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Circumplanetary disk

A circumplanetary disk (CPD) is a rotating disk of gas and dust encircling a planet, serving as a site for the formation of moons through the accretion of material, much like protoplanetary disks around stars facilitate planet formation.^[1] These disks typically form around young giant planets during the late stages of planet formation, when the planet accretes gas from the surrounding protoplanetary disk, creating a subdisk with sufficient angular momentum to become rotationally supported.^[2] CPDs can arise through two primary mechanisms: core accretion, where a solid core grows by capturing gas and forms a hot, optically thick disk with masses around 0.1–1% of the planet's mass, or gravitational instability, which produces cooler disks (temperatures below 100 K) that may be up to 8 times more massive relative to the planet.^[3] The properties of CPDs vary with the planet's mass and the circumstellar disk's aspect ratio; higher planet masses (e.g., several Jupiter masses) and lower disk scale heights promote well-defined, thin disks, while lower masses lead to more envelope-like structures.^[2] In our solar system, CPDs are hypothesized to have formed the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, with models suggesting they were fed by gas from the primordial solar nebula.^[3] Observationally, CPDs are rare and challenging to detect due to their small size and the prevalence of planets at large orbital radii where disk formation is less likely, but the first clear evidence came in 2021 from ALMA observations of a disk around the exoplanet PDS 70c, a Jupiter-like world about 5.1 billion kilometers from its star, with a disk diameter roughly equal to 1 AU and mass sufficient to form up to three Moon-sized moons.^[2]^[4] Subsequent studies, including a 2025 analysis, confirm their scarcity at wide orbits but highlight potential detections around systems like AB Aur b, underscoring CPDs' role in testing theories of satellite formation and planetary system evolution.^[2]

Definition and Properties

Physical Characteristics

A circumplanetary disk is a torus-, pancake-, or ring-shaped structure of gas, dust, planetesimals, and rocky material that orbits a forming giant planet, distinct from the larger circumstellar disk surrounding the central star. These disks arise from material accreted onto the planet, forming a rotationally supported subdisk embedded within the planet's Hill sphere. Unlike circumstellar disks, which span tens to hundreds of astronomical units, circumplanetary disks are confined to scales much smaller than the planet's orbital radius around the star.^[3] The radial extent of a circumplanetary disk typically begins at an inner edge just beyond the planet's radius, around 2 planetary radii, and extends outward to approximately 0.4–0.5 times the planet's Hill radius, where tidal forces from the star truncate the disk. For a Jupiter-mass planet at 5 au, the Hill radius is about 50 Jupiter radii, so the disk spans roughly 2 to 20–25 Jupiter radii. Mass estimates for these disks range from $10^{-5} to $10^{-3} times the planet's mass, though simulations show values up to $4 \times 10^{-2} M_p for more massive planets (5–10 M_\mathrm{Jup}), with the disk primarily composed of hydrogen and helium gas containing embedded dust grains from micron to centimeter sizes. The temperature profile decreases radially from around 1000 K near the inner edge, driven by viscous heating and stellar irradiation, to about 100 K at the outer edge, ensuring the entire disk remains above the water freezing point in many models but allowing for volatile condensation farther out. Recent JWST observations of systems like Delorme 1 AB b (2025) reveal carbon-rich disks with blackbody temperatures around 295 K, effective radii of approximately 19 R_Jup, and low gas masses on the order of 10^{-6} M_Jup, aligning with theoretical expectations for young, accreting CPDs.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] Key structural parameters include an aspect ratio H/r of approximately 0.1–0.3, reflecting the disk's moderate flaring due to thermal support, and a turbulent viscosity parameterized by \alpha \sim 10^{-3} to $10^{-2}, which governs angular momentum transport and accretion rates. Disk stability is maintained via the Toomre parameter Q > 1, typically Q \gg 1 in the inner regions and approaching 1 at the outer edge to prevent gravitational fragmentation. Compositionally, the disks are gas-dominated with a dust-to-gas mass ratio of about 0.01, though midplane depletion to $10^{-3}–$10^{-4} enhances ice formation; ice lines for water and other volatiles occur at 5–10 planetary radii (or 0.05–0.1 Hill radii), where temperatures drop below 150–180 K, enabling condensation of ices that influence moon compositions.^[9]^[10]

Role in Satellite Formation

Circumplanetary disks primarily function as nurseries for the formation of regular satellites, where planetesimals and dust particles coalesce through processes such as gravitational instability or core accretion to produce moons.^[11] In these disks, solid materials aggregate into larger bodies, with the disk's gaseous environment facilitating the capture and growth of these precursors to satellites. A key mechanism within circumplanetary disks is pebble accretion, wherein centimeter- to meter-sized pebbles drift inward and accrete onto moon embryos, enabling rapid growth. This process allows protosatellites to form moon embryos on timescales of $10^4 to $10^5 years for large moons, outpacing gas dissipation in the disk.^[12] Additionally, remnants of the disk or material from disrupted satellites can coalesce into ring systems, preserving circumplanetary debris as observed in planetary ring structures.^[13] The disks influence satellite architecture through dynamical interactions, including inward migration driven by type I and type II torques between satellites and the disk gas, which can lead to resonant chains in satellite systems.^[14] In the gas-starved disk paradigm, the limited and time-variable supply of gas from the parent protoplanetary disk restricts satellite growth primarily to rocky or icy compositions, preventing the formation of gas giant moons. This paradigm favors the accretion of solids over extended periods, aligning with the compositions of known regular satellites. Moons formed in water-rich regions of circumplanetary disks, influenced by temperature gradients that position ice lines, hold implications for habitability through the potential development of subsurface oceans. These oceans may arise from incorporated volatiles and subsequent tidal heating, creating environments conducive to liquid water persistence.^[15]^[16]

Theoretical Models

Formation Mechanisms

The primary mechanism for the formation of circumplanetary disks (CPDs) involves the transfer of angular momentum from infalling circumstellar material during the runaway accretion phase of a giant planet, leading to rotational instability that sheds material into a disk.^[17] This process partitions the incoming gas between direct accretion onto the planet and disk formation, with the disk emerging as excess angular momentum cannot be fully absorbed by the planet's spin.^[17] In the core accretion model, a planetary core captures gas from the protoplanetary disk (PPD), and the shedding of excess angular momentum results in CPD formation.^[17] As the planet contracts during this phase, the transition from a spherical envelope to a rotationally supported disk occurs, driven by the inflow's specific angular momentum bias relative to the Hill sphere.^[18] Theoretical models predict distinct properties for CPDs formed via different mechanisms. In the core accretion scenario, CPDs are hot and optically thick, with masses typically 0.1–1% of the planet's mass.^[2] In contrast, the gravitational instability model involves rapid collapse of gas clumps in the PPD to form the planet, potentially producing cooler disks (temperatures below 100 K) that may be up to 8 times more massive relative to the planet.^[3] Bondi-Hoyle-Lyttleton accretion contributes by capturing ambient gas onto the moving planet, with the accretion rate given by \dot{M} \propto \frac{(G M_p)^2 \rho}{v^3}, where \rho is the ambient density and v is the relative velocity.^[19] This process influences the inflow pattern into the Hill sphere, enhancing disk buildup through Bondi radius effects.^[17] CPD formation typically occurs within $10^3 to $10^4 years after the planet reaches approximately 10 Earth masses, aligning with the viscous spreading timescale during the initial contraction.^[17] The process depends strongly on PPD properties, such that higher disk aspect ratios (H/r > 0.05) promote denser CPDs by facilitating more efficient mass delivery and angular momentum transport into the Hill sphere.^[2]

Evolutionary Dynamics

Circumplanetary disks undergo viscous spreading after their initial formation, during which angular momentum transport causes the disk to expand radially outward while facilitating inward accretion of gas onto the central planet. This process is governed by the standard viscous evolution equation for accretion disks,

\frac{\partial \Sigma}{\partial t} = \frac{3}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left[ r^{1/2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} (\nu \Sigma r^{1/2}) \right],

where \Sigma(r,t) is the surface density profile and \nu is the kinematic viscosity, typically parameterized in the \alpha-prescription as \nu = \alpha c_s H, with \alpha \sim 10^{-3}--$10^{-2}, sound speed c_s, and scale height H. In circumplanetary disks, this spreading limits the disk extent to roughly 0.3--0.5 times the planet's Hill radius, preventing excessive mass buildup and enabling efficient satellite formation within the inner regions. Simulations show that higher viscosity accelerates outward expansion, reducing the disk's inner density and altering the torque balance on embedded bodies.^[17]^[20] External ultraviolet radiation from the host star drives photoevaporation in circumplanetary disks, eroding the outer disk edge through heating and hydrodynamic winds that remove gas at rates scaling with the stellar flux. This process significantly shortens the disk lifetime, typically to 10^4--10^5 years for Jupiter-mass planets in solar-type systems, though the overall evolutionary phase aligns with the protoplanetary disk dispersal over 1--10 Myr. Photoevaporation truncates the disk at radii where the ionization front balances viscous inflow, with mass-loss rates of \dot{M} \sim 10^{-10}--$10^{-8} M_\odot yr^{-1} for far-ultraviolet fluxes of 10^3--10^4 G_0. In clustered environments, intracluster radiation can enhance dispersal, explaining architectural differences in satellite systems like those of Jupiter and Saturn.^[21]^[22] Embedded moons in circumplanetary disks experience Type I migration driven by gravitational torques from Lindblad resonances, where density waves excited at orbital commensurabilities with the disk lead to net inward or outward drift depending on the torque imbalance. These torques can truncate the disk at approximately 0.5 times the Hill radius by clearing material through resonant interactions, limiting further outward spreading. Migration timescales for moonlets of 10^{-4}--10^{-2} Earth masses range from 10^3--10^5 years, slower than viscous evolution in low-\alpha disks, allowing moons to accrete before falling onto the planet. The disk mass is constrained by tidal truncation within the Hill sphere, typically limited to about 0.01 times the planet's mass to prevent overflow and instability, as excess material would escape or accrete rapidly. This limit arises from the balance between viscous supply and tidal removal, with simulations showing steady-state masses of M_\mathrm{disk} \sim 10^{-3}--$10^{-2} M_p) for \alpha \sim 10^{-2}. Beyond this threshold, the disk destabilizes, ejecting gas and altering moon formation efficiency.^[23]^[17] Following gas dissipation via viscosity and photoevaporation, circumplanetary disks transition to debris disks composed of planetesimals, dust, and remnant rings on timescales of around 10 Myr, mirroring the dispersal of the parent protoplanetary disk. This phase features collisional evolution of solid material, forming structures like narrow rings or belts analogous to Saturn's system, with dust replenished by impacts over 10^6--10^7 years. The gas-poor remnants provide long-term reservoirs for irregular satellites or ring maintenance.^[24]

Hypothetical Evidence in the Solar System

Jupiter's Early Disk

A circumplanetary disk around Jupiter is hypothesized to have formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago, during the planet's rapid accretion phase within the solar nebula, when Jupiter grew to its current mass of about 1 M_Jup.^[17] This disk arose from material shed via angular momentum transport as Jupiter contracted under its own gravity, with an estimated initial mass on the order of 10^{-3} M_Jup, sufficient to supply the building blocks for its satellite system.^[17] The disk's formation occurred over a short timescale of roughly 10^4 years during the planet's Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction, transitioning from a rotationally supported structure to a viscously evolving gaseous disk fed by inflow from the surrounding solar nebula.^[17] Model-based evidence for this early disk draws heavily from the characteristics of Jupiter's Galilean moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—which exhibit a clear compositional gradient: the inner moons (Io and Europa) are predominantly rocky with low ice fractions, while the outer ones (Ganymede and Callisto) are increasingly icy.^[12] This gradient is explained by the presence of a snow line in the disk at approximately 15 R_Jup (Jupiter radii), beyond which water ice could condense and incorporate into accreting satellites, while inner regions remained warmer and drier.^[25] Simulations indicate the disk extended outward to about 50 R_Jup, limited by tidal truncation near Jupiter's Hill sphere, with moon formation occurring via pebble accretion processes that assembled the satellites in as little as 10^5 years.^[26] Seminal models by Canup and Ward (2002, updated in 2010) demonstrate how angular momentum shedding during Jupiter's spin-down phase populated the disk, enabling efficient satellite growth through the capture and coagulation of solid pebbles drifting inward.^[25]^[17] Although no direct observational evidence exists for this ancient disk, its influence is inferred from the current orbital architecture of the Galilean moons, particularly the Laplace resonance among Io, Europa, and Ganymede (with mean motion ratios of 4:2:1), which models suggest was shaped by differential torques from the dissipating disk on migrating satellites. Possible remnants include Jupiter's faint ring system, potentially originating from disrupted disk material or collisions involving small moons, as dust particles ejected by impacts on inner satellites like Amalthea could trace back to primordial debris.^[27] Compositional analyses further support a shared disk origin, with the moons' bulk densities and ice fractions aligning with accretion from a common reservoir where volatiles sublimated in the inner disk but preserved outward, consistent with isotopic and elemental similarities indicative of nebular processing.^[10]

Saturn's Early Disk

During Saturn's formation approximately 4.5 billion years ago, a circumplanetary disk of gas and solids is inferred to have surrounded the planet, with an estimated mass of about 10^{-3} M_{Sat} and extending outward to roughly 100 R_{Sat}.^[28]^[29] This disk provided the material reservoir for the accretion of Saturn's regular satellites, with its structure influenced by the planet's rapid growth phase within the solar nebula.^[30] Evidence for this early disk is drawn from the formation histories of Saturn's moons, particularly Titan, which likely accreted via pebble accretion in the cooler outer regions beyond approximately 20 R_{Sat}.^[31] Smaller moons such as Enceladus are thought to have originated from remnants of this disk material, accreting as the disk viscously evolved and spread.^[29] The high water ice content in both the rings and moons, exceeding 90% in many cases, points to a disk snow line located around 20 R_{Sat}, where temperatures allowed water vapor to condense and dominate the composition.^[10]^[32] The current ring system is interpreted as a dilute remnant of this massive primordial disk, which underwent disruption through satellite formation processes or external impacts, leaving behind the observed icy structure.^[33] Models by Charnoz et al. (2011) propose that the initial ring mass was approximately 10^{-3} M_{Sat}, sufficient to accrete the mid-sized moons like Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea as the disk spread viscously outward.^[33] Dynamical simulations indicate that interactions between the evolving disk and satellites drove orbital migrations, leading to the current alignment of Tethys, Dione, and Enceladus through capture into mean-motion resonances such as the 2:1 Enceladus-Dione configuration.^[30] Data from the Cassini mission, including measurements of satellite orbital parameters, provide constraints on past disk interactions, with observed tidal migration rates implying prior viscous torques from a denser disk that influenced early orbital decay and resonance locking.^[30]^[34] These interactions highlight the disk's role in shaping the system's architecture before its dissipation left the enduring ring-moon configuration.^[29]

Observed Exoplanet Candidates

PDS 70 System

The PDS 70 system is a young planetary system centered on a T Tauri star of spectral type K7, with an age of approximately 5–6 million years and a distance of about 370 light-years from Earth.^[35] The star hosts a protoplanetary disk featuring prominent gaps cleared by two forming giant planets, PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c, which were directly imaged in the near-infrared using high-contrast instruments such as SPHERE on the Very Large Telescope (VLT) and GPI. These planets, embedded within the disk's cavities, provide a unique laboratory for studying ongoing planet and satellite formation processes.^[4] PDS 70 b, a Jupiter-mass protoplanet (approximately 2–8 M_Jup) orbiting at about 22 AU from the star, was the site of the first submillimeter detection of potential circumplanetary disk material in 2019 using ALMA observations at 855 μm.^[35] The emission source, offset by 0.074 arcsec from the planet, exhibited a flux of 73–100 μJy beam⁻¹, corresponding to a dust mass of roughly 1.8–3.2 × 10⁻³ M_⊕ for optically thin 1 mm grains at 20 K, or up to four times higher if marginally optically thick.^[35] Assuming a standard gas-to-dust ratio of 100, the total disk mass could reach ~0.001 M_Jup, with a compact size limited to ≲4 AU (about 0.2 R_Hill, where R_Hill is the planet's Hill radius).^[35] This dust emission is brighter than that around PDS 70 c, suggesting a dust-rich environment potentially conducive to moon formation, though its exact association with a circumplanetary disk remains tentative due to the offset.^[4] PDS 70 c, a more massive protoplanet (1–10 M_Jup) at ~34 AU, hosts the clearest evidence of a circumplanetary disk, confirmed through both dust continuum and molecular gas observations. In 2019 ALMA data at 855 μm, a spatially unresolved dust source was detected with a flux of 106 ± 19 μJy beam⁻¹, yielding a dust mass of 2–4.2 × 10⁻³ M_⊕ and a size ≲4 AU (~0.1–0.2 R_Hill).^[35] Higher-resolution ALMA imaging in 2021 refined this to a compact disk with radius <1.2 AU, dust mass ~0.007–0.031 M_⊕ (depending on grain size), and temperature ~26 K, consistent with viscous heating and irradiation models.^[4] The first gaseous detection came in 2022 via ALMA Band 6 observations of ¹²CO and ¹³CO J=2–1 lines, revealing a point-source emission in ¹³CO with integrated intensity 2.54 mJy beam⁻¹ km s⁻¹, gas temperature ≥35 K, and mass ≥0.095 M_Jup—confirming an active, gaseous circumplanetary disk as a moon-forming site. This gas emission, warmer and more localized than the surrounding protoplanetary disk material, indicates ongoing accretion. These circumplanetary disks are embedded within the parental protoplanetary disk of PDS 70, with no spatial overlap between their substructures; PDS 70 b's emission is dust-dominated and fainter in gas, while PDS 70 c's shows stronger gas signatures.^[4] Millimeter interferometry with ALMA has been crucial for resolving these features at ~0.1 arcsec scales, complementing near-infrared high-contrast imaging that confirms the planets' positions and accretion activity.^[35] The detections align with theoretical expectations for circumplanetary disk formation via gravitational capture from the circumstellar disk, providing direct evidence for satellite formation mechanisms in exoplanetary systems.^[4]

Recent Discoveries

In September 2025, NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) detected a moon-forming circumplanetary disk around the young exoplanet CT Cha b using its Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) for spectroscopy.^[36] CT Cha b, with an estimated mass of 10-15 Jupiter masses, orbits its star at an angular separation of approximately 1.3 arcseconds, located about 625 light-years away.^[37] The disk, rich in carbon-bearing molecules, extends to roughly 0.3 times the planet's Hill radius and shows potential for forming icy moons through ongoing dust and gas processes. This observation marks one of the clearest infrared views of a cooler, outer disk region, highlighting JWST's sensitivity to such structures.^[38] In June 2025, JWST observations of the YSES-1 system revealed silicate clouds in the atmosphere of the inner planet YSES-1 c and signatures of a circumplanetary disk around the outer planet YSES-1 b, orbiting a young solar-type star about 300 light-years distant.^[39] These findings, based on mid-infrared spectroscopy, indicate active disk accretion feeding material into the planet's envelope, with the disk potentially enabling moon formation through silicate-rich debris.^[40] The dual-planet setup provides a snapshot of differing evolutionary stages, where the inner disk shows atmospheric interactions akin to haze formation.^[41] A November 2025 report detailed a candidate circumplanetary disk transit in the ASASSN-24fw system, identified through a transient 4-magnitude dip in the light curve of a main-sequence star approximately 1,000 parsecs away.^[42] The event, lasting about 8 months from late 2024, suggests an occultation by a gas-rich disk with an estimated mass of around 0.01 times that of its host substellar companion, possibly resulting from a planetary collision or debris accumulation.^[43] Follow-up photometry and polarization data support the disk's optically thick nature, distinguishing it from stellar variability. By late 2025, JWST's infrared capabilities have enabled the detection of cooler, carbon- and silicate-rich disks, with follow-up observations from TESS and ALMA confirming around five circumplanetary disk candidates overall.^[44] These advancements build on earlier foundational observations like those of PDS 70, shifting focus to diverse chemical compositions and accretion dynamics.^[45] Key challenges in identifying these disks include differentiating circumplanetary emission from extended planetary atmospheres and their rarity at large orbital radii beyond 50 AU, where disk stability diminishes due to tidal influences.^[2] Future prospects involve Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) observations targeting transitional systems like HD 100546, aiming to resolve finer disk structures and gas kinematics with mid-infrared spectrographs such as METIS.^[46]

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