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Colossae

Colossae was an ancient city located in the Lycus Valley of Phrygia, in western Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), situated near the River Lycus at the base of Mount Cadmus and approximately 120 miles (193 km) east of Ephesus.^[1]^[2] It featured a strategic position in a fertile region flanked by the neighboring cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis. It is notably mentioned in the New Testament's Epistle to the Colossians.^[1] Archaeological evidence indicates continuous human occupation at the site from the Late Chalcolithic period around 3500 BCE through the late Byzantine era until the late 12th century CE, with intermittent activity in earlier phases.^[1]^[2] A possible reference to the city appears in a Hittite inscription from the 17th century BCE as Huwalušija, suggesting it began as a Hittite fortress-city spanning about 30 acres.^[2] During the Phrygian period (c. 1200–600 BCE), it emerged as a significant settlement influenced by local Anatolian cults, such as the worship of the goddess Mên, and later served as an administrative center in the Persian satrapy system from 550 to 330 BCE.^[1] In the Hellenistic era following Alexander the Great's conquests, Colossae adopted Greek cultural elements but began to decline in prominence compared to its rivals Laodicea and Hierapolis by the 4th century BCE, as noted by the Greek historian Herodotus, who described it as a "great city" during Xerxes' campaign in the 5th century BCE.^[1]^[2] Under Roman rule from 129 BCE, it became part of the province of Asia, developing civic infrastructure including a theater, baths, and games, while its economy thrived on agriculture—producing olives, vines, timber, and fruits—and renowned textile manufacturing, particularly glossy black wool.^[1]^[2] The city experienced prosperity after a major earthquake in 60 CE, as evidenced by 36 inscriptions and 76 coin types from the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, including a late 1st- or early 2nd-century marble pedestal documenting restoration efforts.^[1] By the Byzantine period, Colossae, renamed Chonai, functioned as an ecclesiastical center before gradually fading, with the site destroyed around 1192/3 CE and occupation ceasing by the late 12th century.^[1]^[2] Despite its historical importance as a cultural and administrative hub in antiquity, the site remains largely unexcavated, with only surface surveys of pottery and inscriptions conducted until recent efforts; systematic excavations since 2021 under the direction of Barış Yener of Pamukkale University have revealed over 60 tombs dating back over 2,200 years as of 2025.^[2]^[3]

Location and Geography

Site and Regional Setting

Colossae was situated in the Lycus River Valley in ancient Phrygia, part of the Roman province of Asia Minor, approximately 120 miles (193 km) east of Ephesus.^[4] In modern terms, the site lies in Denizli Province, Turkey, near the town of Honaz at the base of Honaz Dağı (ancient Mount Cadmus).^[2] The precise coordinates of the unexcavated site are approximately 37°47′ N 29°16′ E^[5], with an elevation of about 350 meters (1,150 feet) above sea level.^[6] This positioning placed Colossae in a strategic spot within the fertile Lycus Valley, flanked by higher terrain to the south and north. Colossae was located roughly 10 miles (16 km) east of Laodicea on the Lycus and about 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Hierapolis, forming a cluster of significant settlements in the region.^[4] The city occupied a key position on a major east-west trade route that linked the Aegean coast through Ephesus to the interior of Asia Minor and ultimately toward the Euphrates, facilitating commerce across the peninsula.^[7]^[8]

Physical Environment and Resources

Colossae was situated in the Lycus Valley, a NW-SE trending tectonic depression in southwestern Anatolia, measuring approximately 7-28 km in width and 62 km in length, bordered by prominent mountain ranges including Mount Cadmus (modern Honaz Dağı) to the east, Babadağ to the south, and Çökelez and Buldan Sazak to the north and west. This fertile alluvial plain, formed by sediment deposits from the Lycus River (modern Aksu Çay), provided a level and habitable landscape at the base of these elevations, with the river serving as the valley's primary waterway and supporting settlement through irrigation and transportation. However, the river was susceptible to seasonal flooding, which periodically altered the local geomorphology and posed risks to infrastructure.^[9]^[10] Geologically, the region lies within the active Aegean extensional province, positioned along major fault systems such as the Pamukkale Fault to the north and the Babadağ-Honaz Fault to the south, which have driven ongoing tectonic activity including uplift and subsidence. This faulted setting made the area prone to earthquakes, with a significant event in AD 60 originating in the Denizli Basin causing widespread destruction at Colossae, including surface ruptures, chasm formation, and landscape modifications that impacted the nymphaeum and surrounding terrain. Such seismic hazards influenced site stability and long-term habitability, though the valley's position also offered natural defenses from the encircling mountains.^[11]^[12] The climate of the Lycus Valley is Mediterranean, featuring hot, dry summers with average temperatures of 30–35°C and mild, wet winters with lows around 5°C and precipitation concentrated between November and March, totaling about 500–600 mm annually. This seasonal pattern fostered a productive environment for agriculture and pastoralism, with ample winter rains replenishing soil moisture and summer aridity necessitating irrigation from the river and springs. The valley's alluvial soils, enriched by fluvial deposits and mineral inputs from thermal waters, supported cultivation of grains such as wheat and barley, as well as viticulture for wine production, alongside lush pastures that sustained large sheep populations essential for wool. Additionally, the mineral-rich, calcareous waters of the Lycus River and nearby thermal springs—high in calcium, strontium, and other elements—facilitated textile dyeing processes by fixing colors effectively, while travertine quarries provided durable stone resources for construction.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[9]

Etymology

Origins of the Name

The name "Colossae" (Ancient Greek: Κολοσσαί) first appears in historical records in the 5th century BCE, when the Greek historian Herodotus described it as a great city of Phrygia through which the Persian king Xerxes I passed during his invasion of Greece in 480 BCE.^[16] Herodotus noted its location near the Lycus River, which he observed disappearing underground for about five furlongs before reemerging, but provided no etymological details.^[16] Scholars have proposed that the name may derive from a much earlier Bronze Age source, specifically as a Greek rendering of an ancient Hittite place-name, potentially linked to a 17th-century BCE inscription referring to a site as Huwalušija in the region.^[2] This hypothesis aligns with archaeological evidence of a substantial Hittite settlement at the site, characterized by a fortified mound covering nearly 30 acres, suggesting continuity from Hittite times into later periods.^[1] Phrygian influence is evident in the region's onomastics and cultural artifacts from the Phrygian period (circa 1200–600 BCE), when Colossae emerged as a prominent settlement, indicating that the city's identity was shaped by Phrygian settlers who established it as a key urban center by the 8th century BCE, with the Greek adaptation appearing in Herodotus's account.^[17] Alternative etymologies, though less widely accepted, include a connection to pastoral terminology, such as boukolos (βουκόλος), denoting a "cowherd," implying the name could signify a "confederacy of herders" tied to the area's early agrarian society. A popular but unsupported folk etymology links the name to a colossal statue of the sun god Helios, reflecting Greek influences. These Greek-based interpretations are considered secondary to the Anatolian roots, as the city's pre-Hellenistic history points to non-Greek linguistic foundations.

Linguistic and Historical Interpretations

In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, the name of the city was adapted into Greek as Kolossai (Κολοσσαί), reflecting phonetic adjustments from its earlier Phrygian or Anatolian forms to fit Greek orthography and pronunciation.^[18] This form appears in classical texts, notably Xenophon's Anabasis (c. 401 BC), where the city is described as a prosperous and large inhabited settlement in Phrygia along the trade routes.^[19] The adaptation likely preserved underlying Anatolian elements while aligning with Greek linguistic conventions, as evidenced by its consistent use in Greco-Roman literature without significant alteration until later eras.^[1] During the Byzantine period, the site underwent a notable name change to Chonae (or Khonai), a term derived from the Greek word for "funnels" (chōnai), alluding to the funnel-like shape of the Lycus Valley or, more legendarily, to the miraculous diversion of floodwaters by the Archangel Michael through underground channels.^[1] This renaming, documented in hagiographic accounts like The Miracle of the Archistrategos Michael of Chonai, marked the site's shift toward ecclesiastical prominence and relocation of population centers away from the original ruins, emphasizing its role in medieval Christian narratives. Scholar Alan H. Cadwallader highlights how this variation underscored the city's enduring cultural and religious continuity despite physical decline.^[1] Modern scholarly analyses favor an Anatolian substrate origin for Colossae, positing it as a Hellenized form of a pre-Greek place-name. These interpretations draw on comparative philology to trace the name's evolution from Bronze Age Anatolian onomastics, emphasizing non-Greek substrates over purely Hellenic derivations. The Byzantine name Chonae directly influenced subsequent place names, evolving into the modern Turkish town of Honaz, located approximately 2 km from the ancient site, where the phonetic shift reflects medieval Greek-to-Turkic adaptation amid ongoing settlement.^[20] This continuity underscores the linguistic legacy of Colossae in the local geography, as confirmed by historical and archaeological mappings of the Lycus Valley.

History

Early Settlement and Phrygian Period

The Lycus Valley, where Colossae is situated, exhibits evidence of human settlement dating back to the 4th millennium BCE, with Late Chalcolithic pottery discovered at the site indicating early habitation. Some Bronze Age materials from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE have also been found, suggesting possible occupation during the Hittite period, as regional pottery styles align with Anatolian traditions valuing the area's mountainous terrain and water resources.^[1] These findings point to Colossae's prehistoric foundations on mound (tell) structures typical of the region, though direct Hittite artifacts remain limited. During the Phrygian period, Colossae was established or significantly expanded between the 8th and 5th centuries BCE as a prominent city within the Phrygian kingdom, functioning as a strategic border fortress along key trade routes from central Anatolia to the Aegean.^[21] The Phrygians, who migrated to the region around 1200 BCE following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, consolidated their presence in western Anatolia, with Colossae emerging as a fortified settlement amid the kingdom's territorial expansions.^[22] By the 5th century BCE, it had grown into a major urban center, as evidenced by its role in regional defense and connectivity. Herodotus, writing around 480 BCE, described Colossae as a "great city of Phrygia," noting its size and the dramatic underground course of the Lycus River through a chasm near the settlement during Persian King Xerxes I's march against Greece. This account underscores its prominence during the Persian Wars. In 396 BCE, the site gained further notoriety when Persian satrap Tissaphernes was lured to Colossae and assassinated by Tithraustes, an agent of King Artaxerxes II, amid internal Persian conflicts. Colossae's early significance stemmed from its location in the fertile Lycus Valley, which facilitated its development as a trade hub linking inland Anatolia with coastal markets. Initial wool processing activities emerged here during the Phrygian era, capitalizing on local sheep herds and the valley's resources, laying the groundwork for later textile prominence without advanced dyeing techniques at this stage.^[23]

Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods

Following the conquest of Lydia by Cyrus the Great in 546 BC, Colossae became part of the Achaemenid Empire as a key settlement in the satrapy of Greater Phrygia.^[24] The city's location along the Persian Royal Road enhanced its strategic importance for military logistics and administrative control in western Anatolia.^[25] In 480 BC, the army of Xerxes I passed through Colossae during the invasion of Greece, highlighting its position on major invasion routes through Phrygia.^[26] The region saw further military transit in 401 BC when the Greek mercenary force known as the Ten Thousand, supporting Cyrus the Younger against Artaxerxes II, marched through Colossae en route to Cunaxa. Xenophon described the city at that time as "an inhabited city, prosperous and large," underscoring its vitality amid Persian rule.^[19] Alexander the Great's campaigns incorporated Colossae into the Macedonian sphere after his victory over Persian forces at the Granicus River in 334 BC and subsequent advances through Phrygia in 333 BC, ending Achaemenid control over the area.^[1] Under the succeeding Hellenistic kingdoms, particularly the Seleucids, Colossae remained a regional center until the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC shifted power dynamics. A notable event was the resettlement by Antiochus III in 213 BC of approximately 2,000 Jewish families from Mesopotamia and Babylonia to fortresses and key sites in Lydia and Phrygia, to bolster loyalty and populate rebellious districts.^[27] The Treaty of Apamea in 188 BC transferred Phrygia, including Colossae, to the Kingdom of Pergamum, fostering Hellenistic cultural influences. Upon Attalus III's bequest in 133 BC, the territory entered the Roman Republic as part of the province of Asia, where it benefited from the stability of Roman administration.^[28] During the 1st century BC, the city experienced a period of relative prosperity under the emerging Pax Romana, supported by expanded trade networks in textiles and agriculture, though this era marked the beginning of its overshadowed status compared to emerging neighbors.^[29] By the 1st century AD, Colossae had declined in prominence relative to Laodicea, as major trade routes from Ephesus to the interior were rerouted through the latter around 100 BC, diverting commercial traffic and economic activity. Strabo noted the city's enduring reputation for fine wool production but described it as smaller amid the Lycus Valley's shifting urban landscape. A major disruption occurred in 60 AD when a severe earthquake under Emperor Nero devastated Colossae, along with nearby Hierapolis and Laodicea, leveling much of the urban infrastructure.^[30] The city underwent partial rebuilding thereafter, with evidence of restored public structures like bathhouses, though it never fully recovered its former scale.^[31]

Early Christianity and Byzantine Decline

The church in Colossae was established in the mid-1st century AD, likely by Epaphras, a native of the city who encountered Paul's teaching during the apostle's ministry in Ephesus around 52-55 AD, as described in Acts 19:10. Epaphras, commended by Paul as a faithful minister and fellow prisoner (Colossians 1:7; 4:12; Philemon 1:23), is credited with founding the congregation, which primarily consisted of Gentile converts. This early Christian community faced challenges from syncretistic influences blending Jewish legalism, ascetic practices, and mystical elements, prompting Paul to address them directly.^[32]^[28]^[33] Paul's Epistle to the Colossians, composed around 62 AD while he was imprisoned in Rome, urged the believers to reject such deviations and center their faith on Christ, warning against the "worship of angels" and visionary excesses (Colossians 2:18). In late antiquity, this theme resonated with the emergence of a prominent angel cult centered on the Archangel Michael at the site, which became a major pilgrimage destination and evoked memories of the earlier Colossian heresies refuted in the epistle. The cult's narratives, including the famous miracle where Michael diverted a river to protect a church from pagan flooding around the 4th century, underscored the region's shift toward venerated angelic intercession amid ongoing theological tensions.^[34]^[35]^[36] During the Byzantine era (4th-7th centuries AD), Colossae underwent Christianization following Emperor Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which legalized Christianity and facilitated the construction of churches, including the renowned Archangel Michael sanctuary. The site was renamed Chonae (meaning "pouring" or "funnel," referencing local river confluences) as settlement shifted to higher ground for defensive and seismic reasons, with the original urban center declining into a sparse population by around 400 AD due to earthquakes and economic shifts favoring nearby Laodicea and Hierapolis. By the 7th century, Arab Muslim raids during the early Islamic conquests further depopulated the area, targeting vulnerable inland sites like Chonae.^[37]^[38]^[39] The city's final abandonment occurred after the Seljuk Turkish invasions of the 12th century, culminating in its destruction around 1192-1193 AD amid broader Byzantine-Seljuk conflicts in Anatolia; surviving inhabitants relocated to nearby monasteries and fortified settlements, marking the end of Colossae-Chonae's continuous occupation. This decline reflected the wider erosion of Byzantine control in the region, exacerbated by seismic activity and military pressures, leaving the site largely deserted until modern archaeological interest.^[40]^[36]

Economy and Society

Trade and Textile Industry

Colossae's economy was prominently anchored in its wool production, derived from local sheep breeds that yielded exceptionally fine, dark red wool known as colossinus, prized for its quality and durability, which could be dyed to produce vibrant hues.^[28] This wool formed the basis of a thriving textile industry that dates back to the Phrygian period, with archaeological evidence indicating textile production in Asia Minor as early as the 6th millennium BCE, evolving into advanced weaving techniques in the Lycus Valley by the Phrygian period and specialized pastoralism by the 5th century BCE.^[41] The city's location in fertile highland pastures facilitated large-scale sheep husbandry, generating significant revenue that supported urban development and trade.^[41] Dyeing techniques at Colossae enhanced the wool's value, transforming the fibers into vibrant hues, particularly a distinctive purple known as colossinus, named after the city itself. Ancient sources describe this dye as derived from local flora, such as the cyclamen flower, which produced a deep purple tint suitable for high-end garments and chaplets, with the process leveraging the valley's mineral-rich waters for superior color fixation. From Phrygian times onward, Colossae served as a manufacturing center for dyed woolen textiles, including cloaks and fabrics exported for elite consumption across the Mediterranean. This specialization peaked economically between the 5th century BCE and the 1st century CE, when the city's output contributed to regional wealth amid Hellenistic and early Roman expansion.^[41]^[42] Trade networks amplified Colossae's prosperity, with textiles transported via the Persian Royal Road and linked routes through nearby Laodicea to the port of Ephesus, facilitating exports to Rome and other imperial centers. Woolen goods, alongside ancillary products like grains, flowed eastward and westward, integrating Colossae into broader Anatolian commerce while guilds managed production and distribution. By the Roman period, this connectivity had elevated the city's textiles to an international luxury item, underscoring pastoralism's role in sustaining economic growth until urban decline in later centuries.^[41]^[42]

Population, Culture, and Daily Life

The population of Colossae reflected a diverse ethnic mosaic shaped by successive migrations and conquests, including indigenous Phrygians, Greek settlers from the Hellenistic era, and a notable Jewish community introduced through resettlement efforts by Seleucid king Antiochus III around 200 BCE, who transported approximately 2,000 Jewish families from Babylonia and Mesopotamia to Phrygia and Lydia to bolster regional stability and military presence.^[43] Inscriptions and personal names from the site indicate a predominance of Greek nomenclature among inhabitants by the Roman period, alongside Phrygian, Thracian, and Scythian elements, underscoring the city's role as a cultural crossroads in southwestern Phrygia.^[1] Historical accounts describe Colossae as a prosperous and sizable urban center during the 4th century BCE, with Xenophon noting it as an "inhabited city, prosperous and large" during his march through the region.^[44] By the late 1st century BCE and into the Roman era, however, the city had diminished in scale, with geographer Strabo characterizing it as a smaller town overshadowed by nearby Laodicea, though it retained economic vitality through its wool trade.^[45] Cultural life in Colossae exhibited syncretism, blending Phrygian pagan traditions—such as the worship of Cybele, the mother goddess revered in mountain sanctuaries with ecstatic rites and fertility festivals—with Greek civic practices and Jewish monotheistic observances, later incorporating elements of emerging Christianity among Gentile converts.^[46]^[1] Phrygian influences persisted in local cults honoring deities like Mên and Cybele, whose festivals involved communal processions and rituals tied to agricultural cycles, gradually adapting under Hellenistic and Roman overlays to include Greek games and theatrical performances.^[1] The Jewish diaspora community contributed to this mix by preserving Torah-based customs, fostering a milieu where diverse religious expressions coexisted, as evidenced by epigraphic records of multilingual dedications.^[47] Daily life revolved around a pastoral and artisanal rhythm, with inhabitants engaged in sheep herding, olive and vine cultivation, and fruit orchard management in the fertile Lycus Valley, supported by the river's irrigation for textile dyeing and processing.^[1] Markets bustled with trade in fine woolens, while public facilities like baths and a theater provided spaces for social interaction, leisure, and spectacles such as athletic contests and gladiatorial events introduced under Roman administration.^[1] The Jewish segment of the population upheld distinct practices, including synagogue gatherings for study and communal meals adhering to kosher dietary laws, which set them apart amid the broader Greco-Phrygian norms.^[47] Socially, Colossae featured a stratified structure with a governing elite of Roman-aligned civic officials and prosperous merchants profiting from wool exports, juxtaposed against a laboring class of shepherds and farmers whose livelihoods depended on the valley's pastures and waterways.^[1] Gender roles aligned with regional traditions, where women often managed household textile production—spinning, weaving, and dyeing wool—as an extension of domestic and economic duties, while men dominated herding, market trading, and public offices.^[1] This hierarchy fostered community cohesion through shared economic pursuits, though ethnic diversity occasionally highlighted tensions between assimilated Greeks and more insular Jewish groups.^[1]

Archaeology

Historical Surveys and Early Studies

The earliest written references to Colossae appear in classical Greek and Roman sources, which highlight its strategic location in the Lycus Valley and its economic significance. Herodotus, in his Histories (ca. 440 BCE), describes Colossae as a "great city of Phrygia" through which the Persian king Xerxes I and his army passed during their invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, noting its position near the Maeander River. Xenophon, in his Anabasis (ca. 370 BCE), similarly mentions the city as a waypoint for Cyrus the Younger's army in 401 BCE, emphasizing its role along military routes in western Anatolia. By the 1st century BCE, Strabo's Geography portrays Colossae as a diminished settlement compared to nearby Laodicea and Hierapolis, situated about 20 stadia (roughly 3.7 km) from the Lycus River and known for its fertile plains but overshadowed by larger neighbors. Strabo notes the city's revenue from sheep, and ancient sources associate the Lycus Valley with fine wool production, including a glossy black variety famously from Laodicea but linked regionally to Colossae in secondary accounts.^[48] European interest in Colossae's location revived in the 19th century amid broader explorations of Asia Minor, driven by biblical scholarship and classical antiquarianism. In 1833, Rev. Francis V.J. Arundell, British chaplain at Smyrna, conducted one of the first modern surveys during his travels through the region, documenting ruins near Mount Cadmus (modern Honaz Dağ) in his Discoveries in Asia Minor (1834). Arundell sketched the site's theater, aqueduct remnants, and necropolis, proposing its identification as Colossae based on proximity to the Lycus River and ancient descriptions, though he noted the absence of inscriptions confirming the name.^[49] His work, limited to surface observations without excavation, influenced subsequent travelers by providing the first detailed topographical map of the area.^[50] Building on Arundell's findings, William J. Hamilton visited the site in 1836, relying on local knowledge to identify the ruins, and published his observations in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (1837). These 19th-century efforts remained exploratory, focusing on mapping and basic artifact collection rather than excavation, as Ottoman authorities restricted foreign digs. Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, a pioneering biblical archaeologist, advanced studies of Colossae in the late 19th century through his expeditions in the Lycus Valley, linking the site to the New Testament Epistle to the Colossians. In works such as The Church in the Roman Empire (1893) and The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia (1904), Ramsay argued that Colossae's ruins near Honaz matched Strabo's coordinates and ancient economic notes, emphasizing its role in early Christian communities despite its decline by Roman times.^[6] His topographical surveys, conducted in the 1880s and 1890s, integrated classical texts with on-site observations, establishing Colossae's biblical relevance without formal excavation. Early 20th-century assessments during the Ottoman era involved sporadic visits and rudimentary topographical studies, hampered by political instability and permit restrictions. Scholars like William Moir Calder, during the British Museum's Asia Minor surveys (1911–1913), examined the site's mound (tepe) and surrounding valleys, noting pottery scatters and road traces but confirming no major structures beyond Arundell's descriptions.^[51] These efforts prioritized regional mapping over Colossae-specific digs, as focus shifted to better-preserved sites like Laodicea. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, debates over Colossae's precise location persisted, with scholars contesting identifications between Honaz (ancient Chonae) and the nearby Kinik mound due to ambiguous ancient texts and superficial ruins. Misidentifications, such as equating it with Denizli or dismissing it as insignificant, continued until the 1960s, when epigraphic evidence and geophysical surveys resolved the site's position at Honaz-Kinik, though early studies' limitations—stemming from Ottoman permit shortages and preference for nearby sites—delayed confirmation.^[50]

Recent Excavations and Discoveries

In the early 2000s, Turkish archaeological teams initiated geophysical surveys and surface collections at the Colossae site, revealing the contours of the main settlement mound, outlines of a Hellenistic theater on the eastern slope, and remnants of an ancient aqueduct system channeling water from nearby sources. These non-invasive efforts, building on earlier 19th- and 20th-century observations, provided foundational mapping that highlighted the site's potential for systematic excavation without prior large-scale digging.^[52] The first permitted systematic excavations commenced in 2025, directed by Dr. Barış Yener of Pamukkale University's Department of Archaeology, under the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism's Heritage for the Future Project. Initial digs targeted the necropolis area, public building foundations, and possible early Christian church locations, marking the inaugural comprehensive exploration of this long-unexcavated biblical city. Prior to this, Dr. Yener's team had conducted three years of intensive surface surveys (2022–2024) to pinpoint key features, including the rock-cut tombs now under investigation.^[53]^[54]^[55] A major breakthrough occurred in October 2025, when excavators unearthed over 60 Hellenistic-Roman tombs within a larger necropolis of approximately 65 rock-cut, trough-shaped structures carved into travertine bedrock. These burials, measuring about 1.8 meters in length and 0.9–1.5 meters in depth, yielded artifacts such as terracotta and glass bottles, oil lamps, coins, amulets, healing stones, and inscriptions, alongside skeletal remains and personal items like sandal fragments. The finds span from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE, offering direct evidence of continuous occupation and burial practices during the city's peak as a trade and cultural hub.^[3]^[54]^[56] These discoveries confirm Colossae's role as a center of early Christian activity, linked to the Epistle to the Colossians in the New Testament, through artifacts reflecting protective rituals and diverse cultural influences potentially including Jewish elements in the diaspora community. Future phases of the project aim to expand to the urban core, mapping streets, buildings, and stratigraphic layers possibly preserving evidence of the 60 CE earthquake that devastated the region.^[57]^[58]

Legacy

Biblical and Religious Significance

Colossae holds a notable place in early Christian scripture through its mentions in the New Testament epistles attributed to the Apostle Paul. The Epistle to the Colossians opens with a direct address to the "saints and faithful brothers in Christ at Colossae" (Colossians 1:2, ESV), while the Epistle to Philemon similarly greets the church that meets in Philemon's home in Colossae (Philemon 1:2, ESV). These letters, written around 60–62 AD from Paul's imprisonment, likely in Rome, underscore the city's emerging Christian community without evidence of Paul having visited there personally (Colossians 2:1).^[28] The church in Colossae was likely founded around 50–55 AD by Epaphras, a native Colossian and Paul's fellow servant, who had encountered the gospel during Paul's extended ministry in Ephesus (Acts 19:10; Colossians 1:7; 4:12). Epaphras played a pivotal role as the community's evangelist and intercessor, laboring fervently in prayer for the Colossians' spiritual maturity (Colossians 4:12–13). The epistle to the Colossians primarily responds to nascent heresies infiltrating the church, including the "worship of angels" (Colossians 2:18), which involved undue veneration of spiritual intermediaries, and rigorous asceticism that emphasized self-denial and ritual observances as paths to divine favor (Colossians 2:20–23). These teachings blended Jewish legalism, proto-Gnostic elements, and local syncretism, prompting Paul to affirm Christ's supremacy to counter any diminishment of his deity and sufficiency.^[28] In late antiquity, Colossae's religious landscape evolved with the veneration of the Archangel Michael at nearby Chonae (ancient Colossae), centered on a healing spring tied to a legendary miracle. According to tradition, in the second century AD, Michael intervened to protect a church dedicated to him by diverting floodwaters from the Lycus River through a fissure in the rock, an event commemorated in Eastern Orthodox liturgy on September 6. This cult may trace roots to pre-Christian Phrygian pagan traditions of angelic or divine intermediaries at sacred springs, echoing the very "angel worship" Paul warned against in Colossians as a distraction from direct access to God through Christ. The site's enduring appeal drew pilgrims for healing, fostering Christian-pagan interactions and conversions amid regional persecutions.^[59] Colossae's broader religious legacy connects to the early Christian networks of Asia Minor, though it is not explicitly one of the seven churches addressed in Revelation 3 (which include nearby Laodicea). The Colossian epistle's theological emphases influenced patristic responses to similar heresies; for instance, Irenaeus of Lyons quoted Colossians extensively in Against Heresies (c. 180 AD) to refute Gnostic distortions of Christ's incarnation and reconciliation, drawing on passages like Colossians 1:21 to affirm the redemption of human flesh. This scriptural witness from Colossae thus contributed to orthodox defenses against syncretistic and ascetic deviations in the early church.^[2]^[60]

Modern Cultural and Scholarly Impact

In the 20th century, biblical scholarship surrounding Colossae centered on debates over the authorship of the Epistle to the Colossians and the precise location of the ancient city. Since the mid-19th century, many scholars have questioned Pauline authorship, citing differences in vocabulary, style, and theological emphasis compared to undisputed letters like Romans and Galatians, with the majority attributing it to a pseudonymous follower of Paul writing around 70-80 CE.^[61] The site's location, long identified near modern Honaz in Turkey's Lycus Valley, faced occasional scholarly scrutiny due to limited archaeological evidence, but 19th- and 20th-century surveys confirmed its position adjacent to Laodicea and Hierapolis.^[2] The 2025 excavations at Colossae have sparked renewed scholarly interest, providing material evidence that validates the epistle's historical and cultural context, including artifacts from a necropolis that offer insights into pre-Christian burial practices and regional traditions.^[62] These discoveries, led by Pamukkale University, uncovered over 60 tombs dating to approximately the 2nd century BCE, offering insights into the social and religious life of the region.^[3] Tourism and preservation efforts in the Lycus Valley have elevated Colossae's profile, with the site now integrated into broader regional itineraries alongside the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Hierapolis-Pamukkale and the tentative-listed Laodicea. Visitors can explore the unexcavated mound at Honaz and nearby thermal springs, which draw on the valley's ancient hydrological significance, and the 2025 digs have increased accessibility through guided tours emphasizing biblical connections.^[2] Preservation initiatives by Turkish authorities aim to protect the site from erosion and urbanization, positioning the Lycus Valley for potential expanded UNESCO recognition that could include Colossae as a key component of early Christian heritage.^[3] Colossae's cultural legacy endures in theology, art, and literature through the Epistle to the Colossians, which has inspired works emphasizing Christ's supremacy, such as theological treatises and visual depictions in Christian iconography portraying Pauline communities. Modern pilgrimages to the site, often part of biblical tours tracing St. Paul's journeys, connect contemporary believers to the early church, fostering educational programs on New Testament history. The 2025 findings further enhance this relevance by illuminating early settlement's material culture, potentially inspiring new interdisciplinary studies in archaeology and religious studies while supporting community-led heritage education in Turkey.^[63]

References

[1]
Colossae - Bible Odyssey
Jan 6, 2022 · It seems that Colossae was combining a manufactured Greek origin of its name with the memory of the greatest statue of Helios in the ancient ...
[2]
Where Is Biblical Colossae?
Unexcavated yet historically rich, biblical Colossae lies near modern Honaz in Turkey. Though mentioned briefly in the Bible, the site holds deep historical ...
[3]
Excavations at Colossae - Biblical Turkey
Sep 6, 2022 · The mound at Colossae has long waited to be excavated. The great news is that excavations began in 2021, led by Bariş Yener of Pammukale University.<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
https://www.bibleplaces.com/colossae/
[5]
Colossae: a Pleiades place resource
Feb 3, 2025 · Representative Point (Latitude, Longitude): 37.7867946862, 29.2599208967. Locations: Representative Locations: OSM location of Colossae (550 ...Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
[6]
Colossae - Search results provided by BiblicalTraining
Cadmus at 8,013 feet, and the site itself is 1,150 feet above sea level. ... and Colossae was eventually abandoned between 600 and 700. The site has never ...Missing: coordinates latitude elevation
[7]
Plans Underway to Excavate Colossae - The Good Book Blog
Feb 3, 2022 · The ancient city of Colossae was located along an important trade route about 120 miles due to E of Ephesus (coordinates: 37°47'20.8"N 29°15'37 ...Missing: latitude | Show results with:latitude
[8]
Biblical Places Spiritual Spaces Colossae, Hierapolis and Laodicea
Jun 7, 2024 · Laodicea was located on a hill near the confluence of the Lycus and Meander River. Because of its fertile soil and location on a principal trade ...
[9]
(PDF) Minero-petrographic, geochemical, and multiisotopic ...
Feb 26, 2025 · Abstract: The Lycus Valley in Western Anatolia has been the site of numerous civilizations since ancient times due to its historical, ...<|separator|>
[10]
The AD 60 Denizli Basin earthquake and the apparition of ...
Recent activity along the fault has migrated basinward inside the fault zone. A chasm in the earth that has opened at the nymphaeum at the base of the scarp ...
[11]
(PDF) The AD 60 Denizli Basin earthquake and the apparition of ...
Piccardi (2007) also examined the impact of the 60 AD earthquake on the ancient cities of Hierapolis and Colossae, situated on the Pamukkale fault. (Kaypak & ...
[12]
The AD 60 Denizli Basin earthquake and the apparition ... - NASA ADS
At Hierapolis, it is possible to recognize evidence of surface faulting from the AD 60 earthquake. At Colossae, we can reconstruct the local geomorphic ...Missing: line | Show results with:line
[13]
Denizli climate: weather by month, temperature, rain
The climate of Denizli can be defined as Mediterranean, given that the winters are mild and rainy, and the summers hot and sunny.
[14]
Yearly & Monthly weather - Denizli, Turkey - Weather Atlas
Jul 9, 2024 · The climate of Denizli Superimposed on the lands of Denizli, Turkey is a Mediterranean climate with hot summers, which conveniently finds its ...
[15]
G. SCARDOZZI, The territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia after the Greek ...
... fertile alluvial plain of the Lycus featured vegetable gardens and cultivated fields. ... Ancient land divisions in the territories of Hierapolis in Phrygia and ...Missing: soil resources
[16]
https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/7A*.html#30
[17]
(PDF) "The Historical Sweep of the Life of Kolossai" - Academia.edu
Cadwallader, 'A Chronology of Colossae / Chonai', in Id., M. Trainor (eds ... Freu, 'Les débuts du nouvel Empire Hittite et les origins de l'expansion ...
[18]
The amazing name Colossae: meaning and etymology
May 19, 2021 · It belonged to a city of Phrygia in Asia Minor (or the south-west of modern Turkey), a few hours walk from Laodicea, one of the seven cities ...Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
[19]
Κολοσσαί | Free Online Greek Dictionary | billmounce.com
Colosse, punishment. Definition: also spelled Κολασσαεύς, Colossae, a city of Phrygia, Col. 1:2*. Greek-English Concordance for Κολοσσαί. Colossians 1:2, to the ...
[20]
Xenophon, Anabasis - ToposText
§ 1.2.6 After crossing the Maeander he marched through Phrygia one stage, a distance of eight parasangs, to Colossae, an inhabited city, prosperous and large.<|separator|>
[21]
Indo-European Substrates: The problem of the Anatolian evidence
The following study addresses the problem of whether the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family shares a substrate with any other Indo-European ...Missing: Colossae | Show results with:Colossae
[22]
[PDF] The Miracle of Chonae Translated from the Greek Anthony Alcock 1
The Turkish name Honaz clearly derives from this name. The miracle probably happened at. Colossae, about 4 km from Chonae. The Latin version appears to have ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[23]
Kingdoms of Anatolia - Phrygia - The History Files
The early Phrygians settled a region that is a little way inland from the north-western corner of Anatolia, bordering Mysia and the Troad to their west.
[24]
Phrygia, Gordion, and King Midas in the Late Eighth Century B.C.
Oct 1, 2004 · Most of what is known about Phrygian archaeology and its language derives from excavations at the capital city Gordion, located about sixty miles southwest of ...Missing: Colossae establishment 5th border
[25]
[PDF] CLOTHING THE BODY OF CHRIST AT COLOSSAE: - FLEX
The metaphorical use of clothing and body in the Letter to the Colossians 3:1-17 draws upon and is connected to the social world of the author and the ...
[26]
[PDF] HISTORY OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
fertile soil to a rich luxuriance. In the oases nearest to the plateau,. Iranians had already settled, and Cyrus determined to add these to his expanding ...
[27]
[PDF] A Chronology Model for Xenophon's Anabasis
Jul 5, 2013 · (Leiden 2012) 162–178, at 175. 3 C. Tuplin, “Achaemenid Arithmetic: Numerical Problems in Persian. History,” Topoi Suppl. 1 (1997) 365–421 ...
[28]
The History of Herodotus - The Internet Classics Archive
Download: A text-only version is available for download. The History of Herodotus By Herodotus Written 440 B.C.E. Translated by George Rawlinson ...
[29]
Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 12.119-12.153 - Lexundria
149Having been informed that a sedition is arisen in Lydia and Phrygia, I thought that matter required great care; and upon advising with my friends what was ...Missing: text | Show results with:text
[30]
Background on Colossae and the Colossians - Theology of Work
There the Colossians manufactured a beautiful dark red wool cloth (colossinum) for which the city became famous. But Colossae's importance as a business center ...Missing: natural dyeing soil sheep
[31]
Introduction to Paul's Letter to the Colossians
Colossae was about one hundred miles (150 km) east from Ephesus. It was one of the three towns in the valley of the River Lycus: Colossae, Laodicea and ...
[32]
NCEI Hazard Earthquake Information - NOAA
Late in AD 60 an earthquake destroyed Laodicaea (Denizli), as well as Hierapolis and Colossae near modern Pamkkale in Turkey.Missing: Lycus valley climate geology
[33]
Laodicea in the New Testament - telos.
... Colossae are devastated by an earthquake (Tacitus, Annals 14.27.1). An inscription honoring the repairer of a bath house at Colossae suggests the city began ...
[34]
the beginnings of christianity in the lycus valley. - jstor
3). The church at Colossae, by the first century an insignificant village in com- parison with the important centres of Laodicea ...
[35]
Colossians - Evidence Unseen
Paul didn't start this church in Colossae, and it's likely that Epaphras started this church (Col. 1:7; 4:12). Paul is writing this letter based on what ...Missing: source | Show results with:source
[36]
Colossae: The State of Forthcoming Excavations - Academia.edu
After the first century, it continued to be ecclesiastically significant: it was the center of a cult to St. Michael evoking the memory of the "worship of ...
[37]
“St Michael of Chonai and the Tenacity of Paganism”, in D. Kim and ...
The story of The Miracle of St Michael of Chonai was remarkably popular in the Byzantine world, spawning at least three versions of the story and numerous ...
[38]
Church of the Archangel Michael - the Archistrategos - in Chonai
Chonai was renowned as the place where St. Michael had cleft a mountain to divert a river and created a healing spring.Missing: renamed period
[39]
Archaeology and the "Twenty Cities" of Byzantine Asia - jstor
broad and fertile Hermus valley and had tradi- tionally derived great prosperity from its abundant natural resources. Its location, about 1oo kilometres.Missing: soil | Show results with:soil
[40]
https://www.facebook.com/turkisharchaeonews/posts/archaeologists-in-the-ancient-city-of-colossae-in-southwestern-t%25C3%25BCrkiyes-denizli-/1414248017370439/
[41]
The Arabs and the Colossus* | Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
Sep 24, 2009 · Conversion to Islam by non-Muslims in the conquered territories during the Umayyad period has been the subject of much modern scholarly ...
[42]
Honaz - Wikipedia
Like many other ancient cities of the region, Colossae was destroyed by earthquakes, with little surviving. ... 1192). It finally fell to the Seljuks soon ...
[43]
Archaeologists in the ancient city of Colossae in southwestern ...
... destroyed in 1192/3 and its population relocating ... The apparition of Archangel Michael in the Springs of Colossae, depicted in the 12th century icon from the ...
[44]
An International Trade Good in the Lycus Valley in Antiquity ...
P. Erdemir Hatice, “Wollen Textiles: An International Trade Good in the Lycus Valley in Antiquity”, Colossae in Space and Time Linking to an Ancient City, ...
[45]
Colossae | A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey
Located in the Phrygian region of Asia Minor, the city was approximately 120 miles east of Ephesus. During the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. Colossae was a large ...
[46]
Antiquities of the Jews, Book XII - Josephus
Chapter 1. How Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, took Jerusalem and Judea by deceit and treachery; and carried many of the Jews thence, and planted them in Egypt.Missing: 12.149 | Show results with:12.149
[47]
Anabasis, by Xenophon | Project Gutenberg
Crossing it, he marched through Phrygia a single stage, of eight parasangs, to Colossae, an inhabited city (4), prosperous and large. ... punishment on him, "or ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[48]
LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book XII Chapter 8
### Summary of Strabo's Description of Colossae
[49]
CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods
Cybele was the ancient Phrygian Mother of the Gods, a primal nature goddess worshipped with orgiastic rites in the mountains of central and western Anatolia ...
[50]
Colossae - Drive Thru History®: Adventures
Jan 7, 2019 · The city of Colossae in the Roman province of Asia was located primarily on the south bank of the Lycus River inside the Lycus Valley.Missing: topography climate
[51]
Discoveries in Asia Minor : including a description of the ruins of ...
May 11, 2009 · Discoveries in Asia Minor : including a description of the ruins of several ancient cities, and especially Antioch of Pisidia. by: Arundell, ...
[52]
(PDF) “The rise and fall of the European recovery of the Ancient site ...
In this paper we explore the European rediscovery of Colossae in the post-enlightenment period and particularly in the nineteenth century. This discovery is the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Revisiting Calder on Colossae | Anatolian Studies | Cambridge Core
Dec 23, 2013 · William Moir Calder's extraordinary volume of work is witnessed through his many publications. However, a vast resource has remained ...
[54]
Colossae—Colossal in Name Only? - The BAS Library
Colossae, in modern Turkey, has never been excavated, and may appear unimpressive, but great archaeological treasures lie beneath its surface.Missing: theater aqueduct<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
Archaeologists discover 60 tombs dating back 2,200 years in ...
Oct 6, 2025 · Following three years of surface surveys, excavations began under the direction of archaeologist Baris Yener from Pamukkale University, as part ...Missing: Dr. | Show results with:Dr.<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
The Ancient City of Colossae Yields 2,200-Year-Old Rock-Cut ...
The discovery marks the first systematic excavation ever carried out in Colossae, led by Dr. Barış Yener from Pamukkale University's Department of Archaeology ...
[57]
Witness the First Archaeological Excavation of Colossae
Apr 1, 2025 · The Colossae excavation is run by Dr. Baris Yener from Pamukkale University. Dr. Yener has conducted survey work on the site for several years.<|separator|>
[58]
Archaeologists uncover 60 ancient tombs in western Türkiye
Oct 6, 2025 · Archaeologists in the ancient city of Colossae in southwestern Türkiye's Denizli province have discovered 60 tombs estimated to be around ...
[59]
Ancient tombs in biblical city discovered, tied to St Paul's letter
Oct 23, 2025 · Archaeologists in Turkey recently uncovered over 60 ancient tombs in Colossae, a biblical city immortalized in the New Testament.
[60]
Archaeologists uncover vast complex of ancient tombs in ... - Fox News
Oct 23, 2025 · Archaeological excavations in biblical Colossae, Turkey, revealed 60+ ancient tombs with artifacts including oil lamps, amulets and charms ...Missing: survey | Show results with:survey
[61]
Colossae Ancient City Excavation Works Begin - Arkeonews
Sep 8, 2021 · Excavations of the ancient city of Colossae, located in the Honaz district of Denizli province in western Turkey, are starting after the survey.Missing: Ottoman | Show results with:Ottoman<|separator|>
[62]
Commemoration of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Colossae
Sep 6, 2013 · The place where the rivers plunged into the fissure received the name “Chonae”, which means “plunging.” The Chudov (“of the Miracle”) monastery ...Missing: cult | Show results with:cult
[63]
Against Heresies (Book V, Chapter 14) - New Advent
Colossians 1:21, etc. He says, You have been reconciled in the body of His flesh, because the righteous flesh has reconciled that flesh which was being kept ...
[64]
New Commentaries on Colossians: Survey of Approaches, Analysis ...
2.1. Authorship. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, scholars have debated whether Colossians is authentically from Paul. In the last quarter of the ...
[65]
Ancient Necropolis Unearthed at Colossae
The first systematic excavations at Colossae began in 2025, and the team from Pamukkale University leading the dig has announced the discovery of a ...
[66]
Asia Minor Tour - Biblical Tours in Turkey and Greece
Visit the unexcavated site of ancient Colossae by the village of Honaz. The St. Paul wrote one of his prison epistles to the church at Colossae, a city situated ...Missing: pilgrimages | Show results with:pilgrimages<|control11|><|separator|>