Cheshvan, also spelled Heshvan and alternatively known as Marcheshvan or the biblical Bul, is the eighth month of the Hebrew calendar when reckoned from the spring month of Nisan and the second month following Tishrei in the civil calendar used since the Second Temple period.[1][2] It generally comprises 29 days, though it may extend to 30 in certain leap-year adjustments to align the lunar calendar with the solar year, and corresponds to late autumn in the Gregorian calendar, typically spanning mid-October to mid-November.[3][4]The month's name derives from Akkadian origins via Babylonian exile, denoting the "eighth month," while the prefix "mar" in Marcheshvan—sometimes interpreted as "bitter"—reflects its distinction as the only Hebrew month lacking major festivals or fasts, succeeding the High Holy Days and Sukkot of Tishrei.[5][6] This absence underscores Cheshvan's role in returning to routine labor and preparation for winter, with Rosh Chodesh (the new moon) inaugurating seasonal prayers for rain in the Land of Israel, emphasizing agricultural cycles tied to empirical patterns of rainfall and harvest.[1][4]Notable biblical associations include the commencement of the Great Flood on the 17th of Cheshvan, symbolizing destruction and renewal through causal forces of divine judgment on human corruption, as well as the yahrzeit (anniversary of passing) of matriarch Rachel on the 11th, commemorating her burial en route to Ephrath.[3][1] In Jewish thought, Cheshvan's relative obscurity fosters introspection amid mundanity, with traditions anticipating messianic revelation to transform its "bitterness" into ultimate redemption, grounded in historical expectations rather than unsubstantiated optimism.[3][7]
Calendar Position and Characteristics
Position in the Hebrew Calendar
Cheshvan occupies the eighth position in the ecclesiastical reckoning of the Hebrew calendar, which commences with Nisan as the first month to align with biblical festivals such as Passover. This ordering reflects the spring equinox timing of Nisan, as prescribed in Exodus 12:2, where the month of the Exodus is designated as the beginning for religious purposes. In this sequence, Cheshvan follows Tishrei (the seventh month) and precedes Kislev (the ninth).[1][8]In the civil calendar, used for contractual and regnal year counts starting from Rosh Hashanah on 1 Tishrei, Cheshvan is the second month, immediately succeeding Tishrei and preceding Kislev. This dual system arose historically to distinguish sacred observances from civic and agricultural cycles, with the civil year beginning in autumn to coincide with the harvest season. The civil order thus lists: Tishrei (1), Cheshvan (2), Kislev (3), Tevet (4), Shevat (5), Adar (6), Nisan (7), and so forth up to Elul (12).[1][9]The month typically spans late October to late November in the Gregorian calendar, though exact dates vary due to the lunisolar nature of the Hebrew system, which intercalates an extra Adar in leap years to maintain seasonal alignment. Cheshvan's position ensures it falls during the early rainy season in the Land of Israel, influencing agricultural practices described in biblical texts.[1][8]
Duration and Intercalation
Cheshvan consists of 29 or 30 days, making it one of two variable-length months in the Hebrew calendar, alongside Kislev.[10] In a kesidrah (regular) year, Cheshvan has 29 days and Kislev 30 days, yielding a common year of 354 days or a leap year of 384 days.[11] In a chaser (deficient) year, both months have 29 days, resulting in 353 days for common years or 383 for leap years.[12] In a maleh (abundant) year, both have 30 days, producing 355 days in common years or 385 in leap years.[11]These adjustments stem from the Hebrew calendar's lunisolar structure, which synchronizes lunar months of approximately 29.5 days with the 365.25-day solar year.[10] Primary intercalation occurs via a 19-year Metonic cycle, adding a leap month (Adar II) in 7 years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19) to insert roughly 235 lunar months over the cycle, preventing seasonal drift.[10] The Cheshvan-Kislev variation serves as a secondary mechanism to fine-tune year lengths, accommodating Rosh Hashanah postponement rules that prohibit the holiday from falling adjacent to Shabbat in ways that compress festivals and ensuring the vernal equinox aligns near Nisan.[12] This flexibility maintains the calendar's fixed arithmetic rules, established by Hillel II in the 4th century CE, without relying on direct lunar observations.[10]
Correspondence to Gregorian Calendar
Cheshvan, the eighth month of the Hebrew calendar, generally aligns with the Gregorian months of October and November.[13][14] Its precise start date, marked by Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan on the new moon, varies each year between approximately mid-October and mid-November due to the lunisolar structure of the Hebrew calendar, which intercalates an extra month (Adar II) seven times every 19 years to synchronize with the solar year.[13][15]For example, in Hebrew year 5786, Cheshvan 1 commences on October 23, 2025, extending the month through mid-November assuming its standard 29 or 30 days.[16][17] In deficient years, Cheshvan spans 29 days, while in regular or abundant years it has 30 days, influencing the onset of the subsequent month Kislev but not substantially altering Cheshvan's overall Gregorian positioning.[13][15] This variability ensures the Hebrew calendar's agricultural and seasonal fidelity, with Cheshvan often coinciding with autumnal weather in the Northern Hemisphere.[13]
Etymology and Nomenclature
Biblical Designation as Bul
In the Hebrew Bible, the eighth month of the ecclesiastical calendar is designated as Bul in a single explicit reference: 1 Kings 6:38, which states that the construction of Solomon's Temple was completed "in the eleventh year, in the month of Bul, which is the eighth month."[18] This verse provides the sole biblical instance naming the month, situating it within the narrative of the Temple's dedication timeline, which began in the second month of Solomon's fourth year (1 Kings 6:1) and concluded after seven years of building.[19] The identification of Bul as the eighth month aligns it with the post-Exilic Hebrew calendar's Cheshvan, though pre-Exilic usage retained Canaanite-influenced nomenclature like Bul, possibly denoting "rain" or "flood" in Semitic roots, reflecting the season's onset of autumnal rains in the Levant.[4]Scholars interpret Bul as an archaic or regional term, distinct from the numbered months elsewhere in Tanakh (e.g., the second month as Ziv in 1 Kings 6:1), suggesting a pre-Babylonian calendrical system incorporating local Phoenician or agricultural descriptors rather than strictly sequential numbering.[3] This designation underscores the Bible's historical embedding in ancient Near Eastern contexts, where months often carried etymological ties to weather patterns—Bul evoking inundation, consistent with the Mediterranean climate's shift to wetter conditions by October-November.[7] No other biblical events are tied explicitly to Bul, limiting its scriptural footprint to the Temple's completion, yet this reference affirms the month's fixed ordinal position in the sacred calendar.[20]Post-biblical Jewish tradition equates Bul with Cheshvan, as evidenced in Talmudic and medieval commentaries that harmonize the verse with later month names, attributing the shift to Babylonian influence during the Exile.[4] This continuity highlights the resilience of biblical chronology amid linguistic evolution, with Bul's rarity in Tanakh possibly indicating selective use for monumental events like the Temple's finish, symbolizing divine favor in sacred architecture.[21]
Development of Cheshvan and Marcheshvan
The name Bul, used in the Hebrew Bible to denote the eighth month (1 Kings 6:38), reflects pre-exilic Canaanite nomenclature associated with agricultural produce (yevul), as plowing and sowing commence amid autumn rains.[22] This term, evoking inundation or yield, predates the Babylonian influence on Hebrew calendrical terminology.[4]Following the Babylonian Exile in the 6th century BCE, Jewish communities adopted Akkadian-derived month names, as attested in the Jerusalem Talmud (Rosh Hashanah 19b), which states these designations "came up with us from Babylonia."[2] The eighth Babylonian month, Arahsamna (or Warahsamnu), meaning "eighth month" from araḫ (month) and samnu (eight), evolved into Hebrew Marcheshvan.[23] This adaptation occurred during the Second Temple period, integrating foreign lexical elements while retaining lunar-solar alignment.[6]The prefix mar- in Marcheshvan has prompted interpretive traditions: some derive it etymologically from Akkadian roots denoting rain or drops (mar as "drop"), aligning with seasonal onset of precipitation; others, in rabbinic lore, construe it as "bitter" (mar) due to the month's lack of festivals, contrasting Tishrei's celebrations.[4][6] By the Talmudic era (circa 200–500 CE), Marcheshvan (or variants like Marḥeshwan) standardized in liturgical and legal texts, though Bul retained scriptural authority for specific halakhic contexts, such as vows or contracts.[24]Medieval and modern variations emerged regionally: Sephardic and Yemenite traditions favor Marcheshvan or Marheshvan, preserving the full form, while Ashkenazi usage often shortens to Cheshvan or Heshvan, possibly reflecting phonetic shifts or abbreviation for brevity in non-leap years when the month spans 29 days. This duality persists in contemporary Hebrew calendars, with Cheshvan dominant in Israeli secular usage since the 20th century, yet Marcheshvan upheld in religious observance to evoke its "bitter" introspection.[26] No definitive textual evidence mandates one over the other post-Talmud, allowing contextual flexibility.[6]
Linguistic Origins
The name Cheshvan (Hebrew: חֶשְׁוָן), also rendered as Heshvan, is a shortened form of Marcheshvan (מַרְחֶשְׁוָן), adopted during the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE when Jewish communities incorporated Akkadian month names into their calendar nomenclature.[2][6] This linguistic borrowing reflects the influence of Mesopotamian calendrical systems on post-exilic Judaism, as attested in the Jerusalem Talmud, which states that the months' names originated in Babylonia.[2]Linguistically, Marcheshvan derives from the Akkadian waraḫ samnu (or araḥšamna), meaning "eighth month," corresponding to its position in the civil calendar starting from Nisan.[6][27] In Akkadian phonology, the interchangeability of labial consonants—specifically, "w" (represented by vav ו) and "m" (mem מ)—facilitated the transformation into the Hebrew form, where waraḫ shifted to mar- and samnu to cheshvan.[6][27] The truncation to Cheshvan eliminates the prefix, a common Ashkenazic and Yemenite pronunciation pattern observed in textual Hebrew since medieval times.[28]Traditional Jewish interpretations often attribute the mar- prefix to Hebrew roots implying "bitter" (מר, mar) due to the month's lack of festivals or its association with the Biblical flood's onset, but these are folk etymologies unsupported by comparative Semiticlinguistics, which prioritize the Akkadian numeral derivation.[4][6] This distinction underscores how post-Babylonian adaptations layered interpretive meanings onto borrowed terms while preserving their core phonetic and positional structure.[2]
Biblical and Historical Events
The Great Flood
According to Genesis 7:11, the Great Flood commenced in the six hundredth year of Noah's life, on the seventeenth day of the second month, when "all the fountains of the great deep burst forth, and the windows of the heavens were opened."[29] In the context of the Hebrew civil calendar, which begins with Tishrei as the first month, the second month corresponds to Cheshvan (also known as Marcheshvan).[30] Jewish tradition thus identifies the onset of the flood as the 17th of Cheshvan in the year 1656 from creation (circa 2105 BCE).[31]The biblical narrative describes continuous rainfall for forty days and nights following this date, with waters prevailing upon the earth for 150 days thereafter (Genesis 7:12, 24). The ark, carrying Noah, his family, and representatives of every animal, floated amid the deluge, which Jewish sources interpret as divine judgment on human corruption.[32] Cheshvan's association with the flood contributes to its characterization as a month of hardship and reflection, devoid of festivals, symbolizing a period of trial before renewal.[9]The flood's timeline extends into subsequent months, with the waters beginning to recede by the first day of the first month (Genesis 8:13) and the earth fully drying on the twenty-seventh day of the second month the following year—Cheshvan 27, 1657 from creation (Genesis 8:14).[33] This endpoint marks the completion of a 371-day (or 365-day solar year per some calculations) cycle, after which Noah and his survivors disembarked.[31] The event's bracketing by Cheshvan underscores the month's thematic link to destruction and eventual restoration in biblical chronology.[31]
Completion of Solomon's Temple
The completion of Solomon's Temple marked the culmination of a seven-year construction project initiated in the fourth year of King Solomon's reign. According to the biblical account in 1 Kings, work began in the second month, Ziv (corresponding to Iyar), and concluded precisely seven years later in the month of Bul, identified as the eighth month of the Hebrew calendar, during Solomon's eleventh regnal year.[18] This timeline underscores the meticulous adherence to divine specifications outlined earlier, with the structure finished "throughout all its parts and according to all its plans."[18]Bul, the pre-exilic Canaanite-derived name for what later became known as Cheshvan or Marcheshvan, reflects the month's association with the onset of the rainy season in ancient Israel, a period of agricultural dormancy following the harvest festivals of Tishrei.[3] The Temple's completion in this month, rather than during a high holidayseason, allowed for practical finalization amid cooler weather, though rabbinic tradition holds that the dedication ceremony was deliberately deferred to the following Tishrei (the seventh month) to align with Sukkot and enable greater communal participation and festivity.[16] This postponement, spanning approximately one year, is inferred from 1 Kings 8:2, which describes the assembly in Ethanim (Tishrei) for the ark's installation and divine glory's manifestation.Historically, the event symbolizes the fulfillment of God's promise to David for a permanent house of worship in Jerusalem, replacing the portable Tabernacle, and represents a peak of Israelite unity and prosperity under Solomon's rule circa 960 BCE by conventional chronologies.[34] No specific day within Bul is recorded in the primary biblical text, though some traditional reckonings associate it with the month's beginning, emphasizing the project's exacting precision.[35] The absence of immediate celebration in Cheshvan has contributed to interpretive views of the month as one of subdued reflection, contrasting with the later joyous dedication.[36]
Other Recorded Events in Jewish History
On 1 Cheshvan 5461 (14 October 1700 Gregorian), Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid Segal arrived in Jerusalem with a group of about 500 Ashkenazi immigrants from Europe, representing the largest organized Jewish aliyah to the city before the 19th century; the followers purchased property for a synagogue and study hall, though HaChasid died three days later, and many were later expelled by local authorities amid financial disputes and Arab opposition.[37][38]The Balfour Declaration, issued on 17 Cheshvan 5678 (2 November 1917 Gregorian) by British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, pledged support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" while stipulating no prejudice to existing non-Jewish communities, galvanizing Zionist efforts and influencing post-World War I mandates.[4][39]Kristallnacht, or the Night of Broken Glass, unfolded on 15–16 Cheshvan 5699 (9–10 November 1938 Gregorian), when Nazi authorities orchestrated pogroms across Germany and Austria, destroying over 7,000 Jewish businesses and 1,000 synagogues, killing at least 91 Jews, and arresting 30,000 Jewish men for internment in concentration camps, marking a sharp escalation in state-sponsored antisemitic violence.[4][40]
Observances and Customs
Absence of Major Holidays
Cheshvan, also known as Marcheshvan, stands as the sole month in the Hebrew calendar devoid of any major holidays, festivals, or fast days beyond the weekly Shabbat observance.[1][41] This absence follows the densely packed observances of Tishrei, which includes Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Shemini Atzeret, and Simchat Torah, and precedes Kislev's Hanukkah, creating a deliberate interlude without mandated celebrations.[4]The epithet "Marcheshvan," incorporating the Hebrew prefixmar meaning "bitter," is traditionally linked to this lack of joyous events, evoking a sense of melancholy or austerity in contrast to neighboring months' festivities.[4][7] Some rabbinic interpretations propose that Cheshvan's barrenness serves a redemptive purpose, positing it as reserved for the era of the Messiah, during which new holidays will be established to fill its void.[1] This perspective frames the month's quietude not as deficiency but as anticipation, though it remains unmarked by biblical commandments or rabbinic institutions for special mitzvot.[42]In practice, the absence underscores a period of introspection and recovery from Tishrei's intensity, allowing focus on daily Torah study and personal spiritual work without the structure of public rituals.[43] While minor commemorations, such as yahrtzeits, occur, they do not elevate to the status of major holidays observed universally across Jewish communities.[44]
Commemoration of Rachel's Yahrtzeit
The yahrtzeit of Rachel, the biblical matriarch and wife of Jacob, is traditionally observed on the 11th of Cheshvan, marking the anniversary of her death in childbirth while giving birth to Benjamin, as recorded in Genesis 35:16-20, where she was buried on the road to Ephrath (Bethlehem) and Jacob erected a pillar over her grave.[45][46] This date, though subject to some rabbinic debate regarding precise calendrical alignment with the biblical account, remains the established day of commemoration in Jewish tradition, with historical sources tracing it to midrashic interpretations placing her passing in 1553 BCE (or 2208 from creation).[47][48]Observances center on mourning and supplication at Rachel's Tomb (Kever Rachel), located in Bethlehem, which sees peak visitation on this date as the busiest day of the year, drawing thousands for prayers seeking her intercession, particularly among women for fertility, safe childbirth, and the welfare of children, reflecting her own history of initial barrenness and maternal devotion.[49][50] Customs include reciting specific tefillot (prayers) invoking Rachel as a mediator before God, lighting memorial candles, and studying Torah portions and midrashim praising her righteousness and compassion.[51][52] Some communities refer to the day as "Jewish Mother's Day," emphasizing themes of maternal sacrifice and the protective role of mothers in Jewish life.[53]The commemoration draws on the prophecy in Jeremiah 31:15-17, where Rachel is depicted weeping bitterly for her exiled "children" (interpreted as the Jewish people in diaspora), refusing consolation until assured of their return, symbolizing hope amid national suffering and reinforcing the day's focus on collective redemption and familial pleas.[46][54] In contemporary practice, especially in Israel, large gatherings at the tomb include communal prayers for soldiers, hostages, and national security, underscoring Rachel's enduring archetype of compassionate advocacy.[55] While access to the site has been restricted due to geopolitical tensions since the 1990s, requiring armored transport from Jerusalem, devotion persists through organized visits and global remembrances.[56]
Minor Practices and Regional Variations
In Ashkenazi Jewish communities, a longstanding custom known as the BeHaB fasts (ta'anit BeHaB) involves observing three minor fast days shortly after Sukkot: the first Monday (beit, the second day of the week), Thursday (hei, the fifth day), and the following Monday of Cheshvan.[57] These fasts, which typically occur in the first two weeks of the month, serve as a form of spiritual atonement and preparation following the High Holidays, with participants refraining from food and drink from dawn until dusk on each day.[58] The practice derives from earlier traditions aimed at countering potential spiritual decline after festive periods, though its observance has diminished in modern times among many groups.[59]Some observant Jews, particularly those following kabbalistic customs, mark Yom Kippur Katan (Minor Day of Atonement) on the final day of Cheshvan, which serves as the eve of Rosh ChodeshKislev.[60] This involves a partial fast, penitential prayers (selichot), and confessions (vidui) to atone for sins of the preceding month, echoing the themes of Yom Kippur but on a smaller scale; however, it is not universally observed and is omitted if the date conflicts with Shabbat or other restrictions.[4]Regional variations include the Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jewish) observance of Sigd on the 29th of Cheshvan, a holiday commemorating the renewal of the covenant at Sinai and expressing yearning for Zion through communal prayers on mountaintops, Torah reading, and feasting.[61] Originally isolated from broader Jewish practice, Sigd gained official recognition as an Israeli national holiday in 2008, with celebrations now incorporating state events while preserving traditional elements like the role of kesim (spiritual leaders).[62] In certain historical communities, such as those referenced by 19th-century rabbinic authorities, there is also a custom to avoid weddings throughout Cheshvan due to its association with the Great Flood's onset, emphasizing caution amid the month's themes of trial.[23]
Cultural and Interpretive Significance
Association with Bitterness and Reflection
The month of Cheshvan, alternatively known as Marcheshvan, derives its epithet of bitterness from the Hebrew prefix mar, signifying "bitter," appended to its name to reflect the absence of festivals following the holiday-laden Tishrei.[3][6] This designation underscores the month's relative spiritual austerity, as it contains no major joyous observances, contrasting sharply with the celebratory density of preceding and subsequent months in the Hebrew calendar.[4] Jewish tradition interprets this "bitterness" not merely as deprivation but as a deliberate pause, evoking the maror (bitter herbs) of Passover to symbolize life's trials and the potential for redemption through endurance.[63]In response to this perceived emptiness, Cheshvan fosters a period of introspection, where the lack of external rituals directs focus inward toward personal ethical refinement and spiritual preparation.[64] Rabbinic teachings emphasize this as an opportunity to cultivate resilience, transforming routine into a vessel for building faith amid silence, akin to the quiet gestation before the lights of Hanukkah in Kislev.[65] This reflective ethos aligns with broader Jewish emphases on teshuvah (repentance) extending from Elul, positioning Cheshvan as a testing ground for applying High Holiday insights in mundane contexts without festive distractions.[66] Such interpretations, drawn from sources like Chabad and Orthodox Union literature, highlight causality in spiritual cycles: the "bitter" interlude causally enables deeper self-examination, countering any narrative of mere melancholy with pragmatic growth.[3][4]
Perspectives in Jewish Mysticism
In Kabbalistic tradition, Cheshvan is associated with the sense of smell, which serves as a bridge to the higher levels of the soul, enabling perception of divine essence beyond the physical. This sensory correspondence, derived from interpretations of the Sefer Yetzirah, underscores the month's role in refining subtle spiritual awareness amid its lack of overt festivals, fostering introspection and the elevation of mundane experiences.[67]As the eighth month in the civil Hebrew calendar (counting from Nisan), Cheshvan symbolizes transcendence beyond the natural order of seven, linking it to the Messianic era and the revelation of supernatural realities. Kabbalists interpret this numerical position as an invitation to manifest eternal divine light within the temporal world, transforming potential bitterness—evoked by the prefix "mar" in Marcheshvan—into a vessel for redemption through personal effort and rectification (tikkun).[68]The month aligns with the zodiac sign of Scorpio (akrav), ruled by Mars, representing transformative forces akin to death and rebirth, and is connected to the tribe of Manasseh, whose name evokes neshama (soul), emphasizing soul-level faith and hope. This framework, drawn from Hasidic and Lurianic Kabbalah, positions Cheshvan as a period for building resilience against spiritual aridity, where the absence of holidays compels proactive infusion of holiness into daily life, preparing for future revelations.[65][69]
Modern Observances and Reflections
In contemporary Jewish practice, Cheshvan remains largely devoid of major holidays, prompting reflections on its role as a period of introspection and integration of Tishrei's spiritual lessons into everyday life. Orthodox sources emphasize that the month's "bitterness" arises from the absence of festivals, viewing it as an opportunity to focus on ordinary routines and personal growth without ritual interruptions.[4] This perspective aligns with teachings that Cheshvan allows practitioners to weave High Holiday themes—such as repentance and joy—into mundane activities, underscoring Judaism's emphasis on consistent observance beyond special occasions.[70]Minor customs persist, including the Ashkenazi "Behab" fasts on the first Monday, Thursday, and subsequent Monday of Cheshvan, aimed at atonement and spiritual renewal following the fall holidays. Additionally, some observe Yom Kippur Katan, a minor fast akin to a small Day of Atonement, on the 27th of Cheshvan or Erev Rosh Chodesh, particularly if a minyan of fasters assembles. Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan itself, spanning two days in non-leap years, serves as a subdued monthly renewal, celebrated with prayers and, in some communities, festive meals despite the month's overall austerity.[3][4]Modern reflections often reframe Cheshvan positively as a time for rest, rejuvenation, and preparation for winter, contrasting the intensity of prior months. Chabad teachings suggest it is "reserved" for the Messianic era, when its potential for elevation will manifest, encouraging believers to infuse daily life with transcendent purpose. In broader contemporary discourse, the month symbolizes confronting the "real world" post-holidays, fostering commitments to ethical living and resilience amid routine challenges.[1][71] These interpretations, drawn from rabbinic and communal sources, highlight Cheshvan's understated value in sustaining year-round Jewish continuity without contrived innovations.[43]