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Celilo Falls

Celilo Falls was a ten-mile stretch of turbulent waterfalls, rapids, and narrows on the Columbia River in Wasco County, Oregon, extending from near present-day Celilo Village downstream to The Dalles.^[1] For at least 11,000 years, the site functioned as the preeminent salmon fishery, trading hub, and ceremonial center for Indigenous peoples across the Columbia River Basin, drawing thousands from diverse tribes to harvest abundant chinook and other salmon species using traditional methods such as dip nets, spears, and weirs.^[2]^[3] The Sahaptin name "Celilo" translates to "echo of water on rocks," reflecting the deafening roar of the cascading waters that concentrated fish runs and facilitated their capture.^[4] The falls' ecological and cultural centrality made it one of the most productive fishing grounds in North America, supporting year-round habitation and inter-tribal commerce in dried salmon, baskets, canoes, and other goods, with annual gatherings sustaining economies and social ties among groups including the Yakama, Warm Springs, and Umatilla.^[5]^[6] European American explorers like Lewis and Clark documented the site's vibrancy in 1805, noting massive salmon hauls that foreshadowed later commercial exploitation via fish wheels and canneries, which intensified competition with Native fishers.^[7] In 1957, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers completed The Dalles Dam upstream, and on March 10, the closure of its floodgates submerged Celilo Falls beneath a rising reservoir within hours, prioritizing hydroelectric power generation, flood control, and navigation improvements over the site's preservation.^[8]^[9] This inundation abruptly terminated millennia-old fishing practices, displaced communities, and eroded tribal treaty rights to salmon access, despite federal compensation that many viewed as inadequate for the irreplaceable loss of a foundational cultural landmark.^[3]^[4] The event symbolized broader mid-20th-century federal dam-building that transformed the Columbia River but at significant cost to Indigenous heritage and fisheries.^[10]

Physical Description

Geological Formation and Location

Celilo Falls was located on the mid-Columbia River, approximately 12 miles (19 km) east of The Dalles in Wasco County, Oregon, straddling the Oregon-Washington border at roughly 45°39′N 120°58′W.^[11]^[12] The site featured a series of rapids and cascades extending over about 2 miles (3.2 km), with the primary drop forming a horseshoe-shaped barrier that constricted the river channel.^[13] Geologically, Celilo Falls resulted from the Columbia River's erosional downcutting through the Columbia River Basalt Group, a thick sequence of Miocene flood basalts erupted from fissures between 17 and 6 million years ago.^[14] These massive lava flows formed the Columbia Plateau, with the river exploiting joints and softer interbedded sediments to carve precipitous basalt cliffs and pockets up to 60 feet (18 m) deep.^[13] The resistant columnar jointing of the basalt layers created the turbulent, narrow channels and elevation drops characteristic of the falls, as evidenced by historical observations and modern sonar imaging of the submerged structure.^[15]^[16]

Hydrological Characteristics

Celilo Falls consisted of a series of steep cascades and rapids on the Columbia River, spanning approximately 5,800 feet (1,800 meters) in width, with a total vertical drop of about 50 feet (15 meters) over the main fall and adjacent reaches.^[17]^[12] The hydrology was dominated by the Columbia River's unregulated flow prior to dam construction, characterized by high seasonal variability driven by snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains and Cascade Range. Average annual discharge at the falls was approximately 190,000 cubic feet per second (cfs), equivalent to about 5,380 cubic meters per second, reflecting the river's volume upstream of major tributaries like the Snake River.^[18]^[12] Peak flows occurred in late spring and early summer, often exceeding 500,000 cfs and reaching up to 1 million cfs or more during major flood events, such as the 1948 measurement of 1.0 million cfs by U.S. Geological Survey hydrographers.^[19] Low flows in winter and early spring typically dropped below 100,000 cfs, creating a pronounced hydrograph with freshet peaks from April to July that supported salmon migration but also generated turbulent velocities exceeding 10-15 feet per second in the narrowest chutes.^[18] This variability resulted in a sheer drop of about 20 feet at the primary horseshoe-shaped fall during low water, increasing to higher effective gradients at high water due to the river's braiding and scouring.^[20] The falls' morphology included a non-uniform gradient over roughly 1-2 miles, comprising the main plunge, intervening rapids, and boulder-strewn channels that concentrated flow into high-energy zones, contributing to significant erosive power and sediment transport.^[17] Pre-dam conditions featured minimal baseflow regulation, with annual runoff volumes at the site aligning closely with upstream contributions, estimated at 100-150 million acre-feet basin-wide but localized to the falls' throughput.^[21] These characteristics made Celilo one of North America's largest waterfalls by volume, ranking sixth globally before inundation.^[22]

Indigenous Utilization

Fishing Practices and Salmon Ecology

Indigenous peoples, including the Wishram and Wasco tribes, constructed wooden scaffolds extending over the turbulent waters of Celilo Falls to facilitate fishing, positioning fishers directly above concentrations of ascending salmon.^[11] Dipnetting from these precarious platforms constituted the predominant technique, employing long-handled nets—initially crafted from natural materials and later incorporating steel hoops for durability—to scoop disoriented fish navigating the falls' cascade.^[23] Earlier methods involved spears for close-range strikes, though these were largely supplanted by nets as runs intensified, allowing for higher yields during peak migrations.^[24] Processing followed capture, with women filleting salmon into thin strips, removing bones, and air-drying them on wooden racks or in smokehouses to preserve the surplus for winter consumption and trade, yielding a nutrient-dense staple comprising up to 80% of tribal diets in some seasons.^[25] These practices sustained annual harvests supporting thousands of participants from multiple tribes during spring through fall runs, with archaeological middens of salmon remains indicating continuous exploitation for at least 10,000 years.^[6] The Columbia River's salmon ecology at Celilo Falls centered on anadromous runs of Oncorhynchus species, predominantly Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in spring, summer, and fall variants, alongside coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka), which aggregated below the falls' hydraulic barrier, enhancing harvest efficiency.^[26] Historical basin-wide returns exceeded 10 million adults annually prior to 19th-century industrialization, with Celilo Falls serving as a critical upstream migration chokepoint where the river's velocity and oxygen-rich turbulence concentrated fish, minimizing energy expenditure for predators while providing tribes a predictable caloric influx exceeding 2 million pounds in later documented years.^[10] This convergence not only bolstered population viability through gene flow but also underpinned tribal economies, as salmon carcasses post-spawning enriched riparian soils with marine-derived nutrients, fostering ecosystem productivity.^[11]

Trade and Cultural Significance

Celilo Falls functioned as a central node in the indigenous trade network of the Columbia River Plateau, drawing tribes from across the Pacific Northwest for seasonal exchanges centered on salmon runs.^[11] Participants bartered dried and fresh salmon for goods including roots, berries, tools, animal hides, coiled baskets, buffalo robes, beads, and cloth, with trade peaking in spring and fall when fish abundance facilitated large gatherings.^[27]^[28] This entrepôt connected distant groups, extending influence from coastal Chinookan peoples to interior Sahaptin speakers and beyond, forming a vast economic web that predated European contact by thousands of years.^[29] Annual assemblies could involve up to 5,000 individuals, highlighting the site's role in sustaining tribal economies through reciprocal exchange rather than currency.^[5] Culturally, Celilo Falls embodied the spiritual and social core of salmon-dependent societies for indigenous nations such as the Wasco, Wishram, and Yakama, serving as a venue for intergenerational transmission of fishing knowledge at proprietary sites held by families for generations.^[6] These gatherings fostered communal storytelling, inter-tribal alliances, and ceremonies honoring the salmon's return, reinforcing cultural identities tied to the river's rhythms.^[3] The Sahaptin name "Wyam," meaning "echo of falling water on rocks," evoked the site's auditory and symbolic power, where the falls' roar symbolized abundance and continuity in oral traditions and practices.^[4] Such significance persisted into the 20th century, with Celilo remaining a focal point for trade, socialization, and resistance to hydrological alterations.

Exploration and Early Records

The Lewis and Clark Expedition first encountered Celilo Falls on October 22, 1805, while descending the Columbia River, marking the start of a 55-mile stretch of challenging rapids and cascades.^[30] The Corps of Discovery portaged their canoes and baggage around the falls, observing extensive Native American fishing activities and trade networks, which they described as a "great emporium" or central market for regional tribes.^[31] William Clark's journal entries from that date noted the falls' location near modern Wishram, Washington, and Celilo, Oregon, highlighting the area's role as a major gathering point for indigenous groups.^[31] On the expedition's return journey in April 1806, the party passed through the Celilo Falls area again, reaffirming its significance as a trading hub between highland and coastal peoples.^[32] Lewis and Clark's journals provided the earliest written European records of the site, including population estimates of 7,200 to 10,000 indigenous people frequenting the falls for fishing and commerce during peak seasons.^[11] These accounts emphasized the falls' hydrological barriers, which necessitated portages and shaped early navigation challenges.^[14] Subsequent exploration included Canadian fur trader David Thompson, who reached Celilo Falls on July 11, 1811, during a voyage downriver from Kettle Falls for the North West Company.^[33] Thompson's surveys documented the falls' geography and strategic importance for trade routes, contributing to British mapping efforts in the region prior to American settlement.^[33] These early records underscored Celilo Falls as a formidable natural obstacle and vibrant indigenous center, influencing later assessments of the Columbia River's navigability.^[34] In the mid-19th century, the Columbia River's navigation between The Dalles and Celilo Falls—spanning approximately 14 miles of turbulent rapids, narrow chutes, and cascading drops totaling over 50 feet—presented an insurmountable barrier to upstream steamboat travel due to the river's constriction to as little as 40 feet in places and velocities exceeding 10 miles per hour.^[11] Early commercial efforts relied on manual portage, where freight and passengers were offloaded at The Dalles and transported overland via wagon roads or Indigenous-guided trails to landing points above Celilo, such as near the mouth of the Deschutes River, before reloading onto smaller vessels for the upper river.^[35] This method, labor-intensive and vulnerable to weather and theft, supported initial steamboat traffic from Portland but limited throughput to a few tons per trip until infrastructure improvements in the 1860s.^[36] The Oregon Steam Navigation Company (OSN), formed in 1860 to monopolize regional river transport, addressed these constraints by constructing a dedicated portage railroad in 1863, extending 13.8 to 14 miles eastward from The Dalles along the south bank, bypassing The Dalles Rapids, Five Mile Rapids, and Celilo Falls.^[37] Equipped with three small locomotives and flatcars designed for heavy cargo like mining supplies and wheat, the line facilitated the transfer of goods from lower-river sternwheelers to upper-river boats, enabling expanded service to Idaho gold fields via the Snake River.^[36] Daily operations involved unloading at The Dalles docks, rail haulage at speeds up to 10-15 mph, and reloading at Celilo or Wallula, reducing portage time from days to hours and boosting annual freight volumes to thousands of tons by the late 1860s.^[38] Above Celilo Falls, independent operators launched the first dedicated upper-Columbia steamboats in 1859, including the Colonel Wright (built at Celilo village) and subsequent vessels like the Fifteen Mile Landing, constructed at sites such as the Deschutes River mouth to avoid portage dependency.^[39] These shallow-draft, wood-hulled sternwheelers, typically 80-120 feet long with capacities of 100-200 tons, navigated the freer upper river to ports like Wallula and Lewiston, serving overland emigrants and miners but remaining isolated from downstream traffic without the portage link.^[35] No commercial steamboat successfully transited the falls directly, as attempts to line or shoot the rapids risked vessel loss amid submerged rocks and whirlpools, relegating such feats to occasional small craft or canoes operated by skilled Indigenous pilots.^[11] By decade's end, the OSN's integrated system—combining rail portage with segmented steamboat runs—dominated, though vulnerabilities to floods and competition foreshadowed later canal proposals.^[40]

Dam Construction and Inundation

Planning and Engineering of The Dalles Dam

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers first proposed The Dalles Dam in the early 1930s as part of a comprehensive ten-dam plan to develop the Columbia River's hydroelectric potential, navigation improvements, and flood control capabilities.^[41] Early concepts envisioned larger structures, but by 1932, the Corps' Board of Engineers rejected proposals for a single massive dam in favor of alternatives, including multiple smaller dams between The Dalles and upstream sites to balance power generation with minimal reservoir storage.^[42] Planning evolved amid broader federal efforts under the 1920s River and Harbor Acts, which authorized Corps surveys for Columbia River navigation enhancements past historic obstacles like The Dalles Rapids.^[43] Congress formally authorized construction via the Flood Control Act of 1950, directing the Corps to prioritize hydropower output—targeted at over 1 million kilowatts initially—and a navigation lock to enable year-round barge traffic, while incorporating fish passage facilities to mitigate impacts on anadromous fish runs.^[44] The project received federal funding without requiring extensive tribal consent beyond compensation, reflecting postwar priorities for regional electrification and commerce over preservation of pre-dam riverine features.^[41] Site selection at river mile 192 emphasized a low-head, run-of-the-river design to limit backwater effects on upstream agriculture and settlements, with construction contracts awarded starting in 1952 under Corps oversight.^[45] Engineering focused on a concrete gravity dam structure rising 185 feet above the riverbed and spanning 2,640 feet across, optimized for high-volume flow management without significant impoundment.^[45] The spillway section, measuring 1,380 feet, features 23 radial gates—each 50 feet wide and 43 feet high—capable of discharging up to 375,000 cubic feet per second to handle flood peaks and turbine bypasses.^[42] The adjacent powerhouse, extending 2,089 feet, houses 22 Kaplan turbine-generator units (14 initial units at 78-94 MW each, plus eight later additions), yielding a total capacity of 2,080 megawatts at full load, with provisions for skeletal expansion to 2.7 million kilowatts.^[45]^[46] Navigation infrastructure includes a single-lift lock 86 feet wide and 675 feet long, providing a 90-foot lift to accommodate ocean-going vessels and cargo barges, positioned on the Oregon side for efficient river traffic integration.^[47] Dual fish ladders, one on each shore, were engineered with high-velocity water flows to guide salmon past the dam, drawing on contemporaneous hydraulic studies to approximate natural ascent conditions despite the barriers posed by the 158-foot reservoir pool elevation.^[44] Embankments and auxiliary structures ensure structural integrity against seismic and erosive forces, with the overall design emphasizing cost-effective concrete placement—over 4 million cubic yards—completed within five years through phased cofferdam and diversion techniques.^[43]

The 1957 Flooding Event

On March 10, 1957, at 10:00 a.m., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers closed the massive steel and concrete floodgates of the newly completed The Dalles Dam on the Columbia River, initiating a controlled backflow that rapidly inundated Celilo Falls.^[8] ^[48] The inch-thick reinforced gates halted the downstream surge, causing the reservoir—later known as Lake Celilo—to rise and submerge the falls, which spanned the river's width and dropped over 40 feet in elevation.^[48] ^[11] The flooding progressed swiftly, with the water backing up and covering the falls, adjacent fishing platforms, and parts of Celilo Village within four and a half to five hours, transforming the turbulent cascade into a placid lake.^[8] ^[48] ^[49] Hundreds of observers, including members of Columbia River tribes, gathered to witness the event, which extinguished the falls' roar and marked the irreversible alteration of the site's hydrology.^[11] ^[3] This closure fulfilled the dam's design to impound water for power generation and navigation, but it ended the natural rapids that had defined the location for thousands of years.^[9]

Immediate and Long-Term Impacts

Losses to Indigenous Communities

The inundation of Celilo Falls on March 10, 1957, by the reservoir created by The Dalles Dam submerged primary fishing platforms and villages used by tribes including the Yakama, Warm Springs, Umatilla, and Nez Perce, forcing numerous fishing families to relocate from the riverbanks.^[48] This event eliminated access to a site that had supported tribal salmon harvests estimated at over 2.5 million pounds annually, based on a 1946 U.S. Department of the Interior assessment, disrupting a core economic activity centered on salmon capture, processing, and trade.^[50] Culturally, Celilo Falls served as a gathering point for indigenous groups across the region for at least 12,000 years, facilitating not only fishing but also intertribal trade, ceremonies, and social exchanges tied to the salmon's life cycle, which held spiritual significance in tribal cosmologies.^[51] The rapid flooding, witnessed by tribal members who salvaged belongings amid the rising waters, severed direct connection to these ancestral practices, contributing to the erosion of traditional knowledge transmission and community cohesion dependent on the site's seasonal rhythms.^[8] Long-term, the loss compounded broader declines in salmon populations due to hydroelectric development on the Columbia River, reducing tribal self-sufficiency in food procurement and compelling reliance on alternative, less productive fishing locations upstream or downstream, where access and yields were diminished.^[3] This shift altered dietary patterns, increased economic vulnerability, and diminished the falls' role as a cultural landmark, with oral histories preserving memories of the submersion as a profound rupture in indigenous lifeways.^[8]

Regional Economic and Energy Benefits

The Dalles Dam, completed in 1957, generates hydroelectric power through 22 turbine units with a total capacity of 2,080 megawatts, contributing significantly to the Pacific Northwest's electricity supply.^[45] As part of the Federal Columbia River Power System managed by the Bonneville Power Administration, it helps provide approximately 60-70% of the region's average annual electricity needs, enabling low-cost, renewable energy that supports industrial and residential demands.^[21] The dam's average annual energy production exceeds 8.9 million megawatt-hours, with full-capacity discharge rates reaching 312,000 cubic feet per second.^[47] This hydropower output has underpinned economic expansion in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho by delivering reliable, emissions-free electricity at rates below national averages, historically powering energy-intensive industries such as aluminum production during and after World War II.^[21] The system's dams, including The Dalles, facilitate flood control that protects agricultural lands and urban areas, averting billions in potential damages and stabilizing regional economies dependent on farming and infrastructure.^[52] Navigation improvements via the dam's lock—the second busiest on the Columbia River—have enhanced barge transport efficiency, reducing shipping costs for commodities like wheat and timber, which bolsters export revenues and supports over 100,000 jobs in related sectors across Oregon ports.^[45]^[53] Irrigation benefits from the dam's reservoir, Lake Celilo, extend water supplies to arid farmlands in the Columbia Basin, increasing crop yields and agricultural output that contribute to the Northwest's $10 billion-plus annual value-added impacts from port and river-dependent activities.^[45] Recreation around the reservoir generates additional economic activity through tourism, boating, and fishing, drawing visitors that sustain local businesses in Wasco County and adjacent areas.^[47] Overall, these multifaceted outputs have positioned the dam as a cornerstone of regional prosperity, with hydropower alone accounting for roughly half of the Pacific Northwest's electricity generation.^[54]

Controversies and Compensations

Tribal Negotiations and Legal Outcomes

Negotiations between the U.S. government, represented primarily by the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior, and the affected tribes—Yakama Nation, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, and Nez Perce Tribe—began in the early 1950s as construction of The Dalles Dam progressed, with the inundation threatening treaty-reserved fishing rights at Celilo Falls established under 1855 treaties.^[6]^[55] These rights guaranteed tribes access to "usual and accustomed" fishing grounds, which Celilo Falls exemplified as a central site for communal salmon harvesting and trade.^[3] Delays in reservoir filling occurred until claims were addressed, culminating in settlement agreements signed in 1956 that provided cash compensation in exchange for relinquishing further claims related to the site's inundation.^[56]^[57] The total compensation amounted to $26,888,395, distributed as follows: $15,019,640 to the Yakama Nation, $4,451,784 to the Warm Springs tribes, $4,616,971 to the Umatilla tribes, and the remainder to the Nez Perce Tribe.^[6] This equated to approximately $3,700 per enrolled tribal member across the groups, irrespective of individual use of the sites, reflecting the communal nature of the rights under treaty interpretations.^[8]^[58] The agreements, ratified by Congress, explicitly barred tribes and members from additional suits for the physical loss of fishing stations due to flooding, framing the payments as full satisfaction for the takings.^[58] Post-inundation legal challenges tested these settlements. In Whitefoot v. United States (293 F.2d 658, Ct. Cl. 1961), individual Yakama plaintiffs sought extra compensation for specific inherited fishing stations, arguing they held distinct property interests beyond communal tribal rights.^[59] The U.S. Court of Claims rejected this, affirming that treaty fishing rights at Celilo were collective tribal entitlements, not severable individual properties, thus upholding the settlements' adequacy for the inundation's direct effects and denying further recovery.^[60] This ruling reinforced federal authority over such communal resources while limiting personal claims, though it did not address broader ecological impacts on fish runs from dam operations.^[55]

Critiques of Federal Decision-Making

Critiques of federal decision-making in the construction of The Dalles Dam, which inundated Celilo Falls on March 10, 1957, center on the U.S. government's prioritization of hydropower generation and regional economic development over treaty-obligated tribal fishing rights and cultural heritage. Internal documents from the 1940s and 1950s, obtained via Freedom of Information Act requests, reveal that officials, including those from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Columbia Basin Interagency Committee, explicitly viewed the elimination of Native commercial fisheries at sites like Celilo Falls as advantageous, arguing it would improve salmon migration to spawning grounds. A 1951 memorandum by fisheries biologist Sam Hutchinson asserted that "the Indian commercial fishery would be eliminated and more fish would reach the spawning grounds in better condition," reflecting a deliberate downplaying of harms to tribal communities in favor of non-Native recreational and commercial interests.^[61]^[62] Tribal consultation during the dam's planning phase, authorized by Congress in 1947 and constructed starting in the early 1950s, was minimal and did not adequately incorporate tribal input on the irreversible loss of Celilo Falls, a site central to the economies, diets, and ceremonies of tribes including the Yakama Nation, Warm Springs, and Umatilla. Federal negotiators offered compensation totaling $26,888,395 for flooded fishing sites—allocated as $15,019,640 to the Yakama, $4,451,784 to the Warm Springs, and $4,616,971 to the Umatilla—but this sum addressed only tangible property losses and ignored broader cultural and ecological devastation, such as the submersion of ancestral villages, burial grounds, and sacred sites spanning thousands of years.^[6]^[62] Critics, including tribal advocates and historians, argue this reflected a colonial-era mindset treating tribal resources as expendable for infrastructural progress, with no provisions for mitigating blocked salmon runs that historically supported up to 16 million fish annually.^[63] A 2024 U.S. Department of the Interior report acknowledges these "historic, ongoing, and cumulative impacts" of federal dams like The Dalles on tribal circumstances, admitting violations of 1855 treaty promises securing off-reservation fishing rights, but omits earlier evidence of intentional disregard uncovered in declassified memos.^[64] This selective framing in official retrospectives underscores persistent flaws in federal accountability, as the report prioritizes current mitigation over full reckoning with mid-20th-century decisions that privileged power output—generating electricity for 40% of the Northwest—without equivalent safeguards for indigenous sovereignty.^[62]^[65]

Contemporary Perspectives

Symbolic and Ecological Legacy

Celilo Falls endures as a profound symbol of Indigenous resilience and cultural continuity for tribes including the Yakama, Warm Springs, and Umatilla, representing over 10,000 years of salmon-centered traditions, trade, and spiritual practices along the Columbia River.^[66] Prior to its inundation in 1957, the falls served as a vital gathering site where tribes from British Columbia to California converged for fishing, commerce, and ceremonies, fostering intertribal networks and sustaining communities through abundant chinook salmon harvests that exceeded immediate needs for trade and preservation.^[5] Today, the submerged site retains deep symbolic value, evoking the river's life-giving role in Native cosmologies and the enduring connection to ancestral practices, even as fewer elders directly recall the pre-dam era.^[3] Ecologically, the falls' legacy underscores the cascading disruptions to the Columbia River basin's salmonid populations following The Dalles Dam's construction, which blocked natural migration routes and contributed to sharp declines in historic runs that once supported millions of fish annually.^[8] Pre-dam surveys documented Celilo as hosting one of North America's premier salmon fisheries, with chinook and other species navigating turbulent waters to spawn upstream, maintaining a dynamic ecosystem reliant on nutrient cycling from decaying carcasses that enriched riparian habitats.^[3] Post-inundation, the altered hydrology— including reservoir sedimentation and hydropower operations—exacerbated fragmentation, reducing anadromous fish returns by orders of magnitude and diminishing biodiversity in the once-vibrant gorge, effects compounded by subsequent dams and hatchery interventions.^[8] This transformation highlights the trade-offs of federal engineering priorities, where energy production overshadowed the river's pre-industrial ecological integrity, informing ongoing debates over basin recovery.^[67]

Restoration Proposals and Feasibility Assessments

In 2015, Oregon State Representative Ken Helm introduced House Joint Memorial 15, a non-binding resolution urging the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to evaluate the feasibility of temporarily lowering the Celilo pool—the reservoir behind The Dalles Dam—by approximately 40 feet for one to two weeks annually to expose Celilo Falls.^[68] The proposal cited a 2008 sonar survey confirming the falls' geological features remain intact beneath the water, suggesting minimal structural alteration needed beyond water level management.^[69] However, the measure faced significant opposition from some Native American representatives, including Yakama Nation members Tabitha Whitefoot and Susan Guerin, who argued it would reopen historical traumas without delivering lasting cultural or fishing benefits, describing it as a "cruel tease."^[68] Supporters, such as the Friends of Celilo Falls, viewed it as an initial step toward broader restoration, potentially elevating the site to UNESCO World Heritage status.^[68] The resolution did not advance beyond committee hearings, and no subsequent feasibility study by the Army Corps has been publicly documented or completed.^[68] Advocacy groups have proposed more ambitious permanent restoration, including partial or full breaching of The Dalles Dam to restore a free-flowing river and revive the falls' historic fishery, which supported Native American communities for over 10,000 years prior to inundation in 1957.^[70] Organizations like Restore Celilo Falls advocate replacing the dam's approximately 1,800 megawatts of hydropower capacity with modern renewables such as wind farms, repurposing the structure as a museum, and developing alternative irrigation and navigation solutions.^[70] Similarly, informal engineering concepts, such as those outlined in regional environmental discussions, suggest modernizing the adjacent Celilo Canal—originally built for navigation around the falls—to maintain shipping while lowering the pool elevation, arguing that technological advancements render the dam's full hydropower and flood control functions replaceable.^[69] Tribal leaders from the Yakama and Lummi nations have echoed calls for restoration since at least 2019, emphasizing that the 1957 inundation lacked permanent consent under treaty agreements, though responses within Indigenous communities remain divided on practicality.^[70] Feasibility assessments remain preliminary and contested, with no comprehensive federal engineering or economic analysis conducted to date. Proponents highlight the sonar evidence of intact falls and precedents like dam removals on other Columbia River tributaries, which have restored salmon migration without collapsing regional power grids.^[69] However, critics point to substantial barriers: temporary drawdowns could disrupt hydropower output critical to the Pacific Northwest's energy mix, interrupt barge navigation reliant on stable pool levels, and incur unquantified costs for water management and ecological mitigation, potentially exacerbating short-term salmon stress from dewatering.^[68] Permanent options face amplified challenges, including federal commitments to dam infrastructure under the 1938 Bonneville Project Act and the need for multi-state coordination, as The Dalles Dam supports irrigation for over 600,000 acres and annual power generation exceeding 7 billion kilowatt-hours.^[70] Absent formalized studies, these proposals persist primarily as cultural and symbolic imperatives rather than actionable plans, with ongoing tribal advocacy linking falls restoration to broader Columbia Basin salmon recovery efforts.^[68]

References

[1]
Celilo Falls, Oregon (U.S. National Park Service)
Nov 28, 2023 · Celilo Falls and the Narrows of the Columbia River were an almost ten-mile stretch of river from the present-day Celilo Village to The Dalles.
[2]
[PDF] Stories from the Flood: Narratives of Celilo Falls, 1805-2021
May 5, 2021 · For 11,000 years, Celilo Falls was the most important salmon fishery and trading locale for Indigenous people living in the Columbia River Basin ...
[3]
Celilo Falls - CRITFC
All this changed on the morning of March 10, 1957, when the massive steel and concrete gates of The Dalles Dam closed and choked back the downstream surge of ...
[4]
Impact of Dams on Native People Case Study | Teacher Resource
The building of The Dalles Dam in 1957 inundated Celilo Falls. Celilo means “echo of water on rocks” in the Sahaptin language. Fish were so abundant, the ...
[5]
Indians Fish at Celilo Falls - Oregon History Project
Celilo Falls was an important center for native trade, culture, and ceremony. For at least 11,000 years, tribes throughout the region, and from as far away ...
[6]
Celilo Falls - Northwest Power and Conservation Council
Eventually non-Indian fishers began using the falls, particularly as a site for fish wheels. These captured huge quantities of salmon for canneries that were ...
[7]
Celilo Falls - L³ - The Lewis And Clark Rediscovery Project
The site was also one of the best places to catch salmon in the Columbia watershed. As a result, each year thousands of Indians of many different tribes ...
[8]
Celilo Falls disappears in hours after The Dalles Dam floodgates are
Feb 10, 2012 · On March 10, 1957, the massive steel and concrete floodgates of newly completed The Dalles Dam on the Columbia River are closed, and within ...
[9]
Dams on the Columbia River - National Park Service
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[10]
Indian fishing - Northwest Power and Conservation Council
Particularly in the lower river, from Celilo Falls to the ocean, the abundant salmon runs supplied a reliable and abundant source of protein in the Indians' ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Celilo Falls - The Oregon Encyclopedia
Sep 25, 2024 · The non-native commercial fishery competed with the Indigenous fishery for salmon and productive fishing sites, but development transformed the ...
[12]
Celilo Falls, Wasco County, Oregon - Northwest Waterfall Survey
Mar 19, 2017 · Coordinates: 45.65147, -120.96941 ; Elevation: 160 feet ; USGS Map: Wishram 7 1/2".
[13]
Geology of The Dalles - Discover Lewis & Clark
Historical photographs showing the numerous elevation drops of falls and rapids of Celilo Falls on the Columbia River (river flow is from right to left).
[14]
Celilo Falls - Discover Lewis & Clark
The Columbia River Plateau was formed by a series of basalt flows occurring from seventeen to six million years ago. This silicon dioxide rock extrudes from ...
[15]
Celilo Park (U.S. National Park Service)
May 22, 2025 · The opening of The Dalles Dam in 1957 submerged Celilo Falls, but sonar reveals its horseshoe-shaped rock formation remains intact. Celilo ...
[16]
Along the Journey - April 21, 1806 - USGS Volcanoes
The Columbia River cut into basalt rock to create a constriction of the river ... 1888 Map (section of original), Columbia River at Celilo Falls. (Click to ...
[17]
[PDF] of Tectonic on the Occurrence of Ground Water in the Basalt of the ...
Williams, I. A., 1916, The Columbia River Gorge, its geologic history interpreted from the Columbia River Highway: Ore- gon Bur. Mines and Geology, v. 2, no ...
[18]
Celilo Falls, Oregon, United States - World Waterfall Database
Mar 19, 2017 · Celilo Falls. Wasco County, Oregon, United States. Status: Inundated ... cubic feet per second - with peak summer flow rates regularly ...
[19]
[PDF] The Acoustic Streamflow-Measuring System on the Columbia River ...
The second structure, located upstream above Celilo Falls, was a clear span ... In. 1948, Geological Survey hydrographers had measured a flow of 1.0 million cfs ...<|separator|>
[20]
[PDF] GEOLOGY AND GROUND-WATER RESOURCES OF THE. DALLES ...
The actual gradient is by no means uniform, however, but comprises a sheer drop of 20 feet at Celilo Fall, three rapids, and intervening reaches of relatively ...
[21]
[PDF] The Columbia River System Inside Story
Before any mainstem dams were built, natural instantaneous streamflow at the border ranged from as low as 396 cubic meters per second. (m3/s) (14,000 cubic feet.Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[22]
World's Largest Waterfalls
Celilo Falls. 189,500 cu ft / sec. 5,366 cu m / sec. Columbia River. Oregon, United States. Inundated. 7. Kettle Falls. 165,340 cu ft / sec. 4,682 cu m / sec.Missing: cfs | Show results with:cfs
[23]
Fishing Techniques - CRITFC
Tribal fishers use platform fishing with dipnets and hoop nets, set nets, and gillnets, using both ancient and modern techniques.
[24]
Gallery: Fishing at Celilo Falls - Confluence Project
Jun 27, 2019 · Gradually spears were replaced by dip nets made with a steel hoop and a net connected by wire rings, which would stay open until struck by a ...
[25]
Women Dry Salmon at Celilo Village - Oregon History Project
Women cut salmon into strips, spread them on dowels, and hung them in dry sheds. The fish were cut lengthwise, and even the backbone and ribs were dried.
[26]
Columbia River Salmon - CRITFC
Salmon Range Historically, salmon runs in the Columbia River Basin consisted of 16% fall chinook, 12% spring chinook, 30% summer chinook, 11% coho, 23% sockeye ...
[27]
The Columbia River Trade Network - Oregon History Project
Native peoples came from every direction to trade at The Dalles and Celilo Falls. From the north Indian traders brought elaborately decorated coiled baskets ...
[28]
Indigenous Peoples Day (Celilo Falls) - McMenamins Blog
Oct 10, 2022 · Diverse tribes of indigenous people coordinated a vast trade network and met to exchange such commodities as fish, buffalo robes, beads, cloth, ...
[29]
The Columbia River Trade Network - The Oregon Encyclopedia
The Columbia River trade network connected major trading sites, with The Dalles-Celilo area as the largest, and was a key part of the Native economy.
[30]
Lewis and Clark begin descending the rapids of the Columbia River at
Mar 3, 2003 · On October 22, 1805, Lewis and Clark and the Corps of Discovery encounter Celilo Falls, at the beginning of a 55-mile stretch of the Columbia River.
[31]
October 22, 1805 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Later Celilo Falls, near Wishram, Klickitat County, Washington, and Celilo, Wasco County, Oregon. The area was a great meeting place and ...
[32]
April 16, 1806 - Discover Lewis & Clark
The Great Mart. Celilo. The Columbia River flows between high hills covering the old Celilo Falls. © 25 March 2012 by Kristopher K.<|separator|>
[33]
David Thompson of the North West Company surveys Celilo Falls ...
Oct 7, 2009 · On July 11, 1811, Canadian explorer David Thompson (1770-1857) reaches Celilo Falls on the Columbia River after a historic voyage downriver from Kettle Falls.Missing: records | Show results with:records
[34]
Celilo Falls Portage - National Park Service
Nov 27, 2020 · Celilo Falls Portage is a High Potential Historic Site on the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail. On October 22, 1805, the expedition reached Celilo Falls.
[35]
Navigation - Northwest Power and Conservation Council
Sternwheelers were able to operate from Astoria and Portland going upriver as far as Celilo Falls, where goods had to be portaged, until a canal similar to the ...
[36]
Railroads - Northwest Power and Conservation Council
The following year, 1863, work was completed on a portage railroad around The Dalles and Celilo Falls about 40 miles upstream of The Cascades. Called the ...
[37]
Portage Railroad near Cape Horn - Oregon History Project
In 1863, the Oregon Steam Navigation Company (OSNC) built a fourteen-mile-long portage railroad eastward from The Dalles around Celilo Falls, a series of ...
[38]
Oregon Steam Navigation Co. (OSN) - UtahRails.net
Dec 13, 2009 · ... Celilo Falls Railroad" and included 13.8 miles of railroad and three locomotives. The third portage railroad was the Cascades Portage ...
[39]
Oregon Steam Navigation Company
May 31, 2022 · On the river above Celilo Falls, Robert R. Thompson had near control of traffic and had built the steamboat Colonel Wright at The Dalles in 1859 ...
[40]
PNWC-NRHS - Oregon Steam Navigation Company
With steamboat traffic on the Columbia River increasing, the Cascades rapids and the Celilo Falls were significant obstacles. While roads were built to ...Missing: 19th | Show results with:19th
[41]
The Dalles Dam - The Oregon Encyclopedia
Apr 8, 2024 · The Corps of Engineers first proposed the dam in the early 1930s as part of the ten-dam comprehensive plan to develop the water resources ...
[42]
The Dalles Dam - Oregon History Project
Construction of The Dalles Dam began in 1952. By 1957, the dam, navigation lock, and two fish ladders were complete, allowing the Army Corps to close the gates ...
[43]
The Dalles Lock and Dam - HistoryLink.org
Feb 24, 2021 · In 1934, the Corps dropped the plan for a large dam and instead proposed an alternate plan that called for a smaller dam at The Dalles, as well ...
[44]
Portland District > Missions > Tribal Relationships > The Dalles Lock ...
The US Army Corps of Engineers is preparing a Village Development Plan (VDP) that will identify a suitable location near The Dalles Lock and Dam.
[45]
The Dalles Dam and Lake Celilo - USACE Northwestern Division
Aug 7, 2023 · The project was constructed between 1952 and 1957 near the city of The Dalles ... U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
[46]
[PDF] The Dalles, John Day & Willow Creek Dams
The park was named for the. Seufert family, operators of a nearby fish cannery from the late 1800s until The Dalles Dam was built. Seufert. Park is operated by ...
[47]
The Dalles Lock and Dam
Sep 17, 2013 · The Dalles Lock and Dam, located 192 miles upstream, is a top hydropower dam providing navigation, irrigation, flood mitigation, and recreation ...
[48]
1957: Celilo Falls fishery, village destroyed by Dalles Dam
At 10 a.m. on March 10, 1957, its inch-thick reinforced steel gates crash shut, forcing a ferocious back flow that in 4½ hours floods everything in its way ...
[49]
Remembering Celilo Falls 62 years after it was silenced by The ...
When The Dalles Dam's doors closed at 10 a.m. on March 10, 1957, the falls were flooded in less than five hours, forming what is today Celilo Lake. Tearful ...
[50]
50 years after flooding Celilo Falls - BlueFish.org
Mar 4, 2007 · A 1946 letter by a U.S. Department of the Interior official estimated Celilo fishermen hauled out more than 2.5 million pounds of salmon a year.
[51]
Celilo Falls, the Dalles Dam, and Infrastructural Colonization
However, the reports rarely engage with the cultural significance of Celilo Falls or the depth of opposition that people had to the dam. The research discussed ...
[52]
Columbia River Basin Dams - USACE Northwestern Division
The Dalles Dam and Lake Celilo. USACE Snake River Dams. Ice Harbor Dam and ... The US Army Corps of Engineers operates nine of 10 major federal projects ...
[53]
[PDF] Economic Benefits and Needs of Oregon Public Ports
The data suggest that port activities support over 106,000 jobs, over $7.1 billion in labor income, over $10 billion in value added impacts, and over $19.<|separator|>
[54]
Pacific Northwest Hydropower for the 21st Century Power Grid
Hydropower is the foundation of the Pacific Northwest's power system, providing about 50 percent of the region's annual energy generation.Missing: Dalles | Show results with:Dalles<|separator|>
[55]
293 F.2d 658
This is a suit to recover compensation for the taking by destruction through inundation of certain fishing rights and other rights claimed as the individual ...
[56]
Yakama Nation & Corps Discuss Celilo Settlement
The Yakama Nation and the US Army Corps of Engineers was taken during negotiations for financial compensation arising from the inundation of fishing sites at ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes
[57]
Signing a Settlement for Flooding Celilo Falls - c. 1956
Secretary of Interior Douglas McKay signs an agreement covering proposed settlements for claims by the Yakama for losses at Celilo Falls due to flooding.Missing: tribes | Show results with:tribes<|separator|>
[58]
Umatilla Indians Compensated for Celilo Flooding
... inundation of Celilo Falls fishing sites by The Dalles Dam. Standing from ... The United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed The Dalles Dam between 1952 ...<|separator|>
[59]
Ambrose Whitefoot and Minnie Whitefoot v. United States, 293 F.2d ...
This is a suit to recover compensation for the taking by destruction through inundation of certain fishing rights and other rights claimed as the individual ...
[60]
Whitefoot v. United States, 293 F.2d 658 (1961): Case Brief Summary
In 1950 Congress authorized construction of the Dalles Dam, which would destroy and inundate the fishing grounds at Celilo Falls. Subsequently, pursuant to an ...
[61]
https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/24767817-1951-hutchinson-memo
[62]
New Report Recognizes the Harm of Columbia River Dams on ...
Jun 25, 2024 · The Biden administration released a report last week acknowledging “the historic, ongoing, and cumulative damage and injustices” that Columbia River dam ...
[63]
https://www.doi.gov/media/document/tribal-circumstances-analysis
[64]
Biden-Harris Administration Releases Report Highlighting Historic ...
Jun 18, 2024 · The Department of the Interior today released a report documenting the historic, ongoing and cumulative impacts of federal Columbia River dams on Columbia ...
[65]
Biden Turns Attention to Long-Ignored Tribal Injustice in the ... - NRDC
Oct 6, 2023 · The Dalles Dam flooded Celilo Falls, a sacred native fishing place ... Forty percent of the electricity used in the Northwest is generated by ...
[66]
Celilo Falls — Along the Columbia: Maya Lin and the Confluence ...
For over 10,000 years, Celilo Falls, located near The Dalles, Oregon, was an important center for trade, fishing, and spiritual practice. Indigenous groups from ...
[67]
[PDF] A Storypath Exploring the Lasting Legacy of Celilo Falls - OSPI
cubic feet per second, measured at The Dalles, Oregon, remains the lowest ... Close Reading Lesson: “Childhood Memories at Celilo Falls” Page 10. Page 102 ...
[68]
Proposal To Resurrect Columbia River's Celilo Falls Draws Flak
Apr 16, 2015 · An audacious proposal to revive the Columbia River's historic Celilo Falls drew heavy flak when it was aired at the Oregon Legislature Thursday.
[69]
Restoring Celilo Falls | WyEast Blog
Feb 14, 2009 · The project is marking the two centuries since Lewis and Clark passed through the region, and the millennia of human history that makes Celilo ...Missing: symbolic | Show results with:symbolic
[70]
Restore Celilo Falls
It was a magical place before The Dalles Dam reservoir swallowed the falls, drowning tradition that spanned millennia, and stabbing the river in its heart.Missing: symbolic importance