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Cercopithecini

Cercopithecini is a tribe of Old World monkeys within the subfamily Cercopithecinae of the family Cercopithecidae, primarily consisting of arboreal and semi-terrestrial guenons and related species native to sub-Saharan African forests and woodlands.^[1]^[2] The tribe encompasses six genera—Allenopithecus, Allochrocebus, Cercopithecus, Chlorocebus, Erythrocebus, and Miopithecus—comprising approximately 35 species, many of which are noted for their diverse coat patterns, cheek pouches for food storage, and adaptations for folivory and frugivory.^[2]^[3] These monkeys exhibit bilophodont molars suited for shearing and crushing plant material, reflecting evolutionary shifts toward seed- and fruit-based diets that parallel broader cercopithecoid adaptations.^[3]^[1] Most species are diurnal and social, living in multimale-multifemale groups or harems led by a single adult male, with females forming stable kin-based cores that emphasize cooperative behaviors and vocal communication.^[1]^[4] Physical traits include medium body sizes (typically 0.8–13 kg), ischial callosities, and variable tail lengths, with pronounced sexual dimorphism in some genera like Cercopithecus.^[5]^[4]^[3] Distributed across diverse habitats from dense rainforests to savannas, Cercopithecini species such as the patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) occupy open grasslands, while guenons like Cercopithecus mitis (blue monkey) prefer forested canopies; however, many face threats from habitat loss and bushmeat hunting, rendering numerous taxa vulnerable or endangered.^[1]^[4]^[3] Evolutionarily, the tribe diversified in the Miocene, with dietary innovations driving speciation and ecological niche partitioning among Africa's primate communities.^[3]

Taxonomy

Etymology and history

The name Cercopithecini derives from the genus Cercopithecus, established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 as the type genus for the tribe, with the suffix -ini denoting a taxonomic tribe.^[6] The term Cercopithecus originates from Ancient Greek kérkos (tail) and píthēkos (ape or monkey), translating to "tailed ape" or "long-tailed monkey," reflecting the prominent tails characteristic of the group's members.^[7] British zoologist John Edward Gray formally described the tribe Cercopithecini in 1821 within the subfamily Cercopithecinae, initially encompassing guenons (Cercopithecus spp.) and related forms based on morphological features such as cheek pouches and arboreal adaptations.^[8] Early 19th-century classifications grouped Cercopithecini broadly with other Old World monkeys under Cercopithecidae, emphasizing dental and cranial similarities, but lacked clear distinctions from other lineages.^[9] Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, taxonomic shifts occurred as more specimens became available, with revisions incorporating morphological data to refine boundaries; for instance, guenons were distinguished from baboons and macaques by narrower muzzles and more gracile builds.^[9] In the mid-20th century, Eric Delson's 1975 synthesis marked a key milestone, formalizing the separation of Cercopithecini from the sister tribe Papionini (including baboons and macaques) based on integrated morphological, paleontological, and zoogeographic evidence, establishing Cercopithecini as a monophyletic group of primarily African, arboreal guenons.^[9] Subsequent 20th-century works further delineated genera within the tribe using comparative anatomy, solidifying its distinction from Papionini on traits like tail length and forest-dwelling habits.^[8] The advent of molecular data in the 2000s provided robust confirmation of Cercopithecini's monophyly, with studies using retroposons, Y-chromosome markers, and mitochondrial DNA resolving deep divergences and supporting the tribe's integrity against earlier morphology-based uncertainties.^[10] For example, analyses of short interspersed elements (SINEs) in 2007 affirmed the clade's African origins and estimated its divergence from Papionini around 11 million years ago, integrating genetic evidence with historical taxonomy.^[10]

Phylogenetic position

Cercopithecini is a tribe within the subfamily Cercopithecinae of the family Cercopithecidae, which encompasses the Old World monkeys, and is positioned as the sister group to the tribe Papionini, comprising baboons, macaques, and their relatives.^[11] This phylogenetic arrangement is supported by extensive molecular data, including analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear genes, which consistently demonstrate the monophyly of Cercopithecinae and the reciprocal monophyly of its two tribes.^[12] The divergence between Cercopithecini and Papionini is estimated to have occurred approximately 11.5 million years ago (Ma), marking a key split within the subfamily during the late Miocene.^[11] The tribe's origins trace back to the Miocene epoch (approximately 23–5 Ma) in Africa, where the broader Cercopithecinae subfamily emerged around 17.8 Ma following its divergence from the leaf-eating Colobinae.^[11] Molecular clock analyses, calibrated with fossil constraints, indicate that the cercopithecine radiation began in the early to middle Miocene, with Cercopithecini diverging from other cercopithecines around 10–12 Ma.^[13] Fossil evidence from this period includes relatives such as Victoriapithecus, an early Miocene cercopithecid dated to about 15–18 Ma from sites in Kenya, which exhibits primitive traits linking it to the basal radiation of Old World monkeys but predates the clear distinction of modern tribes.^[14] Within Cercopithecini, phylogenetic reconstructions highlight basal positions for genera like Allenopithecus (swamp monkeys) and Miopithecus (talapoins), which branch off early based on shared derived characters identified through Alu element insertions and Y-chromosome data.^[10] These basal lineages likely represent the earliest divergences within the tribe, followed by a major radiation of more derived genera such as Cercopithecus (guenons) and Chlorocebus (vervet monkeys) during the Pliocene (5.3–2.6 Ma), driven by environmental changes in African forests and savannas.^[10] This Pliocene diversification is evidenced by molecular phylogenies showing rapid speciation events, with terrestrial adaptations emerging in some lineages around the Miocene-Pliocene boundary.^[13]

Genera and species

The tribe Cercopithecini encompasses six primary genera, reflecting a diverse radiation of African Old World monkeys primarily adapted to arboreal and semi-terrestrial lifestyles. These include Allenopithecus with a single species, Miopithecus with two species, Erythrocebus with one species, Chlorocebus with six species, Allochrocebus with three species, and the most speciose genus Cercopithecus with approximately 19 species, yielding a total of about 35 extant species across the tribe.^[15] This classification follows the taxonomic framework established by Groves in 2001, with subsequent refinements based on molecular and morphological data.^[16]

Allenopithecus: Contains one species, Allenopithecus nigroviridis (Allen's swamp monkey), known from swampy habitats in the Congo Basin; no recognized subspecies.^[15]
Miopithecus: Includes two species: Miopithecus talapoin (northern talapoin), distributed in West and Central Africa, and M. ogouensis (southern talapoin), found in the Ogou River region of Gabon; each has limited subspecies variation.^[15]
Erythrocebus: Comprises a single species, Erythrocebus patas (patas monkey), a ground-dwelling form across savannas from West Africa to Sudan; subspecies include E. p. patas, E. p. baumstarki, and E. p. villiersi.^[15]
Chlorocebus: Recognized as six species following its elevation from Cercopithecus in the early 2000s: Chlorocebus pygerythrus (vervet monkey), C. sabaeus (green monkey), C. aethiops (grivet), C. djamdjamensis (Bale Mountains vervet), C. tantalus (Tantalus monkey), and C. cynosuros (malbrouck monkey); several subspecies exist, such as C. p. pygerythrus and C. s. sabaeus, reflecting geographic variation.^[15]
Allochrocebus: Includes three species: Allochrocebus lhoesti (L'Hoest's monkey), A. preussi (Preuss's monkey), and A. solatus (sun-tailed monkey), all terrestrial guenons from Central African forests and mountains.^[15]
Cercopithecus: The largest genus with approximately 19 species, including Cercopithecus ascanius (red-tailed monkey), C. mitis (blue monkey), C. neglectus (De Brazza's monkey), C. cephus (mustached monkey), C. pogonias (crowned monkey), C. mona (mona monkey), C. lowei (Lowe's monkey), C. denti (Dent's mona), C. campbelli (Campbell's mona), C. nictitans (putty-nosed monkey), C. albogularis (Sykes' monkey), C. kandti (golden monkey), C. doggetti (silver monkey), C. diana (Diana monkey), C. roloway (Roloway monkey), C. dryas (Dryas monkey), C. hamlyni (Hamlyn's monkey), C. lomamiensis (lesula), C. wolfi (Wolf's monkey), C. erythrogaster (white-bellied monkey), C. erythrotis (red-eared guenon), and others; many have multiple subspecies, such as C. m. stuhlmanni for the blue monkey complex.^[15]

Taxonomic revisions within Cercopithecini have been dynamic, particularly with the split of Chlorocebus from Cercopithecus in the 2000s based on phylogenetic analyses confirming distinct clades.^[15] Ongoing debates center on the monophyly of Cercopithecus, as molecular evidence suggests paraphyly with respect to genera like Allochrocebus (encompassing A. lhoesti, A. preussi, and A. solatus, sometimes treated as separate), potentially warranting further generic rearrangements; however, the six-genus framework remains widely adopted pending additional genomic data.^[15]

Physical characteristics

Morphology and adaptations

Cercopithecini, a tribe within the subfamily Cercopithecinae, comprise small to medium-sized Old World monkeys characterized by body masses ranging from about 0.8 kg in the smallest females, such as those of the talapoin monkey (Miopithecus talapoin), to up to 13 kg in the largest males, exemplified by the patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas).^[17]^[18] These primates exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males typically outweighing females by 1.5 to 2 times in most species.^[18] Their locomotion is predominantly quadrupedal, supported by limbs adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial movement, and they possess non-prehensile tails that aid in balance rather than grasping.^[19] Distinctive catarrhine features include downward-pointing nostrils and colorful ischial callosities—hardened skin pads on the buttocks that facilitate prolonged sitting on branches or the ground.^[20] Additionally, all members of the tribe have expandable cheek pouches for storing food, allowing efficient foraging without immediate consumption.^[19] Dentally, Cercopithecini share the typical cercopithecoid formula of 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3, totaling 32 teeth, with bilophodont molars featuring two transverse crests that facilitate grinding of tough plant material and other omnivorous fare.^[21] Their dentition supports a varied diet, including fruits, leaves, insects, and seeds, reflecting an omnivorous adaptation.^[19] Sensory structures include large, forward-facing eyes that provide enhanced depth perception crucial for navigating complex forest environments.^[22] Key adaptations for their primarily arboreal lifestyle encompass grasping hands and feet with opposable thumbs and toes, enabling secure holds on branches during travel and foraging.^[22] Some species possess supralaryngeal air sacs that amplify vocalizations, aiding communication across dense vegetation.^[23] Pelage varies widely but often includes cryptic patterns and striking facial markings, such as those in guenons (genus Cercopithecus), which contribute to camouflage in dappled forest light and may also serve in species recognition.^[24]

Variation across genera

The tribe Cercopithecini exhibits considerable morphological diversity among its genera, reflecting adaptations to varied ecological niches within African forests and savannas. This variation is particularly evident in body size, limb proportions, pelage coloration, and specialized features like webbing or facial markings, which distinguish genera such as Allenopithecus, Allochrocebus, Miopithecus, Erythrocebus, Chlorocebus, and Cercopithecus.^[25] Allochrocebus, including L'Hoest's monkey (Allochrocebus lhoesti), Preuss's monkey (Allochrocebus preussi), and the sun-tailed monkey (Allochrocebus solatus), features medium-sized individuals with body masses of 3–7 kg and long limbs adapted for terrestrial movement in montane forests. These monkeys have a short, dark brown or black coat with a reddish or chestnut dorsal pelage, a dark belly, and distinctive white beards or chin straps on light gray cheeks, aiding in camouflage and species identification in understory habitats.^[26]^[27] Allenopithecus, represented by Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis), displays a robust build suited to semi-aquatic habitats, with a body mass ranging from 3 to 6 kg in adults and a stocky frame that supports wading through swamps. A key adaptation is the partial webbing between the fingers and toes, facilitating swimming and movement in waterlogged environments, while the pelage is predominantly dark greenish-gray, providing camouflage in dense riparian vegetation.^[28]^[29]^[30] In contrast, Miopithecus, encompassing the talapoin monkeys (Miopithecus talapoin and Miopithecus ogouensis), represents the smallest genus in the tribe, with adults weighing less than 1 kg on average (males 0.8–1.3 kg, females 0.7–0.8 kg) and a head-body length of 22–34 cm. These monkeys have short tails relative to body size (14–25 cm) and a compact, agile form with olive-greenish fur that blends into forest understory, emphasizing their diminutive, primarily arboreal lifestyle.^[31]^[32]^[30] Erythrocebus, including the patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), stands out for its slender, long-limbed morphology optimized for terrestrial speed, with elongated hindlimbs and a digitigrade posture enabling bursts up to 55 km/h across open savannas. Adults weigh 7–13 kg, featuring reddish-brown dorsal pelage, pale ventral fur, and distinctive white facial whiskers that frame a black muzzle, enhancing visibility in grassy habitats.^[18]^[33]^[34] Chlorocebus, comprising species like the vervet (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), exhibits intermediate agility for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion, with body masses of 3–7 kg and variable green-gray pelage that shifts subtly across populations in response to environmental gradients such as latitude and temperature. Some species show sexual dichromatism, notably in scrotal coloration (e.g., bright blue in males), which may aid in mate recognition amid their adaptable savanna-forest interfaces.^[25]^[35]^[36] The genus Cercopithecus, with over 20 species of guenons, demonstrates the greatest pelage diversity in the tribe, ranging from the blue-gray coat and black face of the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) to the orange-red back and striking white throat beard of de Brazza's monkey (Cercopithecus neglectus). Facial bicoloration, often involving contrasting brow bands or nose stripes, serves as visual signals for species recognition in dense forests, while body sizes vary from 3 to 10 kg across taxa.^[37]^[38]^[39] Overall, morphological trends within Cercopithecini show a gradient in size and terrestriality, progressing from the tiny, arboreal Miopithecus to the larger, more ground-oriented Erythrocebus, with intermediate forms like Chlorocebus and the diverse Cercopithecus bridging arboreal and mixed substrates; Allenopithecus and Allochrocebus deviate with their specialized aquatic and montane traits, respectively. This inter-generic variation underscores the tribe's adaptive radiation in sub-Saharan Africa.^[25]^[40]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Cercopithecini, commonly known as guenons and their allies, are exclusively distributed across sub-Saharan Africa, spanning from the Atlantic coast of Senegal in the west to the Ethiopian highlands in the east, and extending southward to northeastern South Africa. This broad range encompasses diverse ecosystems including tropical forests, woodlands, and savannas, though the tribe is notably absent from the arid Sahara Desert to the north and the extreme southern Cape region. The overall current extent covers much of the sub-Saharan continent, representing a vast area influenced by historical climatic fluctuations and habitat connectivity. Fossil evidence indicates that the origins of Cercopithecini trace back to the late Miocene in East Africa, with early cercopithecine records from sites like the Turkana Basin in Kenya dating to approximately 7.4 million years ago. During the Pleistocene, range expansions occurred in association with wetter interglacial periods, which promoted forest and woodland proliferation and enabled dispersal into new regions across central and southern Africa. These climatic shifts contributed to the tribe's diversification and occupation of varied ecological zones. The highest species diversity within Cercopithecini is found in the Congo Basin of central Africa and the montane forests of East Africa, where high species and subspecies diversity across six genera thrives due to the region's extensive rainforest cover and topographic complexity. Outside their native range, some populations have been introduced through human activity; for instance, the green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus) was transported to the Caribbean during the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, establishing self-sustaining feral groups on islands such as St. Kitts, Nevis, and Barbados.

Ecological niches

The Cercopithecini tribe, comprising various genera of Old World monkeys, primarily inhabits diverse ecosystems across sub-Saharan Africa, with a strong preference for tropical rainforests, woodlands, and savannas. These monkeys demonstrate remarkable adaptability to fragmented and modified landscapes, including secondary growth forests and habitat edges, which allows them to persist in areas altered by natural disturbances or human activity. While many species are confined to forested environments, others exploit more open terrains, reflecting evolutionary responses to Plio-Pleistocene climatic shifts that expanded woodland and savanna mosaics.^[40]^[41] Arboreal adaptations dominate in forested habitats, particularly among guenons of the genus Cercopithecus, which favor dense canopies in lowland and montane tropical moist forests, gallery forests, and even bamboo stands for locomotion and refuge. In contrast, semi-terrestrial species like the patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) are specialized for open savannas, steppes, and thorn scrub, with elongated limbs and pelvic structures enabling quadrupedal running at speeds up to 55 km/h, minimizing arboreal reliance. Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.), including the high-altitude Bale monkey (C. djamdjamensis), exhibit intermediate terrestriality in savanna-woodland mosaics, foraging on the ground while retreating to trees for safety. These locomotor variations underscore niche partitioning within the tribe, where forest-dwellers emphasize vertical stratification and open-habitat species prioritize horizontal mobility.^[42]^[43]^[35] Specialized microhabitats further define tribal diversity, with the talapoin monkey (Miopithecus spp.) occupying riparian zones, seasonally flooded forests, and mangrove swamps along riverbanks in the Congo Basin, where dense undergrowth supports their small-bodied, agile foraging. Similarly, Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) is restricted to swampy floodplains and riverine forests of the central Congo Basin, frequently entering water and utilizing emergent vegetation. Climatically, Cercopithecini are adapted to tropical and subtropical regimes, but some Chlorocebus taxa extend into cooler montane environments, reaching altitudes up to 3,400 m in the Ethiopian highlands, facilitated by physiological tolerances to lower temperatures and reduced oxygen.^[44]^[45]^[46] This altitudinal versatility highlights the tribe's broad environmental resilience compared to more strictly lowland congeners.

Behavior and ecology

Cercopithecini monkeys typically live in multi-male, multi-female social groups known as troops, ranging from 10 to 50 individuals, though sizes vary by species and habitat. These troops consist of related adult females, their offspring, and several adult males, with females forming the stable core of the group.^[47]^[48] Female philopatry is the norm, where females remain in their natal group for life, while males disperse at sexual maturity, usually between 4 and 6 years of age, to avoid inbreeding and competition. This pattern fosters matrilineal kinship structures, where social bonds and inheritance of rank pass through the female line.^[49]^[50] Within troops, social dynamics are governed by stable dominance hierarchies, particularly among females, which are often linear and matrilineal, with a mother's rank determining her daughters' positions. Females form coalitions, especially with close kin, to maintain or challenge these hierarchies, reducing aggression and promoting group cohesion. Allomothering, where non-maternal females care for infants through carrying, grooming, or protection, is common in species like vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.), providing reciprocal benefits such as enhanced social alliances and reduced maternal stress.^[5]^[51] Males exhibit looser hierarchies and are often peripheral, participating more in inter-male aggression than female social networks.^[43] Communication in Cercopithecini relies on a multimodal system, including vocalizations, facial expressions, tactile interactions, and olfactory cues, to coordinate group activities and resolve conflicts. Alarm calls are particularly sophisticated; for instance, vervet monkeys produce distinct calls for aerial, terrestrial, and snake predators, eliciting specific escape behaviors from group members. Facial patterns, evolved for species and individual recognition, aid in visual signaling during close-range interactions, while grooming serves as a primary mechanism for bonding, reconciliation, and reinforcing alliances, often directed along matrilineal lines. Inter-group interactions are typically territorial, involving vocal exchanges or displays to deter intruders, with occasional peaceful associations in resource-rich areas.^[52]^[53]^[54] Variations in social organization exist across genera. Most guenons (Cercopithecus spp.) maintain cohesive troops with strong female bonds, but De Brazza's guenon (Cercopithecus neglectus) forms smaller, less interactive groups of 4 to 15 individuals, often family units or solitary pairs, characterized by minimal physical contact and a discrete hierarchy to minimize confrontation. In contrast, patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) live in larger troops of up to 60, with females at the social center and males more nomadic, reflecting their open-savanna habitat and emphasis on rapid group movement.^[55]^[43]

Diet and foraging

Members of the Cercopithecini tribe exhibit omnivorous diets that vary by species, habitat, and season, primarily consisting of fruits, leaves, seeds, insects, and occasionally small vertebrates. Fruits often form the bulk of the diet in forest-dwelling species, comprising 50-70% of feeding time in many guenons, supplemented by young leaves, mature leaves, flowers, and invertebrates such as ants, termites, and spiders. In contrast, savanna species like the patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) rely more heavily on gum from acacia trees, seeds, and arthropods, with fruits making up a smaller proportion. Small vertebrates, including birds' eggs and nestlings, are consumed opportunistically but rarely exceed 5% of the overall intake across the tribe.^[56]^[57]^[58] Dietary composition shifts seasonally in response to resource availability, with fruit consumption peaking during wet seasons when ripe fruits are abundant, often reaching over 60% of the diet in frugivorous guenons like the red-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius). During dry seasons, intake of insects and fallback foods increases; for example, invertebrates can constitute up to 20-30% of the diet in species such as the moustached guenon (Cercopithecus cephus), providing essential protein and fats when plant matter is scarce. These adjustments help maintain nutritional balance, as insects offer higher energy density than fibrous leaves, though leaves serve as reliable staples in folivorous taxa.^[59]^[60]^[61] Foraging in Cercopithecini is predominantly diurnal, occurring in cohesive groups that move through arboreal or terrestrial strata depending on the species and habitat. Individuals use expandable cheek pouches to temporarily store food items like seeds or fruits, allowing safe consumption away from vulnerable foraging sites and reducing competition or predation risk during group progression. This adaptation is particularly evident in dense forest environments, where monkeys fill pouches while feeding in the canopy and process contents later in safer locations. Group foraging facilitates vigilance, with members scanning for predators while others exploit patches, though solitary foraging occurs in low-risk, abundant resource areas. Tool use is rare but documented in some guenons, such as red-tailed monkeys employing sticks to probe for insects in tree bark crevices.^[62]^[63] Foraging strategies differ across genera, reflecting ecological niches. Blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) emphasize folivory, with young leaves comprising 20-30% of their diet as a fallback resource in fruit-scarce periods, enabling persistence in mature forests. Talapoin monkeys (Miopithecus spp.) show pronounced insectivory, with arthropods accounting for nearly 40% of intake, often foraged on the ground near water bodies alongside fruits and aquatic plants. Urban-adapted vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.) display high opportunism, incorporating human foods like crops and garbage into their diets, which can constitute around 39% in some urban areas, alongside traditional leaves and insects. These variations underscore the tribe's dietary flexibility.^[60]^[64]^[65] Nutritionally, Cercopithecini in forested habitats depend heavily on fruits for carbohydrates and lipids, supporting high metabolic demands in arboreal lifestyles, while savanna species like patas monkeys turn to bark, gum, and seeds as fallback foods during prolonged dry periods, providing structural carbohydrates for gut fermentation. Insect consumption across the tribe supplies critical proteins and micronutrients, particularly during growth or lactation, with seasonal emphasis on energy-rich items preventing nutritional deficits in variable environments. Habitat structure influences these patterns, as forest canopies offer diverse fruit sources, whereas open savannas promote ground-level foraging for dispersed resources.^[66]^[67]^[68]

Reproduction and life history

Cercopithecini exhibit polygynandrous mating systems, in which multiple males mate with multiple females within social groups, often involving intense male-male contests for access to receptive females.^[69] In many species, such as blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis), breeding is characterized by seasonal polyestry, with conceptions peaking during periods of resource abundance and births typically occurring in the rainy season to align with favorable environmental conditions.^[70] Group structures, including multi-male, multi-female units, facilitate these dynamics, though some guenon species form more stable one-male units outside peak breeding times.^[1] Gestation periods in Cercopithecini last 5-7 months, varying slightly by species; for instance, white-nosed guenons (Cercopithecus nictitans) average 172 days.^[24] Females typically give birth to a single offspring, with interbirth intervals ranging from 1-2 years, averaging around 25 months in many Cercopithecus species. Newborns are born with a distinct natal coat that aids in identification and protection within the group.^[69] Infant development involves high dependency on the mother for the first 3-6 months, during which the young clings ventrally and nurses frequently.^[69] Weaning occurs gradually between 6-12 months, as seen in blue monkeys where it averages 6 months, allowing juveniles to transition to solid foods and increased independence.^[71] Sexual maturity is reached at 3-5 years, with females attaining it earlier (around 3-4 years in vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus) than males (4-6 years).^[35] In the wild, individuals live 10-30 years, though many do not reach maximum lifespan due to predation and disease; for example, red-eared guenons (Cercopithecus erythrotis) average about 16 years.^[72] Parental care is primarily provided by mothers, who nurse, groom, and carry infants, supplemented by allomothering from other group females, which enhances infant survival in species like Sclater's guenons (Cercopithecus sclateri).^[73]

Conservation status

Threats

Habitat loss represents one of the primary threats to Cercopithecini populations across their range in sub-Saharan Africa, driven largely by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization. In West and Central Africa, logging activities have led to rapid forest degradation, severely impacting guenon species such as those in the genus Cercopithecus. For instance, in the Congo Basin, shifting cultivation and charcoal production contribute to ongoing habitat fragmentation, affecting cryptic species like the lesula (Cercopithecus lomamiensis). Similarly, the expansion of cashew orchards in regions like the Bijagós Archipelago has replaced dry and sub-humid forest patches essential for the western lesser spot-nosed guenon (Cercopithecus petaurista buettikoferi). Hunting poses a significant anthropogenic pressure on Cercopithecini, particularly through the bushmeat trade, which targets larger-bodied species in the genus Cercopithecus. In areas like Korup National Park, Cameroon, bushmeat hunting has altered community structures, with species such as the putty-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) showing increased relative abundance due to competitive release from more vulnerable primates, though overall populations decline. The trade is exacerbated by commercial networks, as evidenced by the shipment of carcasses from rural areas to urban markets in Guinea-Bissau. Additionally, the pet trade specifically affects smaller species like talapoins (Miopithecus spp.), where infants are poached from wild groups, leading to high mortality rates among captured individuals and disruption of social units. Other threats include disease transmission from humans and climate-induced habitat alterations. Cercopithecini species, such as vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.), are susceptible to Ebola virus, with experimental infections resulting in uniformly fatal outcomes characterized by rapid viremia and organ failure. Human activities, including bushmeat handling, facilitate zoonotic spillover in forested regions. Climate change is projected to reduce habitat suitability for Cercopithecus species by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, with significant losses anticipated in West Africa by 2050, potentially forcing range shifts that many forest-dependent taxa cannot achieve due to dispersal limitations. The impacts of these threats vary across Cercopithecini, with widespread, adaptable species like vervets demonstrating resilience through tolerance of disturbed habitats, while forest specialists such as De Brazza's monkey (Cercopithecus neglectus) face heightened vulnerability from habitat destruction and human proximity, leading to increased conflict and retaliatory killings in areas like Ethiopia's Kafa Biosphere Reserve.

Conservation efforts

Conservation efforts for Cercopithecini, the tribe encompassing guenons and related Old World monkeys, are coordinated through international bodies like the IUCN Primate Specialist Group, which monitors populations and advocates for habitat protection across sub-Saharan Africa. While many of the approximately 35 species in the tribe are classified as Least Concern, several across genera are threatened, including Vulnerable Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) and Endangered Preuss's guenon (Allochrocebus preussi). For the genus Cercopithecus, several of the approximately 20 recognized species are classified as Endangered or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with examples including the red-bellied guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster, Critically Endangered in its nominate subspecies) and the Roloway monkey (Cercopithecus roloway, Critically Endangered), while many others like the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) are Least Concern but face localized declines.^[74]^[75] Key initiatives focus on establishing and managing protected areas to safeguard fragmented forest habitats. In West Africa, Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire supports populations of Diana monkeys (Cercopithecus diana, Endangered) and spot-nosed guenons (Cercopithecus petaurista, Least Concern) through anti-poaching patrols and habitat monitoring, while Bia National Park in Ghana protects Roloway monkeys despite ongoing threats. In Central and East Africa, transboundary reserves like Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo harbor golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti, Endangered subspecies) via collaborative management across borders, including Rwanda, Uganda, and the DRC. These areas employ ranger programs to curb illegal logging and bushmeat hunting, which indirectly benefits Cercopithecini by preserving canopy forests essential for their arboreal lifestyles.^[76]^[77] International trade regulations under CITES play a vital role, with most Cercopithecus species listed on Appendix II to control commercial trade, and select taxa like the Diana monkey and Roloway monkey on Appendix I for stricter prohibitions on international commerce. Anti-poaching efforts are bolstered by community-based programs, such as those in the Ebo Forest of Cameroon for Preuss's guenon (Allochrocebus preussi, Endangered), where local patrols reduce hunting pressure through awareness campaigns and alternative livelihood training. Reforestation projects, including those supported by the IUCN, aim to restore degraded habitats; for instance, initiatives in the Albertine Rift plant native trees to reconnect guenon populations fragmented by agriculture.^[78]^[79] Research and monitoring by the IUCN Primate Specialist Group drive targeted actions, including population surveys using camera traps and drones to assess densities, as seen in studies of red-bellied guenons in the Dahomey Gap. Community involvement is emphasized to address human-wildlife conflict, with ecotourism emerging as a sustainable revenue source; the golden monkey conservation action plan (2023–2028) promotes guided tours in Virunga to fund patrols while educating locals on primate value. Future strategies highlight the need for genetic studies on fragmented populations to inform translocations and combat inbreeding, particularly for Critically Endangered species like the Roloway monkey, ensuring long-term viability amid ongoing habitat pressures.^[76]^[80]^[81]

References

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Old World Monkeys | Learn Science at Scitable - Nature
The Old World monkeys of Africa and Asia comprise approximately 132 species in the family Cercopithecidae. They exhibit striking diversity in habitat, ...
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Sep 9, 2015 · One cercopithecoid tribe, the Cercopithecini, includes the vervets (Chlorocebus), guenons (Cercopithecus and Allochrocebus), talapoins ...
[4]
Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys) - Animal Diversity Web
The family Cercopithecidae includes 22 genera and 133 species. These monkeys are widely distributed in the Old World from southern Europe (Gibraltar) into NW ...
[5]
Cercopithecus Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Origin of Cercopithecus From Ancient Greek κέρκος (kerkos, “tail”) + πίθηκος (pithēkos, “monkey”).Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[6]
Cercopithecus - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Etymology. From Ancient Greek κερκοπῐ́θηκος (kerkopĭ́thēkos, “longtailed ape”). Proper noun. Cercopithecus m. A taxonomic genus within the family ...
[7]
https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=943810
[8]
Evolutionary history of the Cercopithecidae - PubMed
Among the Cercopithecinae, after a Miocene separation from the high-forest Cercopithecini, the Papionini divided into three groups: geladas, sub-Saharan ...
[9]
A mobile element-based evolutionary history of guenons (tribe ...
Jan 31, 2007 · It is believed that the tribe Cercopithecini diverged from tribe Papionini about 11 million years ago [7, 35]. However, owing to the lack of ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[10]
Mitogenomics of the Old World monkey tribe Papionini
Sep 4, 2014 · The evolutionary history of the Old World monkey tribe Papionini comprising the genera Macaca, Mandrillus, Cercocebus, Lophocebus, Theropithecus ...
[11]
Molecular Phylogeny of Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae) as ...
The cercopithecines divide into tribes Cercopithecini (Erythrocebus, patas monkey; Chlorocebus, green monkeys; Cercopithecus, guenons) and Papionini.
[12]
Primate Molecular Divergence Dates | Request PDF - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Subsequently, Colobinae and Cercopithecinae diverged around 16 mya, Papionini and Cercopithecini then split around 10-12 mya, and macaques and ...
[13]
Early cercopithecid monkeys from the Tugen Hills, Kenya - PNAS
Data for Victoriapithecus are means of Victoriapithecus macinnesi. For all indices, the colobine and cercopithecine samples are significantly different (P ...Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini
[14]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1213691110
[15]
Mammal Species of the World - Browse: Cercopithecinae
Divided by Groves (2001c) into two tribes: Cercopithecini (Allenopithecus, Cercopithecus, Chlorocebus, Erythrocebus, Miopithecus) and Papionini (Cercocebus, ...
[16]
Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia): estimation ...
For the former, compiled mass is 15 kg in males and 10 in females. The male estimates range from 12 to 16 kg, averaging 13; female estimates range from 8 to ...Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
Patas monkey - Wisconsin National Primate Research Center
Patas exhibit a large degree of sexual dimorphism with adult males weighing 12.4 kg (27.3 lb) and adult females weighing 6.5 kg (14.3 lb) on average (Galat- ...
[18]
Cercopithecidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The Cercopithecinae have ischial callosities (indicating an upright sitting posture), possess cheek pouches, and are omnivorous. They have a simple stomach and ...
[19]
Cercopithecinae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
They are overwhelmingly African, with only one very speciose genus (Macaca with 23 species) found in Asia (Fig. 16). Extant cercopithecines are divided into two ...
[20]
Cercopithecinae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cercopithecinae refers to a subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes various species such as baboons and cercopithecines, which are noted as secondary ...
[21]
1.7 The Evolution of Primates – Human Biology
Order Primates of class Mammalia includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. Non-human primates live primarily in the tropical or subtropical ...1.7 The Evolution Of... · Evolution Of Primates · Human Evolution
[22]
The vocal repertoire of adult male blue monkeys (Cercopithecus ...
Oct 15, 2013 · Booms undoubtedly depend on the supralaryngeal air sac, as in other Cercopithecus species (e.g. C. neglectus [Gautier, 1971]). Booms were ...Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini
[23]
Cercopithecus nictitans (white-nosed guenon) - Animal Diversity Web
Their dark coloring also acts as camouflage within the dark tree ... What are face patterns and do they contribute to reproductive isolation in guenons?.
[24]
Morphological variation in the genus Chlorocebus - PubMed Central
We investigated population variation in morphology and growth in response to geographic variables (i.e., latitude, altitude), climatic variables (i.e., ...
[25]
Allen's Swamp Monkey, Allenopithecus nigroviridis
Perhaps the most distinct physical characteristics of the Allen's swamp monkey is the webbing present on their hands and feet between the second and fifth ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[26]
Allen's Swamp Monkey Science Q&A - National Zoo
May 2, 2016 · Allen's swamp monkeys are hydrophilic; they spend a lot of time in and near water. In the wild, they will dive to escape predators or catch fish ...
[27]
[PDF] The-guenons-genus-Cercopithecus-and-their-allies-behavioral ...
This chapter deals with the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, reproduction, and social organization of the guenons and their allies.
[28]
Angolan Talapoin | New England Primate Conservancy
Talapoins are one of the smallest African monkeys and the smallest species of Old World monkeys, weighing between 0.8 and 1.9 kg. The tail length ranges from 14 ...
[29]
Miopithecus talapoin - Plazi TreatmentBank
Nov 24, 2024 · 53 cm; weight 1.2-1.3 kg (males) and 0-75.0-8 kg (females). The Southern Talapoin Monkey is the smallest of the Old World monkeys. Pelage is ...
[30]
Locomotor Anatomy and Behavior of Patas Monkeys (Erythrocebus ...
Long fore- and hindlimbs, long foot bones, short toes, and a digitigrade foot posture were proposed as anatomical correlates with speed.
[31]
Physical Characteristics - Patas Monkey (Erythrocebus patas) Fact ...
Oct 15, 2025 · General Appearance · Medium sized · Long-legged, lanky appearance (Groves and Kingdon 2013; Hall 1966). Limbs longer than other similarly sized ...
[32]
Vervet monkey - Wisconsin National Primate Research Center
Chlorocebus sabaeus has golden-green fur with pale hands and feet. The tip of the tail is golden yellow as are the backs of the thighs and cheek whiskers. They ...
[33]
Morphological variation in the genus Chlorocebus: Ecogeographic ...
Mar 25, 2018 · We investigated population variation in morphology and growth in response to geographic variables (i.e., latitude, altitude), climatic variables ...
[34]
X-chromosomal window into the evolutionary history of the guenons ...
Molecular studies of the guenons suggest that the arboreal Cercopithecus species form a monophyletic group within the tribe Cercopithecini.
[35]
[PDF] fau - coat color variation between red-tailed monkeys (cercopithecus ...
African Cercopithecus Monkeys. Cercopithecus monkeys, also known as guenons, represent a large, diverse, mostly arboreal, and colorful taxonomic group ...
[36]
Lesula: A New Species of Cercopithecus Monkey Endemic to the ...
Sep 12, 2012 · A previously undescribed monkey known locally as “lesula” was found in the forests of the middle Lomami Basin in central Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
The evolution of the Cercopithecini: a (post)modern synthesis
Aug 9, 2025 · Here, we investigate the presence of Y chromosome introgression among lineages that experienced ample gene flow throughout their evolutionary ...
[38]
Cercopithecus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The family Cercopithecinae includes 12 genera and 69 species (Wilson and Reeder, 2005) (Appendix A). Eleven of these genera are distributed in sub-Saharan ...Including Articles From The... · Survey Of Living Primates · Infraorder Platyrrhini--New...
[39]
[PDF] Cercopithecus mitis, Blue Monkey - ResearchGate
Lives in many forest types, including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, riverine, gallery forest, delta forest, mangrove forest and bamboo forest ( ...
[40]
Patas Monkey (Erythrocebus patas) Fact Sheet: Behavior & Ecology
Oct 15, 2025 · Least commonly observed form of terrestrial locomotion · Fastest of all primates, to c. 55 km/hr (34 mi/hr) (Hall 1966) · All feet suspended off ...Missing: niche | Show results with:niche
[41]
Miopithecus talapoin - Animal Diversity Web
Habitat. Talapoin monkeys live in various forest types including lowland, riverine, seasonally flooded, mangrove swamps, and secondary forests. Miopithecus ...Missing: riparian | Show results with:riparian
[42]
Allen's swamp monkey - National Zoo
As their name suggests, Allen's swamp monkeys inhabit swamp forests. Water is central to their habitat, and groups may even choose to sleep near bodies of water ...Missing: mangroves | Show results with:mangroves
[43]
Behavior & Ecology - Vervet Monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus ...
Oct 17, 2025 · Social; live in groups. Group composition: 2 or more females, their offspring and multiple males (Isbell and Enstam-Jaffe 2013; Isbell et al. 2002)
[44]
The social systems of the guenons (Chapter 2) - Monkeys of the Taï ...
The social system of a species includes the nature of the interactions of individuals between and within social units and the spatial distribution of different ...
[45]
Mpala Live! Field Guide: Vervet Monkey | MpalaLive
Social Structure. Female vervet monkeys remain in the same group as their mothers, while males disperse to neighboring groups when they are five or six years ...
[46]
The behavior, ecology and social evolution of Cercopithecine ...
This variation in habitats and climates is reflected in the species' ecology, mating system and social structure (the content, quality and patterning of ...
[47]
Guenon | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
With most guenons, related females stay with each other throughout their lives; a daughter's social status depends on her mother's ranking in the group.
[48]
Reciprocal benefits of allomothering for female vervet monkeys
Allomothering, or care of the young by individuals other than the mother, was studied in captive groups of vervet monkeys, Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus.
[49]
Vervet monkey alarm calls: Semantic communication in a free ...
Vervet monkey alarm calls: Semantic communication in a free-ranging primate ... Selective factors affecting the predator alarm calls of vervet monkeys.
[50]
Character displacement of Cercopithecini primate visual signals
Jun 26, 2014 · We demonstrate that the face patterns of guenons (tribe: Cercopithecini) have evolved under selection to become more visually distinctive from those of other ...Missing: markings | Show results with:markings
[51]
Grooming and Social Cohesion in Patas Monkeys and Other Guenons
Life history patterns of female patas monkeys. In: M. Small (ed.), Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists, pp. 175–190. Liss, New York.
[52]
Ethogram of the De Brazza's Guenon (Cercopithecus neglectus) in ...
The social structure of the De Brazza's appears to be a small group, non-confrontation organization with minimal proximity of individual monkeys.
[53]
Reduction of bitter taste receptor gene family in folivorous colobine ...
Apr 11, 2024 · While cercopithecine monkeys are omnivorous with diets including fruits, leaves, seeds, buds, mushrooms, insects, spiders, and smaller ...
[54]
Variation in the Diets of Cercopithecus Species - SpringerLink
Dietary data have been used to address numerous theoretical issues, yet we have little understanding of dietary flexibility in primates.Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini
[55]
Patas Monkey, Erythrocebus patas
The Aïr patas monkey (Erythrocebus p. villiersi) is endemic to the Aïr Massif, central northern Niger, where it occurs in several isolated pockets, but mainly ...Missing: niche | Show results with:niche
[56]
Variation in the Diets of Cercopithecus Species: Differences within ...
Oct 11, 2025 · We examine such assumptions by making dietary comparisons among arboreal Cercopithecus species at the intergroup, interdemic, interpopulational, and ...Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini
[57]
[PDF] feeding strategies of adult female blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis)
While insects were relatively high in fat (10-29%), it may not be energetic gains that drove insect consumption as suggested for redtail guenons (Cercopithecus ...
[58]
Anthropogenic Food Use, Diet of Cercopithecus lowei in Ghana
Nov 24, 2021 · We found that Lowe's monkeys fed on 13 plant species, as well as anthropogenic foods and invertebrates. The composition of plant diet changed seasonally.
[59]
Cheek pouch use, predation risk, and feeding competition in blue ...
Jul 8, 2008 · Foraging and safety in adult female blue monkeys in the Kakamega ... The role of cheek pouches in Cercopithecine monkey adaptive strategy.
[60]
Simple Tool Use by a Red-Tailed Monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius ...
Jan 21, 2002 · Guenons have been reported to drop branches at human pursuers [2] but have not previously been reported to use tools in contexts requiring more ...
[61]
Gabon Talapoin, Miopithecus ogouensis
With an average head and body length of 13 inches (34 cm), males are only a little longer than females, who measure 11 inches (28 cm). These monkeys' tails ...
[62]
Understanding foraging flexibility in urban vervet monkeys ...
May 24, 2020 · Our study highlights how vervet monkeys have adapted to their urban landscape, showing foraging flexibility in response to available food resources.
[63]
The Nutritional Ecology of Adult Female Blue Monkeys ...
Apr 13, 2018 · Blue monkeys are known to be generalist feeders, with flexible feeding behavior. The population I studied inhabits the Kakamega Forest, western ...
[64]
[PDF] Diet for a small primate: Insectivory and gummivory in the (large ...
With adult fe- male patas monkeys weighing 4–7.5 kg and adult males 7.5–13 kg [Haltenorth & Diller, 1977], patas monkeys are two to seven times heavier than ...
[65]
(PDF) Macronutrient and Energy Contributions of Insects to the Diet ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Most extant primates feed on insects to some degree, yet the nutritional contributions of insects to primate diets are poorly characterized.
[66]
Old World Monkeys: Cercopithecids - NCBI - NIH
The Old World monkeys (cercopithecids) are divided into two subfamilies, the cercopithecines (which have check pouches) and the colobines (leaf-eating ...
[67]
Guenon birth seasons and correlates with rainfall and food ...
In environments that experience two wet seasons per year, guenon birth seasons often last between four to six months and occur within the first half of the long ...
[68]
Cercopithecus mitis (blue monkey) - Animal Diversity Web
Blue monkeys are frugivorous and folivorous in nature, eating mainly fruits and leaves. In addition, blue monkeys tend to concentrate their invetebrate feeding ...
[69]
Red-Eared Guenon, Cercopithecus erythrotis
The lifespan of red-eared guenons is around 16 years in the wild. Appearance. The name red-eared guenon comes from the distinctive tufts of reddish fur found ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Cercopithecus sclateri (Sclater's guenon) - Animal Diversity Web
social. Close. associates with others of its species; forms social groups. visual. Close. uses sight to communicate. tactile. Close. uses touch to communicate.Physical Description · Reproduction · Behavior<|separator|>
[71]
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cercopithecus_mitis/
[72]
[PDF] Primates in Peril
Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2023–2025. IUCN SSC. Primate Specialist Group, International Primatological Society, Re:wild,.
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[PDF] Regional golden monkey (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) conservation ...
Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities, these projects work to reverse habitat loss, restore ecosystems and improve ...Missing: Cercopithecini | Show results with:Cercopithecini
[74]
Conservation of the Guenons: An Overview of Status, Threats, and ...
As a result of high levels of hunting and forest loss and degradation in this region, six species (26%) and 12 subspecies (22%) of guenons are threatened with ...
[75]
Appendices | CITES
When a species is included in Appendix I, II or III, the whole, live or dead, animal or plant is always included. In addition, all parts and derivatives thereof ...
[76]
Nkemnyi Standly Nkengbeza - Scaling-up Conservation Initiatives of ...
Dec 23, 2024 · This project aims to secure the long-term survival of the Endangered Preuss's guenon from extirpation in the Ebo forest, a stronghold for this species in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226639679_Conservation_of_the_Guenons_An_Overview_of_Status_Threats_and_Recommendations
[78]
The Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund
This project aims to collect data on red-bellied guenon (Cercopithecus e. erythrogaster) ecology, ethnozoology and to design tools and strategies for their ...