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Collapsing pulse

A collapsing pulse, also known as Corrigan's pulse or water hammer pulse, is a clinical sign observed during physical examination that describes a bounding and forceful arterial pulse featuring a rapid upstroke followed by a quick diastolic collapse.^[1] This pulse waveform results from a widened pulse pressure, where systolic pressure is markedly elevated and diastolic pressure is significantly reduced, often palpated at the radial or brachial artery.^[1] The collapsing pulse is most prominently associated with aortic regurgitation, a valvular heart disease where the aortic valve fails to close properly, allowing blood to flow backward into the left ventricle during diastole, thereby exaggerating the pulse's amplitude and rapidity.^[1] It can also arise in other hyperdynamic circulatory conditions, including patent ductus arteriosus, thyrotoxicosis, severe anemia, fever, pregnancy, or arteriovenous fistulas, which increase stroke volume or decrease peripheral vascular resistance.^[1] Physiologically, it may occur transiently during exercise or emotional stress due to heightened cardiac output.^[1] To elicit the collapsing pulse, the examiner elevates the patient's arm above the level of the heart while palpating the radial artery with the palm; the pulse feels like a sharp tapping or hammering sensation due to rapid runoff of blood into the dilated arterial system during diastole.^[1] Historically, the sign was first described in 1832–1833 by Irish physician Dominic John Corrigan, who noted the visible arterial pulsations in the neck, and later analogized to the "water hammer" toy by Thomas Watson in 1844, emphasizing the sudden cessation of flow.^[1] Its detection remains a key bedside finding in cardiovascular assessment, aiding in the diagnosis of underlying hemodynamic abnormalities, though echocardiography is often required for confirmation.^[1]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A collapsing pulse is a peripheral pulse characterized by a rapid upstroke, known as the percussion wave, followed by a quick collapse, due to exaggerated pulse pressure, resulting in a bounding and forceful quality.^[2]^[1] This physical sign manifests as a palpable arterial distension that abruptly recedes, often giving a sensation of a sharp tap followed by sudden emptying.^[3] It is also known by several alternative names, including water hammer pulse, Corrigan's pulse, and hyperkinetic pulse.^[1]^[4] The collapsing pulse is observed in conditions featuring high stroke volume and rapid diastolic runoff, leading to visible or palpable arterial expansion and subsequent collapse.^[1] A classic example is its association with aortic regurgitation.^[2]

Physical Characteristics

The collapsing pulse, also known as the water hammer pulse, presents with a bounding and forceful amplitude characterized by a rapid upstroke followed by an abrupt descent, creating a tactile sensation akin to a "tap" or "hammer" against the examining finger.^[1] This distinct waveform is most readily palpated at the radial, brachial, or femoral arteries, where the pulse feels like a sudden impulse traveling through the forearm or limb.^[5]^[6] Visually, the pulse manifests as prominent pulsations in the carotid arteries of the neck, with abrupt distention and collapse, or in the nail beds through alternate blanching and flushing indicative of capillary pulsations (Quincke's sign).^[4]^[7] These observable features highlight the exaggerated arterial excursion in affected individuals. The phenomenon is associated with a widened pulse pressure, often exceeding 60 mmHg, typically featuring systolic pressures above 140 mmHg and diastolic pressures below 60 mmHg, reflecting the hemodynamic extremes.^[5] The intensity varies by severity: subtle in mild presentations, requiring attentive palpation, but dramatically visible and forceful in severe cases.^[1] Such characteristics may also appear in high-output states like anemia.^[8]

Pathophysiology

Hemodynamic Mechanism

The collapsing pulse arises from a primary hemodynamic mechanism involving increased stroke volume, which leads to rapid systolic filling of the peripheral arteries, followed by accelerated diastolic emptying due to retrograde flow through incompetent valves or shunts, thereby creating an exaggerated pressure gradient between systole and diastole.^[1] This dynamic is classically associated with aortic regurgitation, where the left ventricle ejects a larger volume of blood into the arterial system to compensate for volume loss.^[1] Pulse pressure, defined as the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure (systolic BP - diastolic BP), widens significantly in this condition due to elevated systolic ejection from the augmented stroke volume and impaired diastolic pressure maintenance from rapid runoff.^[1] The arterial waveform exhibits a prominent upstroke, or anacrotic phase, characterized by a steep ascent reflecting the forceful and rapid ejection into compliant arteries, contrasting with the more gradual rise in normal waveforms.^[9] This is followed by a pronounced collapse, or catacrotic phase, with a sharp descent as arterial pressure plummets during diastole.^[1] The role of arterial compliance is critical, as reduced diastolic pressure results from excessive runoff into low-resistance beds, such as from the aorta back to the left ventricle, which diminishes the elastic recoil that normally sustains diastolic pressure and amplifies the collapsing sensation.^[1] In the arterial pressure tracing, this manifests as a steep ascent and rapid descent, often with a diminished or absent dicrotic notch—representing aortic valve closure—compared to the normal waveform's distinct notch and slower downslope, highlighting the loss of diastolic buffering.^[9]

Physiological Basis

The collapsing pulse arises from the body's adaptive responses to conditions that widen pulse pressure, involving compensatory mechanisms that maintain cardiac output despite rapid diastolic runoff. Baroreceptor activation in response to low diastolic pressure triggers a reflex tachycardia, mediated by increased sympathetic outflow, to sustain overall perfusion and counteract the hemodynamic widening of pulse pressure. Additionally, in high-output states, peripheral vasodilation promotes increased venous return and stroke volume, further enhancing the pulse's rapid descent as blood empties quickly into dilated vessels.^[10]^[1] Systemic factors such as hyperdynamic circulation amplify these effects without necessitating primary valvular pathology. In anemia, reduced blood viscosity lowers systemic vascular resistance, facilitating greater stroke volume and a more pronounced collapsing quality to the pulse. Similarly, thyrotoxicosis elevates metabolic demand, inducing widespread vasodilation and sympathetic activation that boost cardiac output, thereby exaggerating the pulse's bounding rise and fall through enhanced runoff during diastole. These influences collectively reduce total peripheral resistance, allowing for the characteristic quick collapse as diastolic pressure drops precipitously.^[1]^[2]^[11] Vascular factors play a key role in modulating the pulse's expression, with peripheral vasodilation directly contributing to the low total peripheral resistance that accelerates diastolic emptying. Large artery compliance, rather than stiffness, permits unimpeded transmission of the high stroke volume and rapid recoil, intensifying the collapsing sensation; conversely, increased arterial stiffness could dampen this by limiting vessel distensibility. Over time, chronic exposure to elevated stroke volumes prompts adaptive left ventricular remodeling, including eccentric hypertrophy, as the myocardium thickens to handle the persistent volume load while preserving ejection efficiency.^[1]^[12]^[13]

Etiology

Valvular Causes

The primary valvular cause of collapsing pulse is aortic regurgitation (AR), a condition in which the aortic valve leaflets fail to coapt fully during diastole, permitting retrograde blood flow from the aorta into the left ventricle.^[1] This regurgitant flow creates a rapid diastolic "runoff" that lowers aortic pressure abruptly, producing the hallmark bounding upstroke and sudden collapse of the peripheral pulse.^[14] AR accounts for the vast majority of collapsing pulse cases among valvular etiologies, with chronic forms being particularly prevalent in clinical presentations of this sign.^[1] Aortic regurgitation manifests in acute and chronic forms, each with distinct underlying mechanisms tied to valvular pathology. Acute AR typically arises from sudden structural disruption, such as infective endocarditis damaging valve leaflets or aortic dissection compromising valvular support, leading to immediate and severe retrograde flow.^[14] In contrast, chronic AR develops progressively from congenital or acquired defects, including bicuspid aortic valve (a common congenital anomaly affecting up to 1-2% of the population and predisposing to early degeneration), rheumatic fever (which causes leaflet thickening and fusion, especially in developing regions), and connective tissue disorders like Marfan syndrome.^[14] In Marfan syndrome, genetic mutations in fibrillin-1 lead to aortic root dilation, stretching the valve annulus and preventing proper leaflet closure. Leaking aortic valve prostheses can also cause AR and contribute to collapsing pulse.^[1] Other valvular conditions contributing to collapsing pulse include mixed aortic stenosis and regurgitation, often seen in degenerative or bicuspid valves where partial obstruction coexists with leakage, exacerbating volume overload and pulse dynamics.^[15] Rarely, severe mitral regurgitation may indirectly promote a collapsing pulse through significant left ventricular volume overload and hyperdynamic circulation, though this is far less common than AR.^[1] The clinical impact of these valvular causes correlates with regurgitation severity, quantified by regurgitant volume per beat via echocardiography: mild AR involves less than 30 mL/beat, while severe cases exceed 60 mL/beat, intensifying the pulse's amplitude and collapse due to greater diastolic runoff.^[16] This wide pulse pressure in severe AR amplifies the collapsing pulse's detectability during physical examination.^[14]

Non-Valvular Causes

Non-valvular causes of collapsing pulse arise primarily from hyperdynamic circulatory states or abnormal vascular communications that lead to increased stroke volume and reduced peripheral vascular resistance, mimicking the hemodynamic effects of valvular incompetence without involving structural valve defects. These conditions result in a rapid upstroke and quick diastolic collapse of the pulse due to enhanced cardiac output or diastolic runoff into low-pressure systems.^[1] High-output states represent a major category, where systemic vasodilation and elevated cardiac output produce the characteristic bounding and collapsing pulse. Severe anemia decreases blood viscosity and oxygen-carrying capacity, prompting compensatory tachycardia and increased stroke volume that manifests as a collapsing pulse.^[1] Thyrotoxicosis, characterized by elevated free T4 levels and suppressed TSH, induces widespread vasodilation and hypermetabolism, leading to high cardiac output and a prominent water hammer pulse.^[1] Similarly, beriberi from thiamine deficiency impairs myocardial energy metabolism, causing peripheral vasodilation and high-output heart failure with a collapsing pulse.^[1] Paget's disease of bone, through extensive arteriovenous shunting in affected skeletal tissue, elevates overall cardiac output and can produce this pulse finding.^[1] Liver cirrhosis and cor pulmonale can also lead to hyperdynamic circulation and collapsing pulse.^[1] Shunt-related etiologies involve abnormal connections that allow diastolic runoff from the aorta to lower-pressure compartments, accelerating the pulse collapse. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) creates a persistent left-to-right shunt, resulting in wide pulse pressure and a collapsing peripheral pulse due to runoff into the pulmonary circulation.^[1] Arteriovenous fistulas, such as those formed for hemodialysis access, divert arterial blood directly to veins, lowering diastolic pressure and eliciting a bounding, collapsing pulse.^[1] Ruptured sinus of Valsalva aneurysm typically presents with acute hemodynamic instability and a water hammer pulse from the sudden aorto-right heart shunt.^[1] Rare conditions like aortopulmonary window similarly cause runoff into the pulmonary artery, producing high-volume collapsing pulses.^[1] Other transient or physiologic factors can induce a collapsing pulse through temporary hyperdynamic circulation. Pregnancy represents a physiologic high-output state with reduced systemic vascular resistance and increased blood volume, often yielding a bounding pulse that collapses rapidly.^[1] Fever and anxiety elevate cardiac output via sympathetic activation and vasodilation, transiently mimicking the finding.^[1] These non-valvular causes differ from valvular etiologies by lacking primary aortic incompetence, instead relying on peripheral resistance drops or extracardiac shunts to generate the pulse abnormality; they account for a minority of cases compared to valvular disease.^[1]

Clinical Diagnosis

Examination Techniques

The detection of a collapsing pulse, also known as a water hammer pulse, primarily relies on palpation during the physical examination to identify its characteristic rapid upstroke and abrupt diastolic collapse. The patient is typically positioned supine with a slight recline to facilitate access to peripheral arteries, though a seated or standing position may be used to accentuate the finding during maneuvers.^[1]^[17] Palpation begins at the radial artery, where the examiner wraps the fingers around the patient's wrist to feel the pulse. The wrist elevation test involves lifting the patient's arm above the head while maintaining palpation; this enhances the gravitational runoff of blood, allowing the examiner to sense a tapping impulse in the forearm due to the rapid diastolic emptying.^[1] The water hammer test further emphasizes this by elevating the arm while observing for visible collapse of the artery, often with the palm placed over the wrist to appreciate both radial and ulnar pulsations.^[1]^[17] For the brachial artery, similar arm elevation is performed during palpation in the antecubital fossa to assess upper limb involvement. The femoral artery is palpated in the groin for lower limb evaluation, particularly to detect bounding quality or asymmetry, though it is less commonly emphasized than upper extremity sites.^[18] Bilateral comparison of pulses is essential to identify any asymmetry, which may indicate underlying hemodynamic differences.^[2] The severity of the collapsing pulse is graded subjectively on a scale from 1+ (subtle, barely perceptible collapse) to 4+ (dramatic, visible pulsation with forceful rebound), based on the amplitude and rapidity of the collapse, akin to general peripheral pulse grading systems.^[18] Patient positioning can enhance detection; for instance, transitioning from supine to sitting may increase the prominence of the pulse due to orthostatic effects on vascular tone.^[17] This sign is often associated with a wide pulse pressure, reflecting the underlying hyperdynamic circulation.^[1] In cases of severe aortic regurgitation, the collapsing pulse has poor sensitivity and specificity as a peripheral sign, but is useful when combined with other findings.^[19] Pitfalls include reduced palpability in patients with obesity, where excess tissue may obscure arterial impulses and complicate detection.

Associated Signs

Several peripheral signs often accompany the collapsing pulse, particularly in the context of severe aortic regurgitation, reflecting the underlying hyperdynamic circulation and wide pulse pressure.^[20]^[21] Corrigan's sign manifests as a visible, forceful pulsation in the carotid artery followed by rapid collapse, resembling the jerk of a water hammer.^[5]^[20] Quincke's sign involves observable capillary pulsations in the nail beds, elicited by gentle pressure on the nail tip, resulting in alternating blanching and flushing synchronized with the heartbeat.^[7]^[5] De Musset's sign appears as a subtle bobbing motion of the head with each cardiac cycle, due to exaggerated arterial pulsations transmitted to the neck vessels.^[21]^[20] Hill's sign is characterized by an exaggerated systolic blood pressure gradient between the upper and lower extremities, typically with popliteal pressure exceeding brachial pressure by more than 20 mmHg, and greater differences indicating more severe disease.^[5]^[21] Duroziez's sign consists of a to-and-fro murmur over the femoral artery: a systolic component distal to compression and a diastolic component proximal, heard when light pressure is applied with a stethoscope.^[22]^[23] Traube's sign refers to sharp, pistol-shot sounds auscultated over the femoral arteries during systole and diastole, attributable to rapid arterial distension and collapse.^[24]^[25] These signs frequently cluster together in severe aortic regurgitation, aiding in syndromic diagnosis of the hyperdynamic state, whereas they are uncommon in mild cases.

Historical Aspects

Eponym Origin

The collapsing pulse, also known as Corrigan's pulse, is eponymously named after Sir Dominic John Corrigan (1802–1880), an influential Irish physician and medical reformer. In 1832, Corrigan first described the sign as "visible and extensive pulsations of the arterial trunks of the head, neck, and superior extremities" in patients with aortic valve insufficiency.^[26] This description appeared in Corrigan's seminal paper, "On Permanent Patency of the Mouth of the Aorta, or Inadequacy of the Aortic Valves," published in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal (volume 37, pages 225–245). The work highlighted the pulse in the context of aortic diseases, including cases linked to syphilitic aortitis, a prevalent cause of valvular pathology in the 19th century.^[27] Initially termed "Corrigan's pulse," the sign's nomenclature evolved in the mid-19th century to "collapsing pulse" to emphasize its rapid upstroke and diastolic collapse. It also became known as the "water hammer pulse," an analogy drawn by Sir Thomas Watson in 1844 to the forceful expulsion and sharp sound of air or water from Victorian hydraulic hammers.^[1] In contemporary cardiology, the eponym "Corrigan's pulse" persists in textbooks and clinical literature as a classic sign of aortic regurgitation. The World Health Organization's ICD-10 classification lacks a dedicated code for the pulse but associates it with related valvular conditions, such as nonrheumatic aortic insufficiency (I35.1).^[28]

Historical Descriptions

Early descriptions of the collapsing pulse can be traced to ancient medical texts, where physicians noted variations in pulse character associated with febrile illnesses. Galen (129–c. 200 CE), a prominent Greco-Roman physician, extensively documented pulse qualities in his treatises, including descriptions of a "full" or bounding pulse observed during fevers, which he attributed to imbalances in bodily humors such as excess blood or heat. These observations laid foundational groundwork for later pulse diagnostics, though they lacked specific linkage to valvular pathology. In the 18th century, more precise accounts emerged connecting bounding or collapsing pulses to aortic conditions. French physician Raymond Vieussens (1641–1716) provided one of the earliest detailed reports in 1715, describing a forceful, rapidly collapsing radial pulse in a patient with suspected aortic disease, which he corroborated through autopsy findings of an enlarged left ventricle and aortic abnormalities.^[29] Vieussens' work highlighted the pulse's rapid upstroke and descent, distinguishing it from other arterial waveforms, though the full hemodynamic implications remained unexplored at the time.^[30] The 19th century marked a pivotal era for understanding the collapsing pulse, particularly through Irish physician Dominic Corrigan's 1832 publication, where he systematically linked the sign to aortic valve incompetence via post-mortem examinations of affected patients.^[31] Corrigan's observations emphasized the pulse's exaggerated visible pulsations in the neck and extremities, correlating them with valvular defects that allowed retrograde blood flow.^[32] This period's clinical context was dominated by infectious etiologies; syphilis, through aortitis leading to root dilation, and rheumatic fever, causing valvular inflammation, were prevalent causes of aortic regurgitation in Europe, contributing to the sign's relative commonality among patients.^[27]^[33] Advancements in the early 20th century enabled quantitative assessment of the collapsing pulse. The widespread adoption of sphygmomanometry, refined by Nikolai Korotkoff's auscultatory method in 1905 and gaining clinical prominence by the 1920s, allowed measurement of elevated pulse pressures—often exceeding 60 mmHg in severe cases—providing objective confirmation of the wide systolic-diastolic disparity underlying the sign.^[34] Post-World War II developments in echocardiography, pioneered by Inge Edler and Carl Hellmuth Hertz in 1953, further transformed recognition by visualizing aortic valve incompetence and regurgitant flow directly, diminishing reliance on physical pulse examination for diagnosis.^[35] In contemporary medicine, the collapsing pulse has become less frequently observed due to effective interventions against its primary historical causes. Antibiotic treatments for syphilis since the mid-20th century, along with rheumatic fever prophylaxis using penicillin from the 1950s, have drastically reduced infectious valvular damage.^[33] Additionally, aortic valve replacement surgeries, first successfully performed in 1960 by Dwight Harken using caged-ball prostheses, have offered curative options for severe regurgitation, further contributing to the sign's rarity in clinical practice today.^[29]

References

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