Cedar is a common name applied to several genera of coniferous trees prized for their durable, aromatic, and rot-resistant wood, which has been used historically in construction, furniture, and religious artifacts.[1] True cedars belong to the genus Cedrus in the family Pinaceae, comprising four species of large evergreen trees native to the mountainous regions of the western Himalayas and the Mediterranean Basin.[1] These trees are characterized by their massive trunks, broad spreading crowns, and dimorphic branching with needle-like leaves that persist for 3–6 years, producing large barrel-shaped cones that mature over 17–18 months.[1]The four recognized species of true cedars are Cedrus atlantica (Atlas cedar), native to the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria; Cedrus brevifolia (Cyprus cedar), endemic to the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus; Cedrus libani (cedar of Lebanon), found in the mountains of the eastern Mediterranean including Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey; and Cedrus deodara (deodar cedar), distributed across the western Himalayas from Afghanistan to northern India.[1] These species diverged evolutionarily between 5.3 and 23 million years ago, with C. deodara often considered basal to the group due to its distinct Himalayan distribution.[2] True cedars are monoecious, with male cones releasing pollen and female cones developing into woody structures that disintegrate to release winged seeds, adapted to high-altitude, well-drained soils where they can reach heights of 30–50 meters and ages exceeding 900 years.[1]In addition to true cedars, the term "cedar" commonly refers to various species in the family Cupressaceae, often called "false cedars" to distinguish them botanically, including genera such as Juniperus (e.g., eastern redcedar, J. virginiana), Thuja (e.g., western redcedar, T. plicata), and Calocedrus (e.g., incense-cedar, C. decurrens).[1] These false cedars typically feature scale-like leaves rather than needles and are more widespread, with J. virginiana native to eastern North America and valued for fence posts and chests due to its insect-repellent oils, while T. plicata dominates Pacific Northwest forests and provides soft, straight-grained timber for shingles and canoes.[3] The application of "cedar" to these unrelated genera stems from similarities in wood aroma and durability, a linguistic tradition dating back to ancient Greek and Latin uses of terms like kedros for resinous conifers.[1]Cedars hold significant ecological, economic, and cultural value across their ranges; true cedars support biodiversity in montane forests and are widely cultivated as ornamentals for their majestic form, while false cedars like T. plicata form keystone species in coastal ecosystems, providing habitat and carbon sequestration.[3] Commercially, cedar wood's natural preservatives make it ideal for outdoor applications, boatbuilding, and essential oil production, though overexploitation has led to conservation efforts for species like C. libani, which is culturally iconic in biblical references and Lebanese heritage.[1]
Plants
True cedars (Cedrus)
True cedars belong to the genus Cedrus in the pine family Pinaceae, comprising evergreen coniferous trees native to the Old World.[1] The genus includes four recognized species: Cedrus atlantica (Atlas cedar), Cedrus brevifolia (Cyprus cedar), Cedrus deodara (Deodar cedar), and Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon).[1] These species are monoecious, meaning individual trees bear both male and female reproductive structures, and they are distinguished phylogenetically, with C. deodara as the sister species to the Mediterranean clade containing the other three.[1] True cedars are valued for their ornamental qualities and durable wood, though their primary ecological role is in montane forests.[1]Physically, true cedars are tall trees reaching heights of 30 to 45 meters, with a columnar trunk supporting a broad, pyramid-shaped crown in youth that flattens and spreads with age, featuring horizontal or slightly drooping branches.[1] Their leaves are stiff, needle-like, and linear-acicular, arranged in dense clusters on short shoots and persisting for 3 to 6 years before shedding.[1] Reproductive cones are erect and terminal: male cones are cylindrical and produce copious yellow pollen in autumn, while female cones are ovoid to barrel-shaped, maturing over 17 to 18 months to 8 to 15 centimeters long, disintegrating on the tree to release winged seeds.[1] Bark is initially smooth and gray but becomes fissured and scaly with maturity.[1]Native to high-elevation regions, true cedars exhibit disjunct distributions across the Mediterranean Basin and western Himalayas. C. atlantica is endemic to the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria, thriving at 1,300 to 2,600 meters; C. brevifolia occurs only in the Troodos Mountains of western Cyprus at 800 to 1,900 meters; C. deodara ranges from Afghanistan through Pakistan to northern India in the western Himalayas at 1,000 to 3,200 meters; and C. libani grows in the Taurus Mountains of Turkey, the Amanus Mountains of Syria, and Mount Lebanon at 1,000 to 2,200 meters.[1] Conservation concerns are significant for several species due to habitat loss from deforestation, overexploitation, and climate change: C. atlantica is rated Endangered by the IUCN, C. libani and C. brevifolia are Vulnerable, while C. deodara is Least Concern.[4][5][6]True cedars have a long history of human association, with C. libani documented in ancient texts for temple construction as early as 3000 BCE.[7] They were introduced to Europe in the 17th century, beginning with C. libani in British gardens, and to North America in the 19th century, where species like C. deodara and C. libani were planted ornamentally in arboreta and landscapes from the mid-1800s onward.[8][7]
False or cedar-like trees
False or cedar-like trees, often referred to as "New World cedars," encompass several genera of coniferous trees in the family Cupressaceae that are not true cedars (genus Cedrus in the Pinaceae family) but earn the name due to their aromatic wood and superficial resemblance in foliage and form.[9] These trees typically feature scale-like leaves arranged in flat, fan-shaped sprays, contrasting with the needle-like leaves borne in clusters on short shoots of true cedars; their cones are small, woody, and often persistent or berry-like, unlike the larger, upright, barrel-shaped cones of Cedrus species that disintegrate upon maturity.[9] Growth habits also differ, with many false cedars exhibiting greater shade tolerance and adaptability to moist, coastal environments compared to the more sun-loving, drought-resistant true cedars native to Old World Mediterranean and Himalayan regions.[3]The primary genera include Thuja (arborvitae), Juniperus (junipers), Calocedrus (incense cedars), and Chamaecyparis (false cypresses), all predominantly North American in distribution.[9] For instance, Thuja plicata, known as Western Red Cedar, is native to the coastal Pacific Northwest from Alaska to northern California, where it thrives in wet lowlands and uplands.[3]Juniperus virginiana, the Eastern Red Cedar, ranges across central and eastern North America from southeastern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and east of the Great Plains.[10]Calocedrus decurrens (Incense Cedar) occurs in montane forests from Oregon through California to northern Baja California and western Nevada, often on dry western slopes.[11]Callitropsis nootkatensis (Alaska-cedar) is found along the Pacific coast from Alaska to Oregon, favoring high-elevation, humid sites in coastal rainforests.[12][13]While most false cedars are widespread and not globally threatened, Callitropsis nootkatensis faces significant regional decline due to climate change, particularly warmer winters causing root freezing and mortality across much of its Alaskan and British Columbia range; as of 2025, it affects approximately 40% of the population, though it remains Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and is not listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.[14][15]Ecologically, these trees play vital roles in North American forest ecosystems, providing habitat and resources for wildlife while contributing to soil stability and forest succession. The berry-like cones of Juniperus species, such as those of J. virginiana, attract birds like cedar waxwings and robins, which consume and disperse the seeds, aiding in the tree's spread into grasslands and old fields.[16][17]Thuja plicata supports diverse insects, fungi, birds, and mammals in its native range, offering shelter in wet soils where other conifers struggle, and its shade tolerance allows it to persist under forest canopies.[18][3]Calocedrus decurrens furnishes cover and nesting sites in mixed-conifer forests, enhancing biodiversity as a moderately shade-tolerant species that regenerates on mineral soils post-disturbance.[19][11]Callitropsis nootkatensis serves as a long-lived component of coastal temperate rainforests, providing habitat for various species in moist, high-elevation environments.[20] Some, like J. virginiana and C. decurrens, exhibit fire-related adaptations; the former invades post-fire grasslands via bird-dispersed seeds, while the latter persists in fire-managed montane forests due to its tolerance for partial shade and periodic burns.[17][11]The misnomer "cedar" for these trees stems from the aromatic qualities of their wood, which emits a pleasant, resinous scent similar to that of true cedars, historically valued by ancient cultures for its insect-repellent properties and durability.[21] Early European settlers in North America applied the term to these Cupressaceae species upon encountering their fragrant timber, which evoked memories of Old World Cedrus used in construction and storage.[21] This linguistic carryover persists despite clear botanical differences, leading to common names like "red cedar" for Thuja plicata and Juniperus virginiana, and "incense cedar" for Calocedrus decurrens due to its particularly pungent aroma.[9]
Uses and products
Wood and timber
Cedar wood, derived from both true cedars (genus Cedrus) and false cedars (such as species in Thuja and Juniperus), is prized for its lightweight structure and inherent durability, making it a staple in construction and woodworking. The wood's resistance to decay, insects, and weathering stems from natural oils, including thujaplicins in species like Thuja plicata (Western Red Cedar), which act as fungicides toxic to decay-causing fungi and persist in the heartwood for over a century after harvesting.[22][23] This durability is enhanced by the wood's low density, typically ranging from 350 to 500 kg/m³ across species, with Western Red Cedar averaging 370–390 kg/m³ at air-dry conditions, allowing for easy machining while maintaining structural integrity in exposed environments.[24][25]Commercial harvesting of cedar timber peaked during the 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by demand for building materials in North America and Europe, particularly old-growth stands in the Pacific Northwest. Intensive logging depleted approximately 72% of the region's original old-growth conifer forests, including Western Red Cedar, by the mid-20th century, shifting practices toward second-growth plantations to sustain supplies.[26] Today, sustainable harvesting is emphasized through certifications like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which ensures responsible sourcing and helps mitigate further depletion of mature stands.[27]In construction, cedar wood excels in exterior applications such as shingles, siding, and decking due to its weather resistance and aesthetic appeal, often requiring no chemical treatments for longevity. Interior uses include aromatic paneling from Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana), valued for its moth-repellent scent in closets and chests, while furniture benefits from the fine grain of species like Cedrus deodara (Deodar Cedar) in joinery work. Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) is specifically favored for pencil casings owing to its straight grain, ease of sharpening, and rot resistance, dominating global production. Additionally, Thuja plicata has long been used in boat building for its lightweight strength in planking and strip construction.[28][29][30][31][32]Economically, cedar timber supports a global market valued at approximately $0.35 billion as of 2023, with the United States contributing significantly through exports of Western Red Cedar lumber, primarily to Asia and Europe for siding and decking.[33] These exports underscore cedar's role in international trade, bolstered by FSC certification that promotes eco-friendly practices and appeals to environmentally conscious buyers.[27]
Resins, oils, and other extracts
Cedar trees yield various resins, oils, and other extracts valued for their aromatic and bioactive properties, primarily derived from species in the genera Cedrus and Juniperus. These extracts include essential oils rich in sesquiterpenes, resins containing diterpenoid acids, and gummy exudates, which contribute to the trees' natural defense mechanisms and have been utilized in commercial applications.[34][35]Cedarwood oil, the most prominent extract, is composed mainly of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as cedrol, α-cedrene, β-cedrene, thujopsene, and widdrol, which impart its woody, balsamic scent and therapeutic potential.[36] In true cedars like Cedrus species, resins feature diterpenes including abietane and pimarane skeleton acids such as abietic acid, neoabietic acid, and dehydroabietic acid, often found in cone and wood exudates.[37][38] Gums from cedar bark and wounds form viscous, water-soluble matrices that harden into amber-like substances, aiding in wound sealing and providing antimicrobial barriers.[39]Extraction of cedarwood oil typically employs steam distillation, where wood chips or sawdust are subjected to high-pressure steam, yielding 1-3% oil by weight, though efficiency varies with wood preparation and can reach only 50% of available volatiles due to limited penetration.[40][41] Historically, this method dates to ancient practices of heating wood in pits or simple stills for incense and balms, while modern processes use continuous steam strippers and vacuum distillation to enhance purity and yield, reducing thermal degradation.[42] For resins, solvent extraction with organic solvents like hexane or ethanol dissolves diterpenoids from bark or cones, followed by evaporation; contemporary techniques incorporate supercritical CO2 for greener, higher-selectivity recovery compared to traditional solvent soaking and filtration.[43][44]In perfumery, cedarwood oil serves as a fixative and base note in fragrances, soaps, and colognes, leveraging its warm, woody profile for longevity in blends like oriental and woody accords.[45] As an insecticide, it acts as a natural repellent against moths, ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas, applied in pet collars, sunscreens, and larvicides due to sesquiterpenes disrupting pest sensory systems.[34][46] In traditional medicine, extracts from Juniperus species (false cedars) exhibit antifungal properties against dermatophytes, used topically for skin infections, while Cedrus oils show bactericidal effects in wound care.[47][48]Safety concerns include potential skin sensitization from sesquiterpenes, leading to allergic contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals, and neurotoxic risks from thujone in certain Juniperus-derived oils mislabeled as cedarwood.[49][36] The U.S. FDA classifies cedarwood oil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use in cosmetics and foodflavoring at low concentrations, with the EPA exempting it as a minimum-risk pesticide under FIFRA for insect repellents and aromatherapy products when diluted.[34][50]Major production occurs in the United States, particularly from Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) in Virginia and surrounding states, yielding Virginia cedarwood oil, and in India from Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara) via distillation of wood waste.[51][52] The global cedarwood oil market was valued at approximately USD 365 million as of 2023, driven by demand in personal care and pest control, with major exports from India and the U.S.[53]
Places
United States
In the United States, numerous places bear the name "Cedar," reflecting the prevalence of cedar trees (or cedar-like junipers) in the landscape and, in some cases, influences from Native American nomenclature. These toponyms are concentrated in the Midwest and West, often tied to early European settlement patterns where pioneers encountered dense stands of such trees along rivers and in arid regions.[54][55]Among the most prominent urban examples is Cedar Rapids, Iowa, a city founded in 1838 on the banks of the Cedar River and incorporated in 1856. With a 2024 population of approximately 137,904, it serves as a regional economic hub, particularly in manufacturing and food processing; the Quaker Oats facility there, established in the late 19th century, exemplifies its role in agribusiness, producing significant volumes of oats and contributing to the local economy.[56][57] Nearby, Cedar Falls, Iowa, founded in 1845 and with a 2024 population of about 41,417, functions primarily as a university town, anchored by the University of Northern Iowa, which enrolls over 9,000 students and drives educational and cultural activities in the community.[58][59][60]Natural features named Cedar highlight the geological and hydrological significance of these areas. Cedar Breaks National Monument in Utah, established in 1933, features a vast amphitheater-like basin formed by erosion of the Pink Cliffs in the Colorado Plateau, spanning about 6,155 acres at elevations exceeding 10,000 feet, where ancient bristlecone pines and colorful hoodoos dominate the high-desert scenery.[61][62] The Cedar River exists in multiple contexts: in Iowa, it is a 329-mile-long tributary of the Iowa River, originating in Dodge County, Minnesota, and flowing southeast through fertile farmlands, supporting agriculture and recreation while historically powering mills in settlements like Cedar Rapids.[63] In Washington, the Cedar River is a 50.5-mile tributary draining into Lake Washington, originating in the Cascade Range and providing critical habitat for salmon in its lower reaches after the removal of barriers like the Landsburg Dam in the 2000s.[64][65]Other notable sites include Cedar Point Amusement Park in Sandusky, Ohio, which opened to the public in 1870 as a lakeside picnic ground and has evolved into a major entertainment destination with over 70 rides, recognized as the world's second-oldest operating amusement park.[66] In Utah, Cedar City, founded in 1851 by Mormon pioneers under Brigham Young's direction as part of the "Iron Mission" to develop iron resources, grew from a fort built amid juniper groves that settlers misidentified as cedars, now serving as a gateway to regional parks with a population exceeding 35,000.[67][54]Many of these names originate from the abundance of cedar or cedar-like trees encountered by early explorers and settlers, such as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) in the Midwest or Rocky Mountain juniper in the West; in some instances, they draw from Indigenous languages, including Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) terms like "giizhik" for northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), a culturally vital tree used for medicine and construction.[68][69]
Other countries
In Canada, the rural community of Cedar, located southeast of Nanaimo in British Columbia, originated in the 1920s as a logging settlement amid dense stands of western red cedar (Thuja plicata).[70] The area retains its historical ties to timber harvesting, with local economy and culture influenced by the forestry industry that shaped early development along the Nanaimo River.[71] Further east, Cedar Creek Provincial Park in Ontario serves as a 70-hectare nature reserve established in 2014, offering hiking trails that wind through cedar-dominated forests and emphasize low-impact recreation.[72]In Australia, Cedar Creek refers to a perennial stream in central Queensland near Barcaldine, supporting local ecosystems and recreational fishing for species like Australian bass and spangled perch.[73] The creek also lends its name to nearby localities, highlighting the region's semi-arid landscape dotted with riparian cedar vegetation.[74]In the Middle East, the Shouf Biosphere Reserve in Lebanon's Chouf Mountains encompasses Cedar Valley, a UNESCO-designated site since 2005 that protects approximately 5% of Lebanon's land area, including ancient stands of Lebanese cedar (Cedrus libani).[75] This reserve, spanning 500 square kilometers, integrates conservation of endemic flora with sustainable community practices in a biodiversity hotspot.[76]In the United Arab Emirates, Cedre Shopping Centre in Dubai Silicon Oasis functions as a community mall providing everyday retail services, including supermarkets, pharmacies, and clinics, within a residential villa complex.[77]
Ships and vessels
Military ships
Several naval vessels named after the cedar tree have served in military capacities, primarily during the World Wars, in roles such as minesweeping, patrolling, and auxiliary support. These ships were typically small, utilitarian craft adapted from civilian designs to meet wartime needs, reflecting the navies' reliance on requisitioned or purpose-built auxiliaries for essential but unglamorous tasks.In the Royal Navy, HMS Cedar was a hired trawler requisitioned in March 1915 for minesweeping duties during World War I. Built in 1909 as a fishing vessel with a gross registered tonnage of 219, she measured approximately 115 feet in length and was armed with a single 6-pounder anti-aircraft gun. Operating primarily in the North Sea, she contributed to clearing minefields and protecting coastal waters until her release from service in 1919. During World War II, another HMS Cedar (pennant number T 01) served as a minesweepingtrawler, completed in October 1933 and acquired by the Admiralty in November 1935. Displacing 649 tons and armed with a single 12-pounder anti-aircraft gun, she supported operations including the diversionary raid known as Operation Governor in July 1943 off Norway to distract German forces. She was sold for civilian use in July 1946 and renamed Red.[78]The United States Navy operated USS Cedar as a patrol vessel from August 1917 to March 1919 during World War I. Originally constructed that year as a sea-going lighthouse tender for the U.S. Lighthouse Service, she displaced 1,970 tons, measured 200 feet 8 inches in length with a beam of 36 feet 6 inches, and achieved a speed of 8 knots. Unarmed during her naval service, she patrolled Alaskan waters, aiding in the protection of maritime routes and lighthouse maintenance under wartime conditions before returning to her original duties. She later transferred to the U.S. Coast Guard in 1939 and served until 1950, but saw no further U.S. Navy commissions.[79]In the Royal Canadian Navy, HMCS Cedar Lake (J 484) was a Lake-class wooden-hulled minesweeper commissioned on November 1, 1945, just after World War II's end. Ordered in December 1943 and launched in August 1945, she displaced 360 tons, measured 126 feet in length, and was capable of 12 knots, armed with one 40 mm gun, two 20 mm guns, and depth charges for anti-submarine work. Intended for post-war mine clearance, she had minimal operational history before transfer to the Soviet Navy on November 1, 1945, as T-197. Most vessels named Cedar were decommissioned or scrapped by the late 1940s, with none remaining in active military service as of 2025.
Civilian and historical vessels
Several civilian vessels have borne the name Cedar, reflecting the wood's association with durable maritime construction. One notable example is the British motor merchant ship Silvercedar, launched in 1924 as a cargo vessel with a gross tonnage of 4,354 tons, primarily used for transporting general cargo across Atlantic routes.[80] During World War II, on October 15, 1941, she was torpedoed and sunk by the German U-boat U-553 in the North Atlantic (53° 34'N, 29° 57'W) while en route from New York to Liverpool via Sydney, NS, as part of convoy SC-48, resulting in the loss of 21 crew members out of 47 aboard.[80] In the modern era, the Panamanian-flagged bulk carrier MV Cedar (IMO 9403035), built in 2008 with a deadweight tonnage of approximately 58,802 tons and dimensions of 190 meters in length and 32 meters in beam, exemplifies contemporary merchant shipping, operating in international dry bulk trade.[81]Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, such as the Haida, Tlingit, and Coast Salish, crafted traditional canoes from western red cedar (Thuja plicata) logs as early as pre-1900, hollowing single trunks into dugout vessels up to 20 meters long for fishing, trade, and transportation along coastal waters.[82] These lightweight, maneuverable craft, often adorned with carved prows, could carry dozens of passengers and were essential for subsistence economies, with construction techniques involving controlled burning and adzing to shape the hull without metal tools until European contact.[83]Cedar wood's natural rot resistance, due to its high oil content and antimicrobial properties, made it a preferred material for boat hulls in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in fishing dories built between the 1880s and 1930s.[84] For instance, Bristol Bay salmon dories in Alaska featured Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) planking over white oak ribs, measuring about 29 feet in length with an ironbark keel, enabling them to withstand harsh marine environments during seasonal fisheries.[84] This construction provided durability against constant water exposure, reducing maintenance needs compared to less resistant woods like pine.A significant incident involving a ferry on the Cedar Island route occurred in April 2017, when the North Carolina ferry Sea Level ran aground in Bigfoot Slough with 16 passengers and 13 vehicles aboard, remaining stuck for three hours before refloating without injuries or major damage.[85] The grounding, attributed to shallow waters, highlighted ongoing navigational challenges in the Outer Banks but was resolved through swift Coast Guard assistance.[86]