the tempo di mezzo, a transitional passage that bridges the slower cantabile section to the faster cabaletta, frequently employing semi-recitative or parlante elements to advance the plot or introduce new emotional tensions.^[1] This intermediary segment, often irregular in form and rhythm, builds anticipation by shifting the musical texture from lyrical repose to kinetic momentum, preparing the vocalist for the technical demands of the cabaletta.^[14] The cabaletta concludes with an extended coda, featuring elaborate instrumental and vocal flourishes that escalate to a climactic resolution, typically in the tonic key, with orchestral reinforcement amplifying the virtuosic display.^[11] This final section often incorporates cadenzas or fermatas for improvisatory ornamentation, providing a triumphant capstone to the form.^[6] In terms of repetition, the cabaletta's melody undergoes a full restatement across its stanzas to maximize audience engagement and allow for vocal elaboration, a pattern that persists in duet contexts where variations may alternate between singers to emphasize harmonic interplay and dramatic contrast.^[15] These embellishments in the cabaletta exemplify the bel canto vocal style's emphasis on expressive agility.^[11]

Rhythmic and Melodic Features

The cabaletta's rhythmic profile is defined by a uniform, driving pulse that underscores its energetic character, most commonly notated in 6/8 or 2/4 time signatures to evoke a galloping motion reminiscent of a horse's canter. This steady propulsion often incorporates syncopated accents on off-beats, creating a sense of forward momentum and rhythmic vitality that distinguishes it from the more lyrical preceding sections.^[16] In examples like the cabaletta "Di quella pira" from Verdi's Il trovatore, this manifests as isorhythmic patterns where accents align consistently across phrases, reinforcing the form's inexorable drive toward climax.^[16] Melodically, the cabaletta employs straightforward, repetitive motifs that prioritize vocal display over complexity, frequently incorporating ascending scalar runs to build exhilaration and culminate in high tessitura flourishes.^[11] These patterns are typically constructed in major keys, lending a triumphant and resolute tone that aligns with the dramatic resolution the form often signifies, as seen in Rossini's use of jaunty, reiterated ideas in works like Tancredi.^[14] The simplicity of these motifs allows for strophic repetition across verses, with variations introduced through ornamentation to sustain interest without disrupting the overall diatonic framework.^[17] Harmonically, the cabaletta maintains a straightforward diatonic foundation, featuring basic progressions such as I–V–I cadences that underpin the melody and ensure harmonic stability, typically remaining within a single key from start to finish.^[11] Subtle modulations may occur in the coda, often to the dominant or relative minor before a return to the tonic, providing a brief surge of tension followed by emphatic release.^[14] The orchestral accompaniment supports this vocal-centric design with light textures, relying on pizzicato or broken-chord patterns in the strings and sustained or punctuating figures in the winds to propel the rhythm without introducing heavy counterpoint or thematic competition.^[11]

Dramatic and Vocal Role

Dramatic Function

In the structure of the two-tempo aria prevalent in 19th-century Italian opera, the cabaletta follows the more lyrical and reflective cantabile section, serving to heighten dramatic tension by transitioning from introspection to vigorous action. This shift propels the narrative forward, often resolving immediate conflicts or affirming a character's resolute stance through its rapid tempo and energetic rhythm, providing an emotional release after the contemplative buildup.^[11] The cabaletta integrates deeply with the plot by enabling key character expressions, such as heroic declarations of intent, passionate romantic assertions, or intense vengeful outbursts, thereby advancing individual arcs within the broader dramatic context. It typically emerges in response to a pivotal revelation or decision introduced in the preceding tempo di mezzo, allowing the music to underscore and amplify the character's emotional commitment to the unfolding events.^[7]^[11] Positioned as the climactic conclusion to solo scenes, the cabaletta often closes individual numbers or entire acts, offering a sense of resolution while hinting at impending ensemble developments that expand the drama. Its inherently showy and virtuosic qualities, rooted in bel canto's emphasis on emotional expressiveness, create a theatrical high point that invites audience applause, thereby shaping the pacing and interactive rhythm of 19th-century opera performances.^[11]

Vocal and Performance Demands

The cabaletta imposes exceptional virtuosic demands on performers, characterized by rapid coloratura passages that require precise articulation and vocal agility, a persistently high tessitura that challenges sustained projection in the upper register, and abrupt dynamic contrasts from pianissimo to forte that necessitate superior breath control to maintain even tone and phrasing. These elements, integral to the bel canto tradition, test a singer's technical mastery, as the form's brisk tempo and repetitive structure amplify the need for stamina and flexibility without sacrificing musicality.^[8]^[18]^[19] A hallmark of cabaletta performance is the practice of embellishment, where singers improvise fioritura—elaborate ornamental runs and turns—during the reprise of the principal section, transforming the written melody into a vehicle for personal expression and showcasing interpretive artistry. This improvisation, rooted in 19th-century bel canto conventions, often builds to an unaccompanied cadenza, allowing performers to demonstrate creativity while adhering to the form's rhythmic drive.^[8]^[20]^[21] In ensemble settings, such as duet cabalettas, vocalists must synchronize phrasing meticulously to create unified momentum, while engaging in competitive interplay through alternating proposals and responses that culminate in a stretta of overlapping lines, demanding acute listening and balanced interaction to heighten expressive tension. Historically, 19th-century prima donnas like Giuditta Pasta exemplified these demands by adapting cabalettas with bespoke embellishments and improvisations tailored to their vocal strengths, a tradition that informs modern stagings by emphasizing individualized flair within the form's constraints.^[22]^[23]^[21]

Notable Examples

Rossini and Early 19th-Century Works

Gioachino Rossini played a pivotal role in establishing the cabaletta as a dynamic concluding section in early 19th-century opera, particularly through his comic works where it served to propel dramatic momentum with virtuosic flair.^[24] In Il barbiere di Siviglia (1816), Rossini incorporated numerous cabalettas across its musical numbers, blending humor with vocal virtuosity to heighten the opera buffa's comedic energy. For instance, Rosina's aria "Una voce poco fa" features a lively cabaletta section ("Io sono docile") that underscores her cunning character through rapid coloratura passages and rhythmic drive, allowing for singer variations in repetitions to showcase agility. This prevalence of over a dozen such sections in the score exemplifies Rossini's integration of the form to sustain the opera's effervescent pace.^[24]^[25] A quintessential example appears in La Cenerentola (1817), where the cabaletta "Non più mesta" from Angelina's Act II aria provides a joyful resolution to the drama, marked by repetitive stanzas of exuberant coloratura, fast runs, large leaps, and a sparkling coda that emphasizes triumphant release. The structure permits embellishments in its motifs, such as added staccato notes, enhancing its musical exuberance while resolving the character's emotional arc.^[24] Rossini's innovations in the cabaletta form balanced comic and serious elements by infusing buffa operas with deeper emotional layers through intricate vocal writing and orchestration, thereby setting templates that influenced subsequent bel canto composers. These pieces were tailored for agile voices, including sopranos like Isabella Colbran in his Neapolitan works, prioritizing vocal fireworks such as extended coloraturas and demanding tessitura to captivate audiences.^[24]^[26]

Bellini, Donizetti, and Mid-Century Operas

In the mid-19th century, Vincenzo Bellini and Gaetano Donizetti elevated the cabaletta within bel canto opera, refining its form to emphasize lyrical elegance and emotional intensity in works that premiered during the 1830s and 1840s.^[27] Bellini's final opera, I puritani (1835), exemplifies this evolution through the solo cabaletta "Vien diletto, è in ciel la luna," sung by the protagonist Elvira in Act II as she imagines her lover Arturo's return amid her descent into madness.^[28] This tender piece features soaring melodic lines that convey profound emotional depth, blending joyful fantasy with underlying pathos through its legato phrasing and vocal ornamentation, which highlight Elvira's yearning and instability.^[29] The cabaletta's structure, following a slower cantabile, allows for a contrast that intensifies the dramatic shift from lament to hopeful longing, showcasing Bellini's commitment to melodic purity.^[27] Donizetti similarly advanced the cabaletta's expressive potential in Linda di Chamounix (1842), where the soprano aria "O luce di quest’anima" serves as Linda's entrance cabaletta in Act I, capturing her pastoral innocence as a young Savoyard peasant.^[30] The piece begins with a charming, bird-like lightness evoking natural serenity but builds to a passionate outburst of romantic longing as Linda anticipates reuniting with her beloved Carlo, employing agile coloratura and high notes to convey her emotional turmoil.^[31] This transition underscores Donizetti's skill in musical characterization, where the cabaletta's rapid tempo and embellishments propel the narrative forward while maintaining bel canto's focus on vocal brilliance.^[27] Both composers shared an emphasis on melodic purity and bel canto elegance in their cabalettas, prioritizing seamless fusion of voice and emotion over mere virtuosity, often within a strophic form adapted for dramatic flow.^[27] In Bellini and Donizetti's hands, these concluding sections advanced tragic or romantic plots by heightening tension—such as Elvira's delusional joy or Linda's fervent hope—through ornamented repeats that deepened character revelation.^[32] These examples bridged Rossini's energetic foundations with emerging dramatic intensities, gaining widespread popularity on European stages throughout the 1830s and 1840s, where their lyrical refinement influenced subsequent operatic developments.^[32]

Verdi and Transitional Uses

Giuseppe Verdi, building on the bel canto tradition, extensively utilized the cabaletta in his middle-period operas to amplify dramatic tension and character expression, while gradually adapting and reducing its conventional rigidity to suit evolving narrative demands. In works like Il trovatore and La traviata (both 1853), the form retained its rhythmic drive and vocal fireworks but served heightened emotional contexts, foreshadowing Verdi's shift toward integrated, continuous musical structures. This transitional phase marked the cabaletta's final prominent role in Verdi's output, as he increasingly favored seamless scene construction over isolated set pieces.^[33] A prime example is the tenor cabaletta "Di quella pira" from Il trovatore, where Manrico vows to save Leonora from execution by fire, embodying heroic fervor through its impetuous tempo, repetitive motivic structure, and explosive orchestral accompaniment. The aria's climax features a demanding high C, often interpolated for added brilliance, underscoring the form's vocal challenges while aligning with the opera's themes of passion and vengeance. Verdi's orchestration here intensifies the cabaletta's fiery imagery, making it a staple of the tenor repertoire.^[7] Similarly, in La traviata, Violetta's Act I cabaletta "Sempre libera degg'io" captures her declaration of independence and joy in love's fleeting pleasures, yet subtly conveys underlying turmoil through coloratura runs and rapid scalar passages that evoke both liberation and instability. Following the introspective cantabile "Ah, fors'è lui," this cabaletta exemplifies Verdi's blend of bel canto virtuosity with psychological nuance, allowing brief vocal embellishments to heighten the character's inner conflict.^[33]^[34] Verdi's transitional employment of the cabaletta extended to 1862 with La forza del destino, where examples persist but coexist with more fluid, declamatory passages that prioritize dramatic continuity over formal closure. After this opera, Verdi largely phased out standalone cabalettas, opting for expansive scenes that integrated lyrical and rhythmic elements without the traditional tempo di mezzo separation. He also innovated by incorporating cabaletta-like conclusions into ensembles, as in the Act II quartet "Bella figlia dell'amore" from Rigoletto (1851), whose stretta unifies the four principals' divergent perspectives—Gilda's despair, Rigoletto's rage, Maddalena's flirtation, and the Duke's nonchalance—through a surging, collective rhythmic momentum that advances the plot without isolating individual display.^[35]^[36]

Decline and Legacy

Factors Leading to Decline

By the mid-19th century, Giuseppe Verdi began to move away from the traditional cantabile-cabaletta structure in his operas, favoring more fluid, through-composed forms that integrated dramatic action more seamlessly. This shift became evident after 1862, particularly in works like Don Carlos (1867), where Verdi critiqued the formulaic nature of isolated virtuoso numbers and prioritized continuous musical flow to enhance emotional realism.^[37] The growing influence of Richard Wagner further accelerated the decline of the cabaletta during the 1870s and beyond, as his music dramas emphasized leitmotifs and uninterrupted musical textures over discrete numbers like arias and cabalettas. Wagner's rejection of the "number opera" format, which separated vocal display pieces from the narrative, promoted a holistic dramatic continuity that rendered the cabaletta's repetitive, showy structure increasingly obsolete in both German and Italian traditions.^[38] Shifting audience and critical preferences also contributed to the cabaletta's waning prominence by the 1890s, with the rise of verismo opera favoring psychological depth and naturalistic expression over bel canto's vocal acrobatics. Verismo composers rejected structured forms like the cabaletta in favor of realistic character portrayal, influenced by literary realism and Wagnerian elements, marking a breaking point for traditions that prioritized display.^[39]^[40] Practically, the expansion of opera lengths—exemplified by Wagner's expansive cycles—left less room for the repetitive arias typical of cabalettas, confining their remnants to ensemble finales where they provided energetic closers without dominating solo scenes. This form lingered in such contexts into the early 20th century before fading entirely from mainstream composition.

Influence on Later Opera and Music

The cabaletta form persisted in Italian opera into the early 20th century through subtle echoes and adaptations, particularly in Giacomo Puccini's arias, where traditional structures like the solita forma—encompassing cavatina and cabaletta—served as a dialogic framework rather than rigid convention. Puccini incorporated elements of energetic closure in scenes that blend lyrical introspection with dramatic propulsion to heighten emotional climax.^[41] The cabaletta's influence extended beyond Italy to shape French grand opéra and Slavic compositions, integrating Italian bel canto vitality into larger spectacular forms. Giacomo Meyerbeer, a pivotal figure in grand opéra, incorporated cabaletta sections in works like Les Huguenots (1836) and Emma di Resburgo (1820), where fast-paced, bravura-driven segments provided virtuosic contrast to recitatives and ensembles, enhancing scenic drama and vocal display. Similarly, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky drew on Italian influences in The Queen of Spades (1890), employing cabaletta-like sections—such as the contrasting energetic outbursts following slower arias—to underscore psychological intensity and heroic resolve amid the opera's obsessive narrative.^[42]^[43] In modern adaptations, the cabaletta has seen revivals through bel canto concert series and opera productions that emphasize its rhythmic drive and technical demands, fostering renewed appreciation for 19th-century vocal traditions. Organizations like Teatro Nuovo and Caramoor's Bel Canto at Caramoor have staged rarities such as Bellini's Il pirata and Pacini's Amazilia, highlighting cabalettas as showcases for contemporary singers' agility and stamina. This trend continued into the 2020s, with Teatro Nuovo presenting bel canto seasons in 2024 and 2025 featuring revivals like Carolina Uccelli's Anna di Resburgo and Verdi's Macbeth, and the Metropolitan Opera announcing new productions of Bellini's La Sonnambula and Donizetti's I Puritani for its 2025–26 season as of February 2025.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47] Its rhythmic energy has also informed film scores, particularly in Hollywood depictions of opera scenes, where cabaletta-style flourishes add heroic intensity to dramatic moments, as seen in cinematic portrayals of bel canto heroines. Culturally, the cabaletta symbolizes vocal heroism, a legacy amplified by 20th-century interpreters like Maria Callas, whose recordings of bel canto arias—such as those in I Puritani and Lucia di Lammermoor—revitalized the form by combining technical precision with dramatic fervor, inspiring generations of singers to embrace its expressive power. Callas's approach not only rescued overlooked cabalettas from obscurity but also redefined them as vehicles for profound character revelation, cementing their place in the operatic canon.^[48]

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Giuseppe Verdi's 'Rigoletto': Ahead of its Time. By Julian Budden. This ... Even during the famous quartet (“Bella figlia dell'amore”) we are aware of ...
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5. Verdi's Style: The End of Bel Canto? | Open Book Publishers
Apr 29, 2022 · This chapter elaborates on Verdi's style and the end of bel canto. Tetrazzini's impersonations of Violetta and Gilda were memorable.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Chapter 21: Richard Wagner and Giuseppe Verdi: Class of 1813
After these operas, Verdi turned away from the cantabile/cabaletta pairing into a more realistic flow. 1. Pathos became a major factor in Italian opera. 2. He ...
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A Brief History of Singing - Lawrence University
Verdi gradually minimized his use of the cabaletta form (it was as forced, dramatically, as the da capo aria had been) and eventually learned to seek sound ...
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[PDF] Verismo opera: how bel canto technique protected the voices of its ...
This chapter presents an overview of the significance of the musical histories of bel canto and verismo, and why their characteristics are so individual to each ...
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https://people.bu.edu/burtond/resources/Research/SpectrumPucciniReview.pdf
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[PDF] Review: Nicholas Baragwanath, The Italian Traditions & Puccini ...
... Dramatic ... “'La solita forma' and 'the Uses of Convention.'” Acta musicologica 59: 65–90. Rosen, David. 2004. '''La solita forma'' in Puccini's Operas?<|control11|><|separator|>
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'Grand Opera' Review: Diana Damrau's Meyerbeer Album Is An ...
May 5, 2017 · A joyous chorus interrupts the bleakness, the music shifting to a joyful cabaletta laden with bravura runs that are dispatched with freedom and ...
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Metropolitan Opera 2024-25 Review: The Queen of Spades
May 30, 2025 · That contrasted beautifully with the “cabaletta” section ... Urmana combined beautifully with Tchaikovsky's eerie and solemn orchestration.
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Opera Stars and the Revival of Bel Canto - The New York Times
May 4, 2014 · The bel canto tenors Lawrence Brownlee, Javier Camarena and Juan Diego Flórez delight fans at the Metropolitan Opera.
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“Bel Canto at Caramoor” Celebrates 20th Anniversary Season
Apr 3, 2017 · You can't get the best out of it if you approach it as a 'general' bel canto score – you know, here is the cabaletta ... legacy of influence and ...
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The Enduring Legacy of Maria Callas | San Francisco Classical Voice
Jan 2, 2012 · Born in New York City in 1923, Callas was at the height of her fame when she abandoned both her career and her husband and manager, Giovanni Battista Meneghini.