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Legato

Legato is a fundamental musical articulation technique that directs performers to play or sing notes in a smooth, connected manner, ensuring fluid transitions without separation or interruption between them, thereby creating a continuous and flowing line.^[1]^[2] The term originates from the Italian word meaning "tied together," reflecting its emphasis on blending successive notes to their full duration, often evoking elegance, tranquility, and expressiveness in compositions across genres.^[3]^[2] In musical notation, legato is typically indicated by a slur—a curved line connecting the notes to be performed continuously—positioned above or below the staff depending on the direction of the note stems, or occasionally by the written word "legato" above the passage.^[3]^[2] This contrasts sharply with staccato, where notes are played short and detached to produce a crisp, punctuated effect, highlighting legato's role in achieving lyrical and sustained phrasing essential for building emotional crescendos and decrescendos.^[3] The technique emerged prominently in the late eighteenth century, coinciding with advancements in instrument design that allowed for better note sustain, though it became especially associated with the bel canto vocal style of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, influencing composers like Johann Strauss II in works such as The Blue Danube.^[3]^[2] Implementation varies by instrument: string players use a single bow stroke for seamless connections, pianists overlap notes with finger control, guitarists employ hammer-ons and pull-offs, and wind players or vocalists rely on steady breath support to maintain the unbroken flow.^[2] Renowned performers, including violinist Itzhak Perlman and pianist Arthur Rubinstein, have exemplified masterful legato, demonstrating its versatility in classical, jazz, and even film scores to convey romance and expansiveness.^[2]

Definition and Etymology

Meaning in Music

Legato, derived from the Italian term meaning "tied together" or "bound," is a fundamental articulation in music that instructs performers to execute notes in a smooth, continuous manner, eliminating any perceptible separation or silence between them.^[4] This technique contrasts sharply with staccato, where notes are detached and brief, and applies equally to instrumental and vocal performance. The core purpose of legato lies in forging a cohesive, flowing phrase that emulates the natural continuity of breath or speech, prioritizing an even, sustained tone with minimal emphasis on the initial attack of each note.^[5] By blending transitions seamlessly, it enhances the overall expressiveness, allowing the music to unfold as a unified stream rather than discrete events.^[6] In relation to phrasing, legato preserves the structural integrity of the melodic line by extending the duration of each note to overlap slightly with its successor, thereby sustaining the sound until the subsequent note initiates.^[7] This approach contributes to a sense of forward momentum and emotional depth, as the connected notes form a single, unbroken arc that mirrors the organic flow of ideas in verbal communication.^[8] Basic examples appear in straightforward scalar passages or lyrical motifs, such as a sequence of quarter notes ascending in a major key, where each pitch sustains just long enough to link fluidly to the next without interruption.^[9]

Historical Origins

The term legato derives from the Italian verb legare, meaning "to bind" or "tie," with legato serving as its past participle to denote a connected or bound-together quality in musical performance.^[10] This etymological root underscores the technique's emphasis on seamless transitions between notes, as if they are tied fluidly without interruption. In other European musical traditions, parallel terms emerged to convey the same concept: French lié for a smooth, linked execution, and German gebunden for bound or connected playing, reflecting the term's adaptation across linguistic boundaries in 18th-century music theory.^[11] The term's prominent use in written music theory first appeared in 18th-century Italian-influenced treatises, marking a shift toward explicit instructions for instrumentalists. Johann Joachim Quantz's 1752 Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen (translated as On Playing the Flute) describes connected note execution on the flute, advocating for a flowing, legato-like articulation to achieve expressive smoothness, particularly in adagio passages where notes should blend without harsh separations.^[12] This treatise represents one of the earliest detailed discussions of the practice, emphasizing its role in imitating vocal legato for wind instruments. Similarly, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's 1753 Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments) promotes legato as a fundamental touch for keyboard music, instructing performers to connect notes evenly without detachment unless otherwise marked, to support melodic expression and avoid the inequality common in earlier harpsichord playing.^[13] From the Baroque to the Classical era, legato evolved from an implied smoothness in vocal-influenced music to deliberate markings in instrumental scores, enabling greater precision in phrasing. In Baroque compositions, such as those of Arcangelo Corelli, fluid bowing and connected lines were assumed for violin sonatas and concerti grossi to maintain lyrical flow, though rarely notated explicitly.^[14] By the Classical period, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart incorporated overt legato indications, using slurs to guide performers toward sustained, vocal-like continuity in works like his piano sonatas and string quartets, distinguishing it as a targeted effect amid more varied articulations.^[15] This progression highlighted legato's growing status as a compositional tool for emotional depth and structural clarity.

Notation and Symbols

Slur and Tenuto Marks

The primary notational symbol for legato is the slur, a curved line that connects two or more notes of different pitches, indicating that they should be performed smoothly and without detachment between them.^[16] This mark directs performers to blend the notes seamlessly, often implying a single bow stroke on string instruments or a continuous breath on winds.^[17] The tenuto mark, represented as a horizontal line placed above or below the note head, serves to indicate that a note should be sustained for its full rhythmic value, contributing to a legato effect particularly in passages where notes are played individually or without a connecting slur. In contexts emphasizing connection, it ensures no premature release, allowing the note to flow into the subsequent one.^[18] A key distinction exists between phrasing slurs and legato slurs: phrasing slurs, often longer and more arched, primarily guide musical breathing and structural grouping without strictly enforcing note connection, whereas legato slurs focus on articulation, mandating smooth, uninterrupted execution of the enclosed notes.^[19] This differentiation helps clarify intent, with legato slurs prioritizing technical smoothness over broader expressive phrasing.^[20] The notation of slurs evolved from irregular, handwritten forms in the Baroque era, where they often denoted phrasing or short legato connections in manuscripts by composers like J.S. Bach, to more consistent and standardized curved lines by the 19th century, facilitated by advances in music printing that allowed precise engraving for widespread publication.^[17] During the Baroque period, slurs were sparingly used and sometimes ambiguous, serving both vocal melisma-like connections and phrase indications, but by the Romantic era, they became integral for specifying legato articulation in printed scores.^[21] In Beethoven's scores, slurs frequently appear over two-note phrases to enforce legato, as seen in two-note slurs throughout the Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 111, which create fluid melodic lines.^[22] Tenuto marks are employed on held notes for sustained emphasis, such as in the Adagio of the same sonata, where they underscore expressive duration without separation from surrounding material.^[23]

Interpretation Variations

In Romantic music, legato interpretation demands a stricter connection between notes to foster a smooth, singing quality and long-lined phrasing, as exemplified in Chopin's piano works where extended slurs guide a unified, expressive flow.^[24] By contrast, Baroque compositions approach legato more flexibly, often inferring it from the absence of staccato indications amid a variety of articulations, rather than prescribing sustained lines as the norm.^[25] Tempo significantly shapes legato execution, with slower speeds permitting greater note overlap for fuller connection and sustain, while faster tempos necessitate subtle blending to maintain rhythmic integrity without blurring or haste.^[26] This adjustment arises from the variable key overlap times required for articulation, which elongate at reduced paces to preserve seamlessness.^[27] Composer-specific styles further diversify legato application; Wagner utilized it to ensure continuous orchestral flow in his operas, linking phrases seamlessly to propel dramatic momentum and thematic continuity.^[28] Debussy, in his impressionistic idiom, interpreted legato for timbral blending and coloristic effects, prioritizing atmospheric fusion over rigid melodic joining.^[29] Cultural traditions yield distinct emphases: the Italian bel canto prioritizes seamless, even vocal legato across the register for lyrical beauty and agility.^[30] German practices, rooted in precision-oriented sustaining of notes, integrate legato with clear structural delineation, particularly in Lieder and symphonic works.^[21] Modern editions influence legato choices profoundly; urtext scores reproduce the composer's unmarked text, empowering performers to infer connections from context alone, whereas edited versions incorporate interpretive slurs, fingerings, or bowings that steer toward predefined articulations.^[31]^[32] Such additions can alter perceived seamlessness, as fingerings may imply stresses that disrupt even flow.^[31]

Performance Techniques

General Principles

Legato performance relies on the fundamental overlap technique, in which the decay phase of one note is sustained into the attack phase of the subsequent note to create a seamless, continuous transition. This approach eliminates any audible silence between notes, fostering a fluid melodic line that emphasizes connection over separation.^[2]^[33] Achieving effective legato requires precise control over the mechanisms of sound production, such as maintaining even pressure and minimizing interruptions in airflow or bowing motion to ensure uninterrupted sustain. In vocal contexts, this involves connecting the breath from one note to the next, allowing for effortless phrasing and expressive continuity without relying solely on muscular support.^[34] Similarly, uniform application of pressure prevents fluctuations that could break the line, promoting a steady flow across the phrase.^[35] Central to legato is tone consistency, where performers maintain even volume and timbre throughout the passage, avoiding unintended accents or variations that might disrupt the smooth progression. This uniformity enhances the perceptual coherence of the melody, treating the sequence as a single, unbroken entity rather than discrete elements.^[36] To develop these skills, musicians employ targeted practice methods, such as performing scales with deliberate gradual overlaps between notes to cultivate precise control over transitions and build muscular memory for seamless connections.^[37] Common pitfalls include introducing unintended gaps through hesitant attacks, which fracture the line, or excessive sustaining that results in overlapping muddiness and blurred articulation.^[38] This approach stands in contrast to staccato, where notes are intentionally detached for rhythmic emphasis (see Articulation Contrasts section).

Articulation Contrasts

Legato articulation stands in direct opposition to staccato, where notes are performed in a smooth, connected manner without interruption, whereas staccato involves shortening and detaching notes, typically holding them to about half their written duration to create a crisp, separated effect.^[18] This detachment in staccato often requires a brief silence or micropause between notes, contrasting the acoustic overlap essential for legato's seamless flow.^[39] For instance, in a sequence of quarter notes, staccato execution might limit each to roughly 50% of the beat, emphasizing rhythmic punctuation over continuity.^[18] Unlike portamento, which involves a gradual pitch slide or glissando encompassing intermediate tones between notes, legato maintains discrete pitches with a clean, uninterrupted transition, avoiding any audible pitch bending.^[40] This distinction is particularly evident on instruments like the violin or trombone, where portamento explicitly glides through the chromatic spectrum, while legato connects notes at their exact notated pitches for a bound yet precise phrasing.^[40] In comparison to marcato, which combines emphasis with a degree of separation through accents and often shortened duration, legato prioritizes fluid continuity without added stress or weighting on individual notes.^[41] Marcato's "marked" quality introduces a punctuated intensity, suitable for dramatic highlights, whereas legato's even flow eschews such accentuation to sustain lyrical momentum.^[41] Legato occupies a position on the broader spectrum of articulations, ranging from the extreme detachment of staccatissimo—featuring sharply wedged marks for the briefest, most explosive notes—to the fully bound connection of legato itself, with intermediate points like staccato (detached but less abrupt), portato (slightly separated yet sustained), and tenuto (held full value with gentle release).^[42] This continuum allows performers to modulate note connections from isolated pulses at one end to an unbroken stream at the other, with legato representing the ideal of cohesion.^[42] Composers frequently employ legato alongside contrasting articulations to enhance structural variety and emotional depth, using its smooth character for lyrical, expressive passages that provide relief from the tension of staccato or marcato sections.^[43] For example, alternating legato phrases with staccato interjections can delineate melodic themes from rhythmic motifs, creating dynamic interplay that underscores the piece's narrative arc.^[43]

Applications in Acoustic Instruments

String Instruments

In bowed string instruments such as the violin and cello, legato is achieved primarily through continuous bow strokes that connect multiple notes without retaking the bow, relying on smooth pressure distribution across the bow hair to maintain even tone. This technique involves drawing the bow at a relatively slow and consistent speed, with minimal pressure required to avoid accents, particularly when playing near the middle of the string; closer proximity to the bridge allows for slightly increased pressure and speed while preserving fluidity.^[44] The right arm functions as a coordinated unit, with the elbow and wrist creating small, uninterrupted waves to ensure seamless transitions between notes and bow directions.^[38] Finger placement in legato playing emphasizes light, rounded contact with the string to facilitate connected shifts, especially in scale passages where abrupt movements could introduce noise or breaks. The left hand prepares shifts by anticipating string crossings, often practicing with double-stops or open strings to achieve clean, vibrating arrivals on each note without jerking the arm.^[38] During shifts, the guiding finger lifts slightly while the new finger is placed precisely on the target string, allowing the bow to continue its motion uninterrupted, which minimizes audible glissandi unless intentionally expressive.^[45] A prominent example of legato application appears in Johann Sebastian Bach's solo violin sonatas and partitas, where slurs dictate bow changes across strings to create seamless phrasing without detaching notes. These markings guide performers to group notes for rhetorical flow, employing legato bowing to blend string crossings and sustain the melodic line's continuity, often favoring first-position techniques on the Baroque violin.^[46] In orchestral settings, legato passages demand sectional blending among violin, viola, cello, and double bass players to produce a unified sound, achieved by distributing chord tones across instruments and using slurred bowings with graduated dynamics for cohesive texture. Players match bow speeds and vibrato intensities to avoid individual prominence, ensuring the section functions as a single voice in sustained lines, such as those in Romantic symphonies.^[47] Advanced legato variations incorporate harmonics or sul ponticello bowing to alter timbre while preserving connection; natural harmonics can be played legato by lightly sliding the finger along the string to glide between nodes, producing ethereal slides, whereas sul ponticello—bowing near the bridge—emphasizes upper partials for a metallic sheen in continuous strokes. These extended techniques expand legato's expressive range in contemporary works, maintaining bow continuity despite the shifted contact point.^[48]^[49]

Wind and Brass Instruments

In wind and brass instruments, legato performance relies on minimizing interruptions between notes through techniques that prioritize smooth airflow and subtle articulation. For woodwinds such as the flute, clarinet, and bassoon, players often employ "legato tonguing," a soft, unarticulated touch of the tongue against the reed or embouchure to initiate each note without creating audible breaks, ensuring a connected phrase that mimics a single, continuous breath.^[50]^[51] This approach contrasts with more pronounced tonguing methods, focusing instead on the tongue's role as a gentle valve to maintain tonal continuity. In brass instruments like the trumpet and trombone, legato tonguing similarly involves a light, non-aggressive tongue contact to separate notes while preserving seamlessness, avoiding the smearing effect that can occur with overly loose technique.^[52]^[53] Breath support is central to achieving legato on these instruments, demanding steady, controlled airflow to sustain notes without gaps or fluctuations in volume. Diaphragmatic breathing, which engages the lower abdominal muscles for deep inhalation and regulated exhalation, enables performers to deliver consistent air pressure across phrases, preventing the decay that disrupts smooth connections.^[54]^[55] This technique is particularly vital in extended passages, where interruptions for breathing must be imperceptible to uphold the illusion of uninterrupted melody. For brass players, embouchure adjustments further enhance this by relaxing lip pressure around the mouthpiece, reducing the risk of buzzing or abrupt tone breaks during note transitions and allowing the aperture to remain open for even vibration.^[56] Illustrative examples abound in the repertoire, such as Joachim Andersen's Op. 15 etudes for flute, which emphasize legato through slurred passages and wide intervals requiring precise tonguing and breath control to achieve fluid execution.^[57]^[58] Similarly, trumpet solos in Gustav Mahler's symphonies, like the lyrical trumpet solo in the first movement of Symphony No. 5, demand legato phrasing with portamento glissandi to convey emotional depth, relying on relaxed embouchure and sustained breath for seamless melodic lines.^[59] In ensemble settings, such as orchestral wind sections, challenges arise in synchronizing breath points to maintain collective legato; performers must coordinate inhalation cues—often staggered to avoid simultaneous gaps—ensuring the section's tone remains uniform without disrupting the phrase's continuity.^[60] This requires rehearsal strategies that align individual breathing plans with the ensemble's phrasing, preserving the overall smooth articulation.^[61]

Keyboard Instruments

On keyboard instruments, legato is achieved primarily through careful fingering and pedaling techniques that connect notes seamlessly, minimizing audible breaks in sound production. For the piano, fingering techniques emphasize overlapping finger releases, where the previous note is held slightly longer than its notated duration while the next note is struck, preventing the hammer noise that can interrupt continuity. This method relies on precise control of finger independence and arm weight transfer to maintain even tone across phrases.^[62] The sustain pedal plays a crucial role in piano legato by allowing dampers to lift, blurring the decay of one note into the attack of the subsequent one and creating a unified sonic line. Half-pedaling, involving partial depression of the pedal, provides clarity by lightly re-damping strings without fully interrupting the connection, particularly useful in harmonically dense passages to avoid muddiness. This technique enhances expressive flow while preserving harmonic definition.^[63]^[64] On historical keyboard instruments like the harpsichord, which lacks a sustain mechanism, legato is achieved through smooth finger crossings and precise overlapping of notes to minimize audible gaps in the quick-decaying sound; in keys with few accidentals, crossing the 3rd finger over the 4th helps maintain unbroken lines. The organ, by contrast, achieves continuous legato through coupled manuals, where stops from one division are linked to another, allowing sustained tones across registers without manual changes interrupting the flow, though this can introduce slight attack variations.^[65]^[66] A representative example is found in Chopin's nocturnes, such as Op. 9 No. 2, where pedal legato via syncopated pedaling—releasing the pedal just before the next chord and immediately reapplying it—creates the fluid, singing melody characteristic of Romantic interpretation.^[67] However, achieving legato in rapid passages presents challenges due to mechanical delays in key repetition and damper action, which can hinder precise overlapping or pedaling, often resulting in less consistent connections at high tempos.^[68]

Plucked Instruments

In plucked string instruments like the guitar, legato is primarily achieved through left-hand techniques such as hammer-ons and pull-offs, which allow notes to sound without additional plucking from the right hand. A hammer-on involves fretting the first note and plucking it normally, then sharply pressing a higher fret with another left-hand finger to produce the subsequent note, creating a smooth, connected transition. Pull-offs work in reverse: after plucking a higher fretted note, the finger is snapped off to sound a lower fretted note below it, maintaining fluid phrasing without interrupting the flow. These methods, often notated as slurs, facilitate even tone and speed in passages, distinguishing them from staccato by emphasizing seamless note connections.^[69]^[70] Legato picking complements these techniques by incorporating minimal alternate picking, where the pick strikes only the initial note of a phrase or string change, relying on left-hand articulation for the rest. This approach is particularly effective for connected arpeggios, using subtle rolling motions with the picking hand—such as slight wrist rolls or finger independence—to blend notes smoothly across strings without harsh attacks. Economy picking variants, like sweeping across strings in one direction, further enhance this by reducing pick motion, allowing for broader, flowing arpeggiated lines that mimic the continuity of bowed legato.^[71]^[72] Classical guitar repertoire exemplifies these techniques in Fernando Sor's Study No. 20 from Op. 60, where ascending and descending slurs demand precise hammer-ons and pull-offs to achieve lyrical phrasing across scales and arpeggios. In modern rock, Eddie Van Halen popularized legato in solos like those in "Eruption," employing rapid hammer-ons and pull-offs for fluid, high-speed runs that revolutionized electric guitar expression.^[69] Fretboard shifts integrate smooth slides into legato phrases, enabling position changes without breaking the line; a finger glides from one fret to another while maintaining contact, connecting disparate notes seamlessly. This technique supports extended phrases by facilitating quick navigation across the neck, often combined with hammer-ons for uninterrupted momentum.^[73] String damping is crucial in legato playing to control unwanted resonance from open or unused strings, achieved by lightly touching them with the fretting or picking hand. On acoustic guitars, where natural projection amplifies sympathetic vibrations, damping prevents muddy overtones in intricate phrases, requiring vigilant left-hand muting. Electric guitars, with their amplified sustain, demand similar control but benefit from effects like noise gates to minimize bleed, allowing cleaner execution of rapid legato runs.^[74]^[75]

Modern and Electronic Contexts

Synthesizers and Keyboards

In synthesizers, particularly analog models, legato is primarily implemented in monophonic mode, where overlapping key presses prevent the retriggering of the amplitude envelope's attack phase, allowing for smooth transitions between notes without re-articulation.^[76]^[77] This technique maintains a continuous sound, mimicking the connected phrasing of acoustic instruments while avoiding the percussive restarts typical in staccato playing.^[78] Glide, also known as portamento, complements legato by enabling adjustable pitch sliding between notes, controlled via a dedicated knob or parameter that sets the transition time, often measured in milliseconds to seconds.^[76] In many analog synthesizers like the Moog Minimoog, glide is activated only during legato playing—when the previous note is held—distinguishing it from always-on modes that apply sliding regardless of key overlap.^[77] This setting allows producers to create fluid melodic lines, with shorter glide times yielding subtle shifts and longer ones producing dramatic sweeps.^[76] Representative examples appear in progressive rock, where Moog synthesizers employed legato and portamento for expressive solos; for instance, Rick Wakeman of Yes used these features on Minimoog patches to craft soaring, connected melodic lines in tracks like those on Close to the Edge.^[79]^[80] Achieving legato in polyphonic synthesizers presents challenges, as standard designs allocate independent envelopes per voice, making true simultaneous gliding across chords difficult without voice stealing or unpredictable pitch paths.^[81] Producers often simulate it by layering monophonic voices or using multi-timbral setups, though this can lead to phase issues or reduced polyphony during complex harmonies.^[82] In digital audio workstations (DAWs), MIDI implementation supports legato through specific modes that detect overlapping notes, triggering continuous modulation like pitch bends or CC64 (sustain) to enable glide without envelope restarts on virtual instruments.^[83] This allows seamless integration of hardware synths, where DAW automation fine-tunes glide rates for polished electronic compositions.^[84]

Digital Production Techniques

In digital audio workstations (DAWs), producers achieve legato effects through MIDI editing techniques that adjust note lengths and velocities to create overlaps, preventing audible gaps between notes. For instance, in Logic Pro, the Force Legato function extends selected notes to overlap with subsequent ones, typically by eight ticks, ensuring seamless transitions while maintaining velocity consistency for natural phrasing. This automation simulates the connected articulation of acoustic performances, with velocity modulation fine-tuning the dynamic flow to avoid mechanical repetition. Virtual instruments often incorporate dedicated legato patches in sample libraries, such as those in Native Instruments' Kontakt, where scripting enables automatic transitions between notes. These scripted patches detect overlapping MIDI input and trigger pre-recorded interval samples, blending sustain and release phases for fluid portamento-like movement without manual intervention.^[85] Developers use Kontakt's KSP (Kontakt Script Processor) to customize these behaviors, adjusting transition speeds and intensities based on note velocity and interval size.^[85] Effects processing further enhances legato smoothness by blending reverb and delay tails across note boundaries in the mix. Subtle delay applications, with feedback set low and mix around 20-30%, can smooth micro-gaps by extending decay tails, while reverb algorithms with short decay times (1-2 seconds) create a cohesive spatial envelope that masks digital artifacts.^[86] In film scoring workflows, such as those in Logic Pro using Studio Strings, crossfade loops automate these blends within legato patches, allowing dynamic swells and fades during orchestral passages for cinematic continuity.^[87] Post-production refinements involve quantizing note onsets to align rhythm while applying humanization to preserve organic feel, enhancing perceived connection in legato lines. Quantization at 50-70% strength snaps timings loosely to the grid, followed by velocity randomization (10-20% variation) and slight timing offsets (±5-10ms) to mimic performer nuances, ensuring transitions feel intentional rather than rigid.^[88] This approach counters the sterility of perfect grids, fostering a more expressive digital emulation of legato.^[88]

Vocal Music

Singing Techniques

In legato singing, breath connection is achieved through phrasing on single breaths to sustain extended lines, relying on the appoggio technique for balanced support. Appoggio involves a coordinated antagonism between inspiratory muscles (such as the diaphragm and intercostals) and expiratory muscles (like the abdominals), maintaining ribcage expansion and steady subglottic pressure without torso collapse.^[89] This method, rooted in Italian bel canto pedagogy, allows singers to deliver seamless, even-toned phrases by regulating airflow efficiently, often described as "leaning on the breath" to prevent abrupt interruptions.^[89] Vowel consistency is essential for legato, requiring the maintenance of open, uniform vowels across notes without glottal stops that disrupt the vocal line. Singers achieve this by ensuring consistent vowel shapes and airflow, avoiding throat closures that create audible breaks and compromise phrasing smoothness.^[90] This technique promotes a connected, lyrical flow while preserving textual clarity, as the vocal tract remains open and resonant throughout transitions.^[90] Bel canto arias by Vincenzo Bellini, such as "Casta Diva" from Norma, exemplify the demands of seamless scales in legato performance, where adagio sections require sustained, lyrical lines with precise tonal beauty and agility.^[91] These passages demand uninterrupted scalic runs on single breaths, blending technical control with expressive phrasing to highlight the composer's emphasis on melodic purity.^[91] Smooth passaggio transitions are critical in legato passages, involving balanced laryngeal placement and vocal fold blending to navigate register shifts without breaks. Techniques like appoggio and chiaroscuro resonance ensure even resonance and flexibility, allowing the voice to move fluidly from chest to head register through coordinated breath and onset control.^[92] Health considerations in legato singing emphasize avoiding excessive tension to prevent vocal fatigue during long phrases, as undue strain in the throat, jaw, or neck can lead to inefficient airflow and cord irritation. Proper appoggio and relaxed posture distribute effort across the body, sustaining endurance while minimizing risk of overuse injuries.^[93]

Stylistic Examples

In opera, Giacomo Puccini's aria "O mio babbino caro" from the 1918 opera Gianni Schicchi exemplifies lyrical legato through its sustained, seamless vocal lines that convey emotional pleading and tenderness, with the soprano's smooth phrasing emphasizing the text's melodic flow without interruption.^[94] This technique highlights the aria's bel canto influences, where connected notes create a flowing, song-like quality essential to the character's persuasive plea.^[94] In jazz, scat singing employs legato to achieve smooth, improvised lines that mimic instrumental phrasing, as demonstrated by Ella Fitzgerald's performances, such as her transcription of "Take the A Train," where syllable pairs like "da-ya" produce a connected, legato sound for rhythmic fluidity and expressiveness.^[95] Fitzgerald's approach integrates breath control and vowel morphing to maintain seamless transitions, transforming vocal improvisation into a horn-like continuum.^[95] Contemporary pop ballads often feature breathy, connected phrasing to evoke intimacy, evident in Adele's renditions like "Someone Like You," where legato sustains emotional vulnerability through gentle, unbroken note connections that blend chest and head voice registers.^[96] This style prioritizes dynamic subtlety and phrasing variation to avoid monotony, allowing the voice to glide expressively over melodic arcs.^[96] In choral contexts, Renaissance polyphony implies legato for seamless vocal blend, as in Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina's works like the Missa Papae Marcelli, where singers maintain smooth, uninterrupted lines to achieve harmonic clarity and unified timbre across voices.^[97] This connected singing supports the polyphonic texture's interlocking melodies, fostering a collective sound that prioritizes ensemble cohesion over individual articulation.^[97] Cultural variants of legato appear in Indian classical music through meend, a gliding ornament that approximates smooth slides between notes, connecting swaras fluidly to express raga emotions, as seen in Hindustani vocal performances where it passes through intermediate microtones for continuous phrasing.^[98] Unlike strict Western legato, meend incorporates subtle pitch inflections, enhancing melodic continuity and improvisational depth.^[98]

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fingering within legato slurs, especially in outer voices. Between slur ... Example 19c. Adagio sempre tenuto committal on the question of sounding the ...
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Mind the Gap! (Part 2) - Practising the Piano
In Romantic music we often find long phrase marks that indicate not only a prevailing legato approach but also the long line – a sense of unity and forwards ...
[25]
[PDF] Uri Golomb Rhetoric in the Performance of Baroque Music
John Butt, for example, points out that when Baroque treatises exhort instrumentalists to imitate singers, they are not advocating long, sustained legato lines; ...
[26]
A Two-Process Model for Control of Legato Articulation across a ...
Dec 1, 1998 · [Footnotes]. 1. C. P. E. Bach's seminal treatise Essay on the True Art of Flaying Keyboard Instruments (1753, 1762/1949),. 3. Newman (1984, p ...<|separator|>
[27]
(PDF) A Two-Process Model for Control of Legato Articulation across ...
Aug 6, 2025 · As tempo slows, the time required to pass between threshold crossings elongates, and KOT increases. However, if performers used only such a ...
[28]
Wagner's “Das Rheingold” Prelude: Currents in E-Flat Major
Jan 2, 2019 · Das Rheingold, the first opera in Richard Wagner's mythic Ring Cycle, begins as a distant, barely-audible rumble in the dark, murky depths of the orchestra.
[29]
[PDF] Debussy sound: colour, texture, gesture - UCI Music Department
Here we will discuss the sonorous rather than the temporal aspects of. Debussy's music, focusing particularly on orchestral and piano style, texture, and colour ...
[30]
Bel Canto History
Bel Canto refers to the Italian vocal style of the 18th and early 19th centuries of which the qualities include perfect legato production throughout the range.Missing: precision | Show results with:precision
[31]
[PDF] FINGERINGS IN 'URTEXT' EDITIONS - Malcolm Bilson
Sep 29, 2017 · A good urtext edition should allow, perhaps even encourage, both interpretations. Yet the very presence of fingerings (or bow-marks in string ...
[32]
Urtext Music Editions – Clark Bryan
Henle editions for piano works also add fingering. Fingering can relate directly to interpretation by stressing notes, making them less legato, legato ...
[33]
Transforming Melodies with Legato: A Guide to Expressive Music
May 30, 2024 · Legato is a technique where one note overlaps the next, creating a smoother, more connected sound, and infusing melodies with expressiveness.
[34]
Technique
Singers connect the breath in two ways. They connect the breath to the sound in general and they connect the breath from note to note, creating a legato line.
[35]
What is true violin legato? | Focus - The Strad
Jan 11, 2022 · The concept of legato therefore hinges on an acute sensitivity to what is between the notes. I find this to be a universal quality in musical ...
[36]
FIVE Legato | The Art of Performance - Oxford Academic
in contrast to non legato, legato always represents a specific act of will, aimed at connecting small and smallest units [i.e., groups of notes]. C. P. E. ...
[37]
Introduction to Legato and Staccato Playing - Music and Method
Mar 7, 2025 · Legato, meaning “tied together” in Italian, refers to the seamless, flowing connection between notes. The goal is to create a continuous, smooth ...
[38]
Five tips for achieving flawless legato for violinists and violists
Nov 2, 2023 · When playing string-crossings, last-minute, jerky movements of the right arm can disrupt legato and détaché passages, and a left-hand finger ...
[39]
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/articulation-rules-for-automatic-music-performance.pdf?c=icmc;idno=bbp2372.2001.001;format=pdf
[40]
Common Articulations | Open Textbooks for Hong Kong
Jul 22, 2019 · Some articulations may be some combination of staccato, legato, and accent. Marcato, for example means marked in the sense of stressed or noticeable.
[41]
Music Theory Online - Phrasing & Articulation - Dolmetsch Online
Mar 28, 2021 · The composer is encouraged to write slurs into a glockenspiel or even a snare drum part; the slur effect can still be achieved even though each ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[42]
Articulation and expression markings | Intro to Musicianship Class ...
Varying articulation for contrast · Practice alternating between staccato and legato to create contrast and forward motion · Practice adding accents or emphasis ...
[43]
How To Master the Legato Bow Stroke (Hint: It's Harder Than You ...
A legato stroke involves a relatively slow bow, drawn at a consistent speed. The slower the speed of the bow, the less pressure it needs on the string.
[44]
Legato | Violin Masterclass.com
Left Hand: Lift your finger and perform the shift on the old string; place the new finger on the new string and vibrate. Right Hand: Lift about 50% of the bow ...
[45]
Interpreting Bach's Violin Slurs - Bach Sonatas and Partitas
The slurs in Bach's violin music serve two purposes. They tell the player when to change bow direction and, in so doing, they shed light on the composer's ...
[46]
Orchestrating for Strings - Techniques and advice
Mar 28, 2013 · The string section is considered by many to form the backbone of the modern symphony orchestra and it's easy to see why.
[47]
In Touch with Harmonics - Tim Davies
A natural harmonic slide is where you lightly touch the open string and slide the finger around. As it moves it hits different nodes and the pitch changes.
[48]
The More You Bow - String bowing techniques explained - Tim Davies
The two main ones to watch out for are staccato and legato, which will be discussed in this section. The default for bowing is to play on the string and change ...
[49]
Articulation - The Orchestral Bassoon
By placing the tongue lightly back on the reed we stop the vibrating of the blades, controlling in this way the duration and termination of the note. With notes ...
[50]
Flute Lesson - What is Legato-Tonguing on the Flute? - YouTube
Sep 3, 2014 · https://www.virtualsheetmusic.com/experts/fluteshow/legato-tonguing/ In this video, Florence and Robert Estrin approach the concept of ...Missing: woodwind instruments avoidance
[51]
Playing Legato on the Trombone: A Primer - OTJ
Jul 31, 2000 · A trombonist must often make use of a light tonguing motion, called legato tonguing, to avoid smearing from one note to the next.
[52]
Hornmasters on Legato Tonguing | Horn Matters - Horn Matters
Sep 20, 2011 · Legato tonguing consists of starting each note with an attack and yet keeping each note connected to the next with no space occurring between.
[53]
https://www.hornmatters.com/2011/09/hornmasters-on-legato-tonguing/
[54]
Breath Control: Secrets from Free Divers and Singers - Playing Brass
Oct 12, 2024 · Learn advanced breath control techniques for brass players from free divers and singers to improve tone and boost your level of performance.1. Diaphragmatic Breathing · 2. Exhalation Control · 3. Lung Expansion Techniques
[55]
Embouchure 101 Part 7 – Mouthpiece Pressure - Wilktone
Embouchure firmness is required to protect the lips from damage that can result from mouthpiece pressure. Excessive pressure should be avoided.Missing: legato | Show results with:legato
[56]
[PDF] Analysis of Carl Joachim Andersen Op.15 Flute Etudes Used ... - ERIC
Mar 24, 2021 · It was found that mostly legato and staccato was used a great extent in the etudes. Interval was run the most in the etudes. Also etudes include ...
[57]
Andersen etudes op.15 – no.11 - rodfluteblog
Mar 10, 2018 · This etude requires a great attention to detail, not just in terms of all the accidentals, but getting a smooth legato in wide intervals and creating a ...
[58]
Mahler's Portamento - Jay Friedman
Mar 10, 2004 · The term “portamento” in Mahler symphonies usually signifies a slight glissando in legato passages. ... solo trumpet has hair-pins under each ...
[59]
https://www.jayfriedman.net/mahlers-portamento/
[60]
On Conducting (4): Breathing and ensemble - Earnestly Speaking
Apr 21, 2016 · Whenever an ensemble is having difficulty beginning a passage together rhythmically, or when it is having trouble keeping accompaniment ...Missing: synchronizing legato
[61]
Some Thoughts On Legato - Practising the Piano
There are two main pitfalls in managing staccato passages. Even though a passage is intended by the composer to be articulated staccato, this does not usually ...
[62]
Piano Pedals: Their Function, How They Work & Their Importance
Jul 4, 2024 · Half-Pedaling: Partially depressing the sustain pedal allows the dampers to lightly touch the strings, creating a subtle sustain effect.
[63]
https://danhon.substack.com/p/piano-pedals
[64]
Harpsichord Fingering
In keys with few or no accidentals, the crossing of the 3rd finger over the 4th and of the 2nd over the thumb are best suited for unbroken legato. (C.P.E.Bach, ...
[65]
The Polyphonic Touch: Coarticulation and polyphonic expression in ...
In fact in both organ non-legato and organ legato, there is very often ... coupled manuals often creates an additional spreading of attack. In well ...<|separator|>
[66]
Teaching Piano Students to Pedal, Part 5: Chopin - Serenade
Jun 5, 2020 · We know from the writings of Chopin's students that he employed legato, or syncopated pedalling. It was considered one of the achievements ...
[67]
[PDF] The effect of tempo on pedal timing in piano performance
Repp (1995, 1997) has shown that pianists' finger legato decreases as tempo increases (ie., as IOI duration decreases), and since legato pedaling has the same ...
[68]
Slurs on Classical Guitar (Hammer-Ons, Pull-Offs)
Mar 1, 2018 · The common result of playing slurs on the guitar is to facilitate legato and sometimes, if wanted, create a strong to weak sound between notes.Missing: Fernando | Show results with:Fernando
[69]
Signature Guitar Tone and Picking - Berklee Online Take Note
May 29, 2009 · The result is a legato, softer attack. Conversely, you can use a finger on your left hand to play a note by an attack device called a pull-off.
[70]
How to Strengthen Your Picking Skills Through Efficient Patterns
Oct 28, 2022 · In this guitar lesson you'll learn economy picking, which includes alternate and sweep picking styles, as well as legato techniques for your fretting fingers.
[71]
What is economy picking and how can it benefit your guitar playing?
Feb 24, 2023 · Start with a downstroke, using the direction to dictate your economy picking. There is a scale run at bar 9 before another arpeggio idea is ...<|separator|>
[72]
Learning to Slide: How This Legato Technique Can Enhance Your ...
Dec 13, 2017 · Slides enable you to connect two or more notes smoothly and quickly, and make for more seamless position changes on the fretboard. They add life ...
[73]
Sympathetic Resonance on the Guitar: Natural Reverb & Sustain
Sympathetic resonance on the guitar refers to the phenomenon where strings or other parts of the instrument vibrate in response to internal or external sounds ...
[74]
How to Dampen Guitar Strings - Riffhard
Feb 22, 2025 · Left-Hand Damping: This involves using your fretting hand to lightly touch the strings, preventing them from ringing out. Right-Hand Damping: ...
[75]
Legato Synths: Glide, Slide & Portamento - Attack Magazine
Nov 26, 2015 · Dave Clews explores how they can be used in your productions, as well as explaining the overlap with the glide and portamento functions found on ...
[76]
What is the difference between Legato and Portamento? : - Support :
Legato is a playing style that refers to playing a note on the keyboard before you release the previous key you played, as opposed to staccato, ...
[77]
What's the difference between legato & portamento? - Moog Forum
Mar 24, 2009 · Legato means there is no new attack when changing note to note - smooth, connected phrases with no silence between notes. On a synthesizer ...
[78]
https://forum.moogmusic.com/t/whats-the-difference-between-legato-portamento/5484
[79]
https://www.muzines.co.uk/articles/rick-wakeman-in-1984/3626
[80]
The polyphonic portamento chalenge - Instruments Forum
Sep 24, 2025 · Hi friends. Polyphonic portamento is one of the trickiest logical problem, and I wonder if a solution has been found on any synthesizer yet.
[81]
polyphonic portamento? - Gearspace
Aug 28, 2016 · On an ordinary synth with polyphonic portamento, it's going to glide all over the place in different directions in an unpredictable manner, ...Juno 106 portamento issue, problem ?How to get portamento/glide on a sample?More results from gearspace.comMissing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[82]
Setting up a channel for legato – Getting Started with MIDI
Oct 11, 2021 · In legato mode, the notes do not perform the whole attack and release phases, which are overlapped with the adjacent notes. In Fluidsynth, you ...
[83]
Creative Synthesis With Yamaha XG (Part 2) - Sound On Sound
Layering voices on Yamaha XG involves making multiple parts respond to the same MIDI channel, often to change attack characteristics or fill frequency gaps.
[84]
https://www.soundonsound.com/techniques/creative-synthesis-yamaha-xg-part2
[85]
11 Favorite Tips for Mixing with Delay - Pro Audio Files
Apr 30, 2022 · 1. Nail the Timing · 2. Figure Out What You're Doing With the Mix Control · 3. Use Filters · 4. Use Delay Subtly to Smooth Tracks Out · 5. Pan Mono ...Missing: legato transitions
[86]
Studio Strings extended parameters in Logic Pro for Mac
Logic Pro for Mac Studio Strings extended parameters provide advanced control of performance and controller functions.
[87]
Humanize Your MIDI Sounds With These 5 Production Tips - Flypaper
Oct 31, 2018 · To humanize MIDI, ease quantization, add randomness, adjust velocity, tweak attack/decay, and use dynamics.
[88]
[PDF] PRINCIPLES OF APPOGGIO - IU ScholarWorks
Oct 22, 2018 · This study seeks to find the most effective strategy to perform appoggio technique in operatic singing. The Italian term appoggio is one of the ...
[89]
Legato - Vocal or Musical? | Helping You Harmonise
Dec 29, 2013 · Every time you try claim that legato is a quality of the 'music itself' you run head first into all the physical actions you need to undertake ...
[90]
[PDF] Examining the Musical and Dramatic Structure of Bel Canto Arias
Jul 27, 2023 · 3 This musical focus is epitomized by the singer's display of beauty of tone and legato in a slower tempo. Here, the drama pauses while the ...Missing: seamless scales
[91]
[PDF] CONTEMPORARY VOCAL TECHNIQUE IN THE CHORAL ...
This document utilizes the basic tenets of bel canto vocal technique and modern vocal science including breath, onset, and resonance in connection with Jo ...
[92]
Throat, Jaw, Tongue and Neck Muscle Tension and Pain ... - SingWise
Apr 18, 2020 · Tension along the vocal tract and the support muscles arises when the singer's vocal behaviours do not fall in line with natural anatomical function.<|control11|><|separator|>
[93]
[PDF] Filipa MB lã: Teaching Singing and Technology - UNED Voice Lab
the aria “O mio babbino caro”. Legato can be monitored comparing the time spent for articulating consonants in relation to the one spent in articulating.
[94]
[PDF] A Study in Effective Teaching Methods For Jazz Voice Technique In ...
Improvisers regularly try to achieve a legato approach when singing eighth-note lines, which further promotes the need for a softer approach to consonants ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[95]
How to Add Killer Phrasing to Your Songs Like Adele
If your whole song is super legato (music term for smooth and connected), then it's going to be kinda boring. If it's all choppy, then it'll likely fell pretty ...Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis
[96]
review_contrapunctus - Weinstadt Artists Management
... renaissance polyphony and some of its best representatives. The singing is of the highest level: beautiful voices, a full command of legato and an optimum ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[97]
Ornaments in Indian Music - KKSongs.org
Aug 31, 2015 · A mīnd (pronounced as meend) is the connection of two notes without a breaking. This is different from a legato in Western music, because a ...