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Systole

Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle, during which the heart's ventricles contract to eject blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery, propelling oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs, respectively.^[1] This phase follows atrial systole, which actively fills the ventricles, and is essential for maintaining circulation by generating the pressure needed to overcome vascular resistance.^[2] Ventricular systole, the primary component, is divided into two subphases: isovolumetric contraction, where all heart valves are closed and ventricular pressure rises without volume change, and the ejection phase, during which the semilunar valves open to allow blood outflow until the end-systolic volume of 40–50 ml remains in each ventricle.^[2] Atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) close at the onset to prevent backflow into the atria, producing the first heart sound, while blood continues to enter the atria from the vena cavae and pulmonary veins.^[1] The duration of systole varies with heart rate but typically occupies about one-third of the cardiac cycle at rest.^[2] Physiologically, systole elevates arterial blood pressure, with systolic pressure—the peak value during ventricular ejection—normally ranging below 120 mmHg in healthy adults, as measured in readings like 120/80 mmHg.^[3] This pressure gradient ensures efficient perfusion of organs, and disruptions in systolic function, such as weakened contractions, can lead to conditions like heart failure by reducing cardiac output.^[1] In the broader context of cardiovascular health, systolic performance is influenced by factors including preload, afterload, and contractility, underscoring its role in overall hemodynamic stability.^[3]

Fundamentals

Etymology

The term "systole" originates from the Ancient Greek word συστολή (systolḗ), meaning "contraction" or "a drawing together," derived from the prefix σύν (sýn, "together") and the verb στέλλω (stéllō, "to place," "to send," or "to contract").^[4]^[5] In medical terminology, the concept was first recognized and named by Herophilus of Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE to describe the contraction phase of arterial pulsation.^[6] Later, Galen of Pergamon in the 2nd century CE adopted and expanded the term to refer specifically to the contraction of the heart, integrating it into his descriptions of cardiac and arterial movements.^[7] By the 17th century, William Harvey refined these ideas in his seminal work Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628), distinguishing systole as the active phase of cardiac contraction that propels blood, thereby clarifying its role in the circulatory system.^[8] The term entered English medical texts in the mid-16th century, around 1570, alongside its counterpart "diastole," from the Greek διαστολή (diastolḗ, "expansion" or "a drawing apart," from διά (diá, "apart") + στέλλω), to denote the opposing phases of contraction and relaxation in physiological processes such as the cardiac cycle.^[4]

Definition

Systole refers to the active contraction phase of muscle tissue, during which the volume of the chamber or structure decreases to propel its contents forward. In the context of the cardiovascular system, it most commonly describes the contraction of the heart chambers during the cardiac cycle, enabling the ejection of blood into the arteries. This process is essential for maintaining circulation and delivering oxygen-rich blood to the body's tissues.^[9] In contrast to diastole, the relaxation and filling phase of the cardiac cycle, systole specifically involves the forceful expulsion of blood from the ventricles. At a typical resting heart rate of 75 beats per minute, the entire cardiac cycle lasts approximately 0.8 seconds, with systole accounting for about 0.3 seconds of that duration. This temporal distinction ensures efficient pumping without overlap between ejection and refilling.^[10]^[11] The term is primarily associated with cardiac function. The efficiency of cardiac systole is often quantified by the ejection fraction, a key metric representing the percentage of blood volume pumped out of the left ventricle with each contraction, typically ranging from 50% to 70% in healthy individuals.^[12]^[13]

Cardiac Phases

Atrial Systole

Atrial systole represents the contraction phase of the heart's atria, occurring during the late diastolic period of the cardiac cycle to complete ventricular filling. This process follows atrial depolarization, initiated by the P wave on the electrocardiogram, and typically lasts approximately 100 milliseconds. It contributes about 20-30% to the end-diastolic volume of the ventricles, enhancing preload after passive filling has accounted for the majority (70-80%) during earlier diastole. In the Wiggers diagram, atrial systole is positioned in late diastole, just prior to ventricular systole, with atrioventricular valves open to allow blood flow from atria to ventricles.^[9]^[14]^[15]^[16] The right and left atria contract nearly simultaneously during systole, coordinated by the sinoatrial node, which generates an electrical impulse that spreads across both atria via gap junctions. The right atrium propels deoxygenated blood into the right ventricle under relatively low pressure, typically 5-10 mmHg during contraction, reflecting the lower resistance in the pulmonary circulation. In contrast, the left atrium contracts to fill the left ventricle with oxygenated blood at higher pressures of about 8-12 mmHg, accommodating the greater demands of systemic circulation. This "atrial kick" not only optimizes ventricular end-diastolic volume but also boosts overall cardiac output by 20-30%, particularly important during exercise when passive filling time diminishes.^[17]^[18]^[19] Dysfunction in atrial systole, such as in atrial fibrillation, disrupts this coordinated contraction, resulting in chaotic and ineffective atrial activity that leads to irregular ventricular filling and reduced cardiac efficiency.^[20]

Ventricular Systole

Ventricular systole represents the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle in which the ventricles actively pump blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta, following atrial systole to ensure complete ventricular filling.^[9] This phase is divided into two main subphases: isovolumetric contraction and ejection. During isovolumetric contraction, all heart valves are closed, preventing blood flow, while ventricular pressure rises rapidly from end-diastolic levels of approximately 0-12 mmHg to exceed arterial diastolic pressures, typically reaching about 80 mmHg in the left ventricle.^[9] This pressure buildup occurs without a change in ventricular volume, lasting roughly 50 ms.^[21] The ejection phase begins when ventricular pressure surpasses arterial pressure, opening the pulmonic and aortic valves to propel blood forward. In the left ventricle, blood is ejected into the aorta against a higher systemic resistance, while the right ventricle ejects into the pulmonary artery with lower resistance.^[22] The total duration of ventricular systole is approximately 250-300 ms, with ejection comprising the majority of this time.^[23] The right and left ventricles exhibit differences in systolic dynamics due to their respective vascular beds. The right ventricle generates a peak systolic pressure of about 25 mmHg to overcome pulmonary artery pressure (systolic/diastolic: 25/8 mmHg), resulting in a lower workload compared to the left ventricle, which reaches 120 mmHg to match aortic pressure (systolic/diastolic: 120/80 mmHg).^[18] Despite these pressure disparities, both ventricles coordinate to maintain unidirectional blood flow and prevent regurgitation through precise valve timing.^[24] The Wiggers diagram provides a graphical depiction of ventricular systole, illustrating simultaneous changes in ventricular pressure, volume, electrocardiogram (ECG) tracings, and valve states over time. Key events include the QRS complex on the ECG, which initiates ventricular depolarization and contraction, marking the onset of systole, and the dicrotic notch on the aortic pressure curve, signifying the closure of the aortic valve at the end of ejection.^[9] This diagram highlights how electrical and mechanical events synchronize to optimize ejection efficiency.^[10] The primary outputs of ventricular systole are stroke volume and cardiac output, which quantify the heart's pumping effectiveness at rest. Stroke volume, the volume of blood ejected per beat, typically ranges from 70-100 mL in healthy adults, while cardiac output—the product of stroke volume and heart rate—averages 5-6 L/min under resting conditions.^[25]^[26]

Electrical and Mechanical Processes

Electrical Systole

Electrical systole refers to the phase of the cardiac cycle encompassing the depolarization and repolarization of the cardiac muscle cells, which is measured on the electrocardiogram (ECG) as the QT interval, typically lasting 300-400 milliseconds in adults at rest.^[27] This interval captures the electrical activity that prepares the heart for contraction, distinguishing it from the mechanical events that follow. The QT interval's duration varies with heart rate, and corrections such as the Bazett formula are used to standardize it for clinical assessment.^[28] The electrical impulse originates in the sinoatrial (SA) node, the heart's primary pacemaker located in the right atrium, which generates spontaneous action potentials at a rate of 60-100 beats per minute under normal conditions.^[29] From the SA node, the impulse propagates rapidly through the atrial myocardium via internodal pathways, causing atrial depolarization represented by the P wave on the ECG. This wave lasts about 80-100 milliseconds and reflects the synchronous activation of atrial cells leading to atrial systole.^[30] The impulse then reaches the atrioventricular (AV) node at the atrioventricular junction, where it encounters a physiological delay of approximately 0.1 seconds to allow complete atrial emptying before ventricular activation begins.^[31] From the AV node, the signal travels through the bundle of His, dividing into left and right bundle branches, and finally to the Purkinje fibers, which distribute the impulse across the ventricular myocardium, resulting in the QRS complex on the ECG. This ventricular depolarization occurs over 60-100 milliseconds and ensures coordinated contraction from apex to base.^[32] Repolarization follows, marked by the T wave, which corresponds to the recovery of ventricular cells and completes the QT interval.^[33] The cardiac action potential underlying these events consists of five phases (0 through 4). Phase 0 involves rapid depolarization due to influx of sodium ions (Na⁺) through voltage-gated channels, elevating the membrane potential from -90 mV to +30 mV. Phase 1 features partial repolarization from transient potassium (K⁺) efflux, while phase 2 maintains a plateau via balanced calcium influx and K⁺ efflux. Phase 3 completes repolarization through dominant K⁺ efflux, returning to phase 4, the resting potential.^[28] These ion movements are crucial for the ECG waveforms: the P wave aligns with atrial phase 0, QRS with ventricular phase 0, and T wave with phases 2-3. This electrical sequence ensures precise coordination, with the AV nodal delay promoting sequential atrial-then-ventricular activation for efficient blood flow. The prolonged refractory period, extending through most of the action potential (phases 1-3), prevents premature excitations and summation of contractions, thereby avoiding tetanus—a sustained contraction that would impair diastolic filling.^[28] These electrical events ultimately trigger the mechanical systole in the cardiac phases.

Mechanical Systole

Mechanical systole refers to the phase of the cardiac cycle characterized by the physical contraction of the heart muscle, resulting in the ejection of blood from the ventricles. This process involves the coordinated shortening of cardiomyocytes, driven by intracellular mechanisms triggered by electrical depolarization that generate force.^[9] At the cellular level, mechanical systole is initiated by the interaction of actin and myosin filaments within the sarcomeres of cardiac muscle cells. During contraction, myosin heads form cross-bridges with actin filaments, powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which causes the thin actin filaments to slide past the thick myosin filaments, thereby shortening the sarcomere length and contracting the myocyte.^[34] This sliding filament mechanism is fundamental to force generation in cardiac muscle.^[35] The strength of this contraction is modulated by the Frank-Starling mechanism, where increased preload—defined as the end-diastolic stretch of the ventricular wall due to higher filling volumes—enhances sarcomere overlap and cross-bridge formation, leading to a more forceful systole.^[36] For instance, greater venous return stretches the myocardium, optimizing actin-myosin interactions for improved stroke volume.^[37] The force generated during mechanical systole manifests as pressure differences across the ventricular walls, with peak systolic pressure in the left ventricle reaching approximately 120 mmHg to overcome systemic vascular resistance, while the right ventricle generates about 25 mmHg to eject blood into the low-pressure pulmonary circulation.^[9] Energy for these processes derives primarily from ATP hydrolysis, which fuels the cross-bridge cycling and sliding filaments, with overall contractile efficiency influenced by afterload factors such as aortic impedance that determine the work required to eject blood.^[38] Higher afterload increases ATP demand, potentially reducing efficiency if impedance rises excessively.^[39]

Physiological Mechanisms

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) in cardiac myocytes translates the electrical signal of the action potential into mechanical force generation during systole. The process initiates when depolarization opens voltage-gated L-type Ca^{2+} channels (LTCCs) in the sarcolemma and T-tubules, permitting a small influx of extracellular Ca^{2+} (typically 10-20% of the total systolic rise). This "trigger" Ca^{2+} binds to and opens ryanodine receptor type 2 (RyR2) channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), amplifying the cytosolic Ca^{2+} concentration through Ca^{2+}-induced Ca^{2+} release (CICR), which accounts for the majority of the systolic Ca^{2+} transient.^[40]^[41] The elevated intracellular Ca^{2+} concentration ([Ca^{2+}]_i, peaking at 0.5-1 μM) binds to the regulatory sites of troponin C (TnC) within the troponin complex on the thin filaments. The binding affinity for these low-affinity sites has a dissociation constant (K_d) of approximately 10^{-5} M, inducing a conformational change in TnC that displaces troponin I from actin, exposing myosin-binding sites and allowing actin-myosin cross-bridge cycling to generate force.^[42] The developed force is approximately proportional to [Ca^{2+}]_i in the physiological range, following a sigmoidal relationship governed by cooperative binding dynamics.^[41] Ca^{2+} handling in ECC is tightly regulated to fine-tune contractility and relaxation. RyR2 channels mediate SR Ca^{2+} release and are modulated by luminal Ca^{2+} levels and post-translational modifications, while phospholamban (PLN) inhibits SERCA2a-mediated Ca^{2+} reuptake into the SR under resting conditions; phosphorylation of PLN relieves this inhibition, accelerating relaxation. Beta-adrenergic stimulation, via G-protein-coupled receptors, elevates cAMP levels, activating protein kinase A (PKA) to phosphorylate LTCCs (increasing Ca^{2+} influx), RyR2 (enhancing release probability), and PLN (boosting reuptake), thereby amplifying the Ca^{2+} transient amplitude and shortening its duration for positive inotropy and lusitropy.^[43]^[41] This ECC sequence sustains myocyte contraction for approximately 200 ms, aligning with the systolic Ca^{2+} transient duration in ventricular cells at typical heart rates. In the 2020s, optogenetic approaches have enabled targeted modulation of ECC, such as by expressing channelrhodopsins in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes to optically control Ca^{2+} influx and contractility with millisecond precision.^[41] This cellular mechanism integrates electrical systole with mechanical output, ensuring coordinated systolic force.

Hemodynamic Effects

During ventricular systole, the rapid ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta generates a systolic pressure wave that elevates arterial blood pressure to its peak value, typically around 120 mmHg in healthy adults. This creates pulse pressure, calculated as the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures, averaging approximately 40 mmHg, which reflects the stroke volume and arterial compliance.^[44] The right ventricle similarly ejects blood into the pulmonary artery, producing a lower systolic pressure of about 25 mmHg due to the low-resistance pulmonary circuit.^[45] The arterial system's elastic properties enable the Windkessel effect, where large arteries like the aorta distend during systole to accommodate the influx of blood, storing kinetic energy and damping the pulsatile flow to provide steadier perfusion to peripheral tissues during diastole. This mechanism reduces the peak pressure transmitted distally and maintains continuous blood flow despite the intermittent nature of ventricular contraction.^[46] Driven by the ejection phase of ventricular systole, this effect is crucial for protecting delicate microvascular beds from high-pressure surges.^[44] Systolic contractions from the left ventricle distribute oxygenated blood throughout the systemic circulation, including to the coronary arteries (which perfuse the myocardium, albeit with flow impeded during systole due to myocardial compression) and the cerebral vasculature, ensuring nutrient delivery under varying demands. In contrast, right ventricular systole supplies deoxygenated blood to the pulmonary circulation, which has lower vascular resistance and facilitates efficient gas exchange in the lungs.^[47]^[45] In the cardiac cycle, systole occupies approximately one-third of the total duration at a normal heart rate of 60-80 beats per minute, with the remainder dedicated to diastole for ventricular filling. Baroreceptors located in the carotid sinus and aortic arch sense elevations in systolic wall tension and arterial pressure, triggering reflex adjustments via the autonomic nervous system—such as parasympathetic activation to slow heart rate or sympathetic inhibition to dilate vessels—thereby stabilizing blood pressure and preventing excessive fluctuations.^[48]^[49] Contemporary hemodynamic assessment using Doppler ultrasound provides precise quantification of systolic flow dynamics, revealing normal peak velocities in the ascending aorta of 1.0 to 1.5 m/s in adults, which vary slightly with age and cardiac output. These measurements, enhanced by 2025 advancements in high-resolution imaging, aid in evaluating systolic performance without invasive procedures.^[50]

Clinical Aspects

Measurement and Notation

Systolic blood pressure, representing the peak arterial pressure during ventricular contraction, is notated alongside diastolic pressure in the conventional format of systolic/diastolic mmHg, such as 120/80 mmHg.^[51] This measurement is typically obtained noninvasively through auscultation over the brachial artery using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope, where the onset of Korotkoff sounds (phase I) indicates systolic pressure and the disappearance of sounds (phase V) marks diastolic pressure.^[51] Alternatively, oscillometric devices automate the process by detecting pressure oscillations in the cuff during deflation, estimating systolic and diastolic values from the waveform envelope, though auscultation remains the gold standard for accuracy.^[52] Echocardiography provides a key assessment of systolic function via left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), calculated using Simpson's biplane method of disks, which traces endocardial borders in apical four- and two-chamber views to derive end-diastolic volume (EDV) and end-systolic volume (ESV).^[53] The formula is:

\text{EF} = \frac{\text{EDV} - \text{ESV}}{\text{EDV}} \times 100\%

This yields LVEF values typically ranging from 52% to 72% in healthy adults, as endorsed by the American Society of Echocardiography.^[53] Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) offers superior precision for quantifying ventricular volumes during systole, serving as the reference standard by providing three-dimensional, tissue-characterized measurements of ESV and stroke volume without geometric assumptions.^[54] Normal CMR-derived left ventricular ESV indices are approximately 22-26 mL/m² in healthy adults (lower limits 17-21 mL/m²), varying by sex.^[55] Pulse wave analysis (PWA) evaluates systolic time intervals, such as the ejection duration from aortic valve opening to closure, by deriving central aortic waveforms from peripheral pressure recordings via mathematical transfer functions, aiding in the assessment of ventricular-arterial coupling.^[56] Holter monitoring, a continuous ambulatory electrocardiography technique, records cardiac electrical activity over 24 to 48 hours to measure electrical systole duration, defined as the QT interval from QRS onset to T-wave end, capturing variations in repolarization timing.^[57] The 2025 American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines emphasize ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) as the preferred method for detecting systolic variability and confirming office readings, recommending its use in adults with suspected white-coat or masked hypertension to guide systolic assessment over 24 hours.^[58] This systolic peak in blood pressure directly relates to the maximum ventricular pressure generated during contraction.^[51]

Pathological Conditions

Systolic heart failure, also known as heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), is characterized by an ejection fraction of less than 40%, indicating impaired ventricular systolic function.^[59] Common causes include myocardial ischemia from coronary artery disease and various cardiomyopathies, such as dilated or ischemic types, which lead to weakened myocardial contractility.^[60] Symptoms often include dyspnea, fatigue, and fluid retention due to reduced cardiac output, with treatments focusing on neurohormonal blockade using ACE inhibitors to reduce afterload and mortality, beta-blockers to improve ejection fraction and survival, and SGLT2 inhibitors like dapagliflozin, which have shown benefits in reducing hospitalization and cardiovascular death in HFrEF patients since their expanded indications in the early 2020s.^[61] Arrhythmias can significantly impair systolic function by disrupting the coordinated electrical and mechanical events of systole. In atrial fibrillation, the loss of effective atrial systole eliminates the "atrial kick," which normally contributes 20-30% to ventricular filling and cardiac output at rest, resulting in reduced stroke volume and symptoms like palpitations and exercise intolerance.^[19] Ventricular tachycardia, arising from abnormal ventricular electrical foci, prolongs the duration of electrical systole through widened QRS complexes and rapid rates, compromising effective mechanical ejection and potentially leading to hemodynamic instability or sudden cardiac arrest.^[62] Hypertension imposes chronic pressure overload on the left ventricle during systole, with elevated systolic blood pressure exceeding 140 mmHg causing left ventricular hypertrophy and eventual systolic strain.^[63] This strain manifests as reduced longitudinal strain and impaired contractility, increasing the risk of heart failure. Similarly, aortic stenosis narrows the aortic valve, restricting systolic ejection and generating a pressure gradient that further burdens the left ventricle, often leading to concentric hypertrophy and symptoms of angina or syncope.^[64] Recent advancements include targeted therapies for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a condition that impairs systolic relaxation and ejection; for instance, investigational cardiac myosin inhibitors like aficamten, which received FDA acceptance of its NDA in 2024 and is anticipated for approval in late 2025 for obstructive HCM, improving outflow tract gradients and symptoms in clinical trials.^[65] Additionally, 2025 studies have demonstrated AI-assisted echocardiography algorithms that detect early systolic dysfunction with high accuracy, using automated strain analysis to identify reduced left ventricular function even in preserved ejection fraction cases, enabling timely intervention.^[66] Beyond cardiac issues, non-cardiac pathological conditions affect vascular systole, particularly arterial stiffness associated with aging, which increases pulse wave velocity and elevates systolic afterload, contributing to isolated systolic hypertension and reduced vascular compliance.^[67] This stiffness exacerbates left ventricular workload during ejection, promoting systolic dysfunction over time.^[68]

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Noninvasive Blood Pressure Monitoring - OpenAnesthesia
Jan 26, 2024 · Auscultation of Korotkoff sounds continues to be the gold standard for accurately measuring SBP and DBP. This method only estimates MAP and may ...
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Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jun 14, 2025 · LVEF (%) = (SV/EDV) × 100 = [(EDV−ESV)/EDV] × 100. According to the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Indications · Technique or Treatment
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New Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Reference Ranges for Right ...
Mar 9, 2016 · Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is considered the current reference standard for quantitation of RV volumes and systolic function because of ...
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Measurement of right and left ventricular volumes in healthy ...
The left ventricular volume index was 57 ml/m2 +/- 9 at end-diastole and 17 ml/m2 +/- 4 at end-systole. The right ventricular volume index was 63 ml/m2 +/- 9 at ...<|separator|>
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Pulse wave analysis - PMC - PubMed Central
The detailed report gives information relevant to ventricular/vascular interaction from both pressure and time values, as calculated from the synthesized aortic ...
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Holter Monitor - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The Holter monitor is a device that works on Galvanometer's principle to record electrocardiographic signals from an individual going about his daily ...
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2025 AHA/ACC/AANP/AAPA/ABC/ACCP/ACPM/AGS/AMA/ASPC ...
Aug 14, 2025 · The focus of this clinical practice guideline is to create a living, working document updating current knowledge in the field of high blood ...
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Types of Heart Failure | American Heart Association
May 21, 2025 · This is also known as heart failure with reduced ejection, or HFrEF. When this happens, the heart is pumping less than or equal to 40% EF.Quick Facts · Left-Sided Heart Failure · Right-Sided Heart Failure
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Heart Failure and Ejection Fraction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 5, 2024 · This article strives to delineate the various forms of heart failure, elucidating the stages, types of HF, and methods of diagnosis and treatment.
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The Treatment of Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction - PMC
Treatment with ACE inhibitors and beta-blockers remains the basis of heart failure therapy. The prognostically beneficial effect of MRA is also established—not ...
[65]
Ventricular tachycardia - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Mar 6, 2024 · In ventricular tachycardia, an irregular electrical impulse starting in the lower chambers of the heart makes the heart beat faster. Ventricular ...
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Blood pressure and heart failure - PMC - NIH
Jan 2, 2020 · Long-standing high blood pressure leads to left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction that cause an increase in myocardial ...
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Aortic Stenosis - Cardiovascular Disorders - Merck Manuals
Jun 17, 2015 · Aortic stenosis (AS) is narrowing or restricted opening of the aortic valve, obstructing blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta during systole.
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Cytokinetics Announces FDA Acceptance of New Drug Application ...
Dec 2, 2024 · ... FDA Acceptance of New Drug Application for Aficamten for the Treatment of Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. December 2, 2024. Download ...Missing: gene | Show results with:gene
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Artificial Intelligence for Detection of Prognostically Significant Left ...
Jun 24, 2025 · A new AI-LVD algorithm using only echocardiographic measurements can reliably identify prognostically important LV dysfunction, including in preserved EF.
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Arterial stiffness and vascular aging: mechanisms, prevention, and ...
Sep 1, 2025 · In stiff arteries, the pulse wave travels faster, and the reflected wave arrives in systole, elevating afterload and contributing to isolated ...
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Arterial Stiffness in Aging: Does It Have a Place in Clinical Practice?
Feb 1, 2021 · Aortic stiffness has emerged as a major new risk factor for development of hypertension, LV hypertrophy, systolic and diastolic LV dysfunction, ...