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Conrad discontinuity

The Conrad discontinuity is a proposed seismic interface within the continental crust of the Earth, separating the upper crust—composed primarily of granitic rocks with P-wave velocities of about 6.0–6.3 km/s—from the lower crust, which exhibits higher velocities of 6.6–6.8 km/s and is often more mafic in composition.^[1] This boundary is typically detected at depths ranging from 10 to 20 km, though its exact position varies regionally based on crustal thickness and tectonic history.^[2] It represents a zone of abrupt or gradational change in seismic wave propagation, reflecting differences in rock density, composition, and possibly metamorphic grade. Named after the Austrian geophysicist Victor Conrad, who first postulated its existence in 1925 through analysis of seismic refraction data from European earthquakes, the discontinuity was initially interpreted as a sharp layer separating a "granitic" upper layer from a "basaltic" lower layer.^[3] Early 20th-century seismic surveys supported this model, suggesting an intermediate-velocity layer in the lower crust that facilitated wave propagation distinct from both the upper crust and the underlying mantle.^[3] Over time, controlled-source seismic experiments, including refraction and reflection profiling, confirmed its presence in many Precambrian and Phanerozoic continental regions, such as the US Midcontinent, where velocity jumps from 6.1 km/s to 6.7 km/s have been documented.^[4] Contemporary geophysical research views the Conrad discontinuity as not universally present or sharply defined, often appearing as a diffuse transition rather than a discrete boundary, and it is notably absent in oceanic crust due to the thinner, more uniform structure there.^[5] Deep seismic reflection studies indicate that it may coincide with the top of the reflective lower crust in some areas, potentially linked to tectonic processes like crustal shortening or fluid infiltration, but no direct physical counterpart has been found through drilling.^[5] Its variability underscores ongoing debates about crustal layering, with implications for understanding continental evolution, rheology, and earthquake mechanics in tectonically active zones.^[6]

Overview

Definition

The Conrad discontinuity refers to a seismic boundary within the continental crust where P-wave velocity typically increases, often from approximately 6.0–6.4 km/s in the upper crust to 6.5–7.0 km/s in the lower crust, though it is not universally present and the change can be discontinuous or gradational.^[7] This velocity change, which can be abrupt or more gradual, reflects a compositional and structural transition that affects the propagation of seismic waves, distinguishing it from more gradual velocity gradients elsewhere in the lithosphere.^[8] As a sub-horizontal interface, the Conrad discontinuity delineates the boundary between the upper crust—dominated by felsic, granitic lithologies rich in silica and aluminum—and the lower crust, characterized by denser mafic, basaltic compositions with higher iron and magnesium content.^[9] This lithological contrast contributes to the velocity jump, as mafic rocks exhibit greater rigidity and density, influencing how compressional waves travel through the crust.^[4] The discontinuity is primarily identified through refraction seismology, where seismic profiles often reveal a velocity contrast that may appear sharp or transitional, enabling the mapping of intracrustal layers based on travel-time data from controlled sources or earthquakes.^[8] This method highlights the Conrad as a key feature in models of crustal architecture, underscoring its role in understanding seismic wave behavior without implying a physical "fault" but rather a rheological boundary.^[7]

Location and Depth

The Conrad discontinuity is typically situated at an average depth of 15–20 km beneath continental surfaces, marking the boundary between the upper and lower continental crust.^[10] This positioning reflects seismic observations from various continental regions, where the discontinuity appears as a distinct velocity increase within the crust.^[11] Depth variations occur across different tectonic settings, with the discontinuity often shallower in regions of recent tectonic activity, such as young orogenic belts where it can be observed as low as 9–17 km.^[9] In contrast, it tends to lie deeper in more stable continental interiors, reaching up to 25 km or more in cratonic areas with thicker crust.^[12] These variations are influenced by overall crustal thickness and geological history, with the discontinuity becoming more pronounced or shifted in areas of prolonged stability. The feature is primarily identified in continental crust and is generally absent or diffuse in oceanic crust, which lacks the layered structure characteristic of continents due to its basaltic composition and thinner profile.^[6] Crustal thickness plays a key role in its positioning; for instance, beneath mountain belts like the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, where the total crust can exceed 60 km, the Conrad discontinuity deepens to approximately 30 km in tectonically active zones such as the Songpan-Ganzi Block.^[13] This deeper occurrence correlates with enhanced lower crustal thickening from collisional processes.

Role in Crustal Structure

The Conrad discontinuity delineates the continental crust into an upper layer, typically characterized by brittle behavior, and a lower layer exhibiting more ductile properties, thereby influencing the overall mechanical framework of the lithosphere. This separation facilitates decoupled deformation during tectonic events, where the upper crust responds rigidly while the lower crust deforms plastically under elevated temperatures and pressures. In rheological models, such as the "jelly sandwich" structure, the discontinuity marks the transition from a strong upper crustal layer to a weaker lower one, contributing to assessments of lithospheric strength and stability.^[14]^[15] This boundary plays a key role in models of crustal isostasy by accommodating density contrasts between the upper and lower crustal layers, which help maintain equilibrium despite variations in crustal thickness. For instance, a thick mafic lower crust beneath the Conrad discontinuity can support elevated topography without requiring excessive total crustal thickening, as observed in regions like the Ordos plateau where it sustains isostatic balance alongside a deep Moho. Such configurations aid in predicting crustal responses to loading and unloading, enhancing simulations of post-orogenic rebound and regional uplift.^[16]^[15] The discontinuity contributes to interpretations of intracrustal differentiation by representing a horizon where compositional and metamorphic gradients developed during prolonged geological evolution, often linked to magmatic underplating and partial melting events. It signifies the culmination of processes that segregated felsic materials upward while denser components accumulated below, reflecting stages of crustal maturation from early arc formations to stabilized continental blocks. This layered architecture provides insights into the temporal progression of crustal assembly and reworking over billions of years.^[15] As a prominent reference horizon, the Conrad discontinuity is incorporated into crustal models derived from gravity and magnetic data to constrain subsurface density distributions and magnetic susceptibility variations. Inversion techniques applied to gravity anomalies often resolve its depth to refine three-dimensional density models, while magnetic interpretations use it to delineate transitions in crustal magnetization, improving correlations with seismic profiles in integrated geophysical surveys.^[17]^[18]

History and Discovery

Postulation by Victor Conrad

The Austrian geophysicist Victor Conrad proposed the existence of an intracrustal discontinuity in 1925 while serving as head of the Seismological Service at the Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics in Vienna.^[19] Drawing on his expertise in seismology and meteorology, Conrad analyzed seismic records from regional earthquakes to infer layered structures within the Earth's crust, building on earlier work by Andrija Mohorovičić who had identified the crust-mantle boundary in 1910.^[19] His proposal marked an early recognition of complexity in continental crustal architecture beyond a simple two-layer model.^[3] Conrad's key insight came from examining travel-time curves of seismic waves from the Tauern earthquake on November 28, 1923, in the Eastern Alps, using data recorded at multiple stations across Austria.^[19] He identified a distinct P* phase in the seismograms, interpreted as a refracted wave originating from an intermediate layer within the crust, with a P-wave velocity of approximately 5.5–6.5 km/s—distinct from the slower upper crustal velocities (around 6 km/s or less) and faster mantle waves (over 8 km/s).^[19] This observation suggested a velocity discontinuity at depths of 15–20 km in the Alpine region, based on the method of seismic refraction where wave travel times reveal subsurface layering.^[19] In his initial hypothesis, Conrad linked this discontinuity to a petrological division, positing an upper "granite layer" (sialic composition) overlying a lower "basalt layer" (mafic composition), reflecting variations in rock density and elasticity that influence seismic propagation.^[19] This interpretation aligned with contemporaneous geological models of crustal differentiation and was detailed in his seminal publication analyzing the Tauern event.^[19] Conrad's work thus provided the foundational evidence for what would later be named the Conrad discontinuity in his honor.^[3]

Early Seismic Evidence

The initial seismic evidence supporting the existence of the Conrad discontinuity emerged from refraction profiles conducted in Europe during the 1940s and early 1950s, particularly through wide-angle recordings that revealed abrupt increases in P-wave velocities at depths of approximately 15-18 km. These velocity jumps, typically from around 6.0 km/s to 6.4-6.6 km/s, were interpreted as evidence of a distinct intra-crustal boundary separating upper and lower crustal layers. German explosives seismology, utilizing controlled quarry blasts as sources, played a key role in these investigations by enabling long-offset recordings up to several hundred kilometers. Parallel efforts in the Soviet Union during the 1950s, using deep seismic sounding with chemical explosions, also detected mid-crustal velocity contrasts consistent with the discontinuity.^[20]^[21] Complementing this, early 1950s experiments by Reich (1957) and Dohr (1957) employed near-vertical incidence reflections from explosives sources, capturing signals from intra-crustal horizons and confirming the boundary's presence through prominent reflection events. These European efforts provided the first robust observational confirmation of the layer hypothesized by Victor Conrad in 1925.^[22]^[21] In the United States, parallel crustal refraction projects during the 1950s, such as those across the Midwest and western regions, similarly detected mid-crustal boundaries via travel-time curves of P-waves. These curves exhibited characteristic kinks indicative of a refracting layer at 15-20 km depth, where head waves propagated with higher velocities, distinguishing it from overlying and underlying layers. For instance, refraction data from the Midcontinent region showed velocity contrasts supporting an upper-lower crust transition, aligning with European findings. By the early 1960s, integrated reflection-refraction studies, like those by Kanasewich and Cumming (1965) near the U.S.-Canada border, further validated the discontinuity through direct reflections at comparable depths.^[20]^[23]

Evolution of Understanding

In the 1970s, advancements in deep seismic sounding techniques, particularly in Europe and the Soviet Union, provided higher-resolution images of crustal layering through controlled explosions and long-range profiles. These methods improved the mapping of velocity structures but maintained the view of the Conrad as primarily a compositional boundary.^[24] During the 1980s and 1990s, the integration of deep seismic reflection profiling with refraction data further refined interpretations, highlighting complex relationships between the Conrad discontinuity and lower crustal reflectivity. Studies, such as those from the DEKORP project in Germany and coincident reflection-refraction surveys in North America, often identified the top of the reflective lower crust as coinciding with or closely approximating the velocity jump associated with the Conrad, though detailed comparisons revealed that the two features were not always genetically linked, with reflectivity attributed to factors like fluid content and shearing rather than a uniform boundary. This era marked a paradigm shift toward viewing the discontinuity as a dynamic interface shaped by tectonic and thermal processes, potentially representing a broader ductile-brittle transition zone influenced by rheological properties.^[5]

Physical Characteristics

Seismic Wave Velocity Changes

The Conrad discontinuity is characterized by a distinct increase in P-wave velocity (Vp) that marks the boundary between the upper and lower continental crust. Seismic refraction and reflection studies indicate that Vp in the upper crust typically ranges from 6.0 to 6.4 km/s, while in the lower crust it increases to 6.5 to 7.0 km/s, resulting in a velocity jump (ΔVp) of approximately 0.5 to 1.0 km/s. This contrast is evident in global compilations of crustal models derived from wide-angle seismic profiles, where the discontinuity often appears as a sharp interface at mid-crustal depths.^[25] Corresponding changes in S-wave velocity (Vs) accompany the P-wave increase, with Vs rising from about 3.4 to 3.7 km/s in the upper crust to 3.7 to 4.0 km/s in the lower crust. These shifts influence the Poisson's ratio (σ), which serves as a proxy for crustal composition and fluid content; values are typically 0.25 to 0.28 above the discontinuity, reflecting felsic to intermediate lithologies, and increase to 0.28 to 0.31 below, indicating more mafic materials.^[26] The variation in σ arises from the relationship σ = (Vp² - 2Vs²) / (2(Vp² - Vs²)), highlighting how the velocity jump alters elastic properties across the interface.^[27] The velocity contrast at the Conrad discontinuity generates measurable reflection and refraction coefficients, facilitating its detection in seismic data. For a typical ΔVp of 0.5 km/s, the normal incidence reflection coefficient (R) for P-waves is around 0.05 to 0.10, while refraction produces critically refracted head waves, often denoted as P*, that travel along the interface and contribute to the Pg phase in seismograms. These head waves are particularly observable in refraction surveys over continental regions, providing key evidence for the discontinuity's role in wave propagation.^[4]

Lithological Associations

The Conrad discontinuity marks a significant lithological transition within the continental crust, separating the upper crust, dominated by felsic rock types, from the lower crust, characterized by more mafic compositions. This boundary reflects a change from quartzofeldspathic gneisses and granitic intrusions in the upper portions to gabbroic and basaltic materials below, influencing the overall density and seismic properties of the crust.^[28] In the upper crust above the discontinuity, rocks are predominantly felsic, consisting of granites, tonalitic gneisses, and associated plutonic bodies with sialic (silica-aluminum rich) affinities. These materials exhibit average densities of approximately 2.7 g/cm³, consistent with their quartz- and feldspar-rich mineralogy, which contributes to lower seismic velocities in this layer.^[29]^[28] Examples include amphibolite-facies gneisses observed in exposed sections like the Kapuskasing Uplift, where felsic plutonics predominate.^[28] Beneath the discontinuity, the lower crust transitions to mafic lithologies such as gabbros, amphibolites, diorites, and mafic granulites, with densities typically ranging from 2.9 to 3.0 g/cm³. This mafic character, akin to basaltic compositions, arises from higher proportions of pyroxene, amphibole, and plagioclase, as seen in regions like the Ivrea-Verbano Zone where intermediate to mafic granulite-facies rocks prevail.^[29] The increase in seismic P-wave velocity across the boundary is largely attributed to this densification and compositional shift.^[28] This lithological divide often aligns with metamorphic gradients, potentially representing a transition from amphibolite-facies conditions in the upper crust to granulite-facies metamorphism in the lower crust, as inferred from deep crustal exposures and seismic interpretations. Such associations underscore the role of the Conrad discontinuity in delineating petrological provinces within the continental lithosphere.

Variations Across Continents

The Conrad discontinuity displays notable regional variations in depth and clarity across continental settings, influenced by tectonic evolution and crustal architecture. In Phanerozoic orogenic belts, such as the Appalachians, the discontinuity is characteristically shallow, typically at 10-15 km depth, reflecting post-Paleozoic deformation and relatively thin upper crustal layers. Conversely, in Precambrian shields, including the Canadian Shield and Fennoscandian regions, the discontinuity occurs deeper, generally at 20-25 km, and often appears subdued or diffuse due to the stable, ancient nature of cratonic lithosphere with more uniform crustal velocities. Receiver function analysis across the Canadian crust identifies potential Conrad signals at depths exceeding 20 km where present, though not universally sharp.^[30] Seismic refraction data from Fennoscandia map the Conrad (as the C-boundary) at an average of about 20 km, with variations up to 25 km in shield interiors.^[31] In tectonically active rift zones, such as the East African Rift, the Conrad is absent or weakly expressed owing to crustal extension and thinning, which homogenizes the velocity structure; where detectable, it shallows to 16-19 km in the central Main Ethiopian Rift.^[32] The discontinuity lacks an oceanic counterpart, as the thin (5-10 km), uniformly basaltic oceanic crust does not exhibit a comparable intra-crustal velocity jump.^[6]

Geological Significance

Implications for Crustal Composition

The Conrad discontinuity serves as a key indicator of vertical stratification within the continental crust, delineating a boundary where partial melting processes contribute to the segregation of felsic materials upward and mafic residues downward. In regions like the Arabian Shield, seismic profiles reveal this interface at approximately 20 km depth, where basaltic magmas stall due to density contrasts with the overlying low-density upper crust, promoting midcrustal crystallization and differentiation that enhances compositional layering over time.^[33] Delamination of eclogite-rich lower crustal material, formed through repeated basaltic intrusions and metamorphic reactions, further accentuates this stratification by removing dense components and allowing asthenospheric upwelling to sustain partial melting at depths of 60–80 km.^[33] This vertical structure informs evolutionary models of crustal composition, particularly through links to the classic granite-basalt framework refined by modern petrogenetic studies. Don L. Anderson's model posits that basaltic melts derived from the mantle form the primary input to the lower crust, with subsequent partial melting in this mafic layer generating felsic magmas that migrate to form the granitic upper crust, leaving a complementary mafic residuum below the discontinuity.^[34] Such processes align with observed seismic velocity jumps at the Conrad, reflecting the transition from quartz-dioritic upper crustal compositions (around 65 wt.% SiO₂) to more mafic lower crustal rocks (53–59 wt.% SiO₂), as documented in the southwestern United States.^[35] Density contrasts across the discontinuity, with the denser mafic lower crust exhibiting values near 3,000 kg/m³,^[35] reinforce the long-term compositional evolution observed in mature continental crust.

Relation to Tectonic Processes

The Conrad discontinuity plays a significant role in subduction zones, where it often marks the interface for underplating of mafic material derived from mantle-derived basaltic magmas. In arc settings associated with subduction, sills of hydrous basalts are emplaced in the lower crust, transferring heat and water to the surrounding crust and promoting partial melting that contributes to the formation and growth of the mafic lower crust.^[36] This process enhances crustal differentiation, with felsic upper crust overlying mafic layers, as observed in seismic profiles.^[37] In continental collision zones, such as the India-Asia convergence forming the Tibetan Plateau, the Conrad discontinuity is influenced by crustal thickening, which depresses the boundary to greater depths. Seismic studies reveal that the upper crust thickens from about 17 km in stable regions like the Ordos Basin to 25 km in the actively colliding Songpan-Ganzi terrane, with the lower crust expanding from 21 km to 38 km, thereby pushing the discontinuity deeper and reflecting ongoing tectonic compression.^[38] Depth variations of the Conrad, ranging from 18 to 28 km across the eastern Tibetan Plateau, underscore its response to collisional dynamics.^[39] The discontinuity is closely associated with intracrustal faulting, serving as a compositional and rheological boundary. It delineates a transition from granitic upper crust to basaltic lower crust.^[40] At this interface, faulting is observed, particularly in tectonically active margins.^[40]

Comparison with Mohorovičić Discontinuity

The Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) is situated at a greater depth than the Conrad discontinuity, typically ranging from 30 to 50 km beneath continental crust, marking the boundary between the crust and the upper mantle, whereas the Conrad discontinuity occurs at shallower intracrustal depths of approximately 15 to 20 km.^[9]^[6] This positioning reflects the Moho's role as a major global boundary, with depths varying regionally due to tectonic influences, while the Conrad's mid-crustal location makes it more variable and less consistently observed across different geological settings.^[8] Seismic velocity changes across these discontinuities also differ markedly in magnitude and implication. The Moho exhibits a pronounced P-wave velocity jump from about 7.0–7.2 km/s in the lower crust to 8.0–8.2 km/s in the mantle, corresponding to a transition from mafic crustal rocks to ultramafic peridotite in the upper mantle.^[41] In contrast, the Conrad discontinuity features a subtler increase, typically from 6.1 to 6.7 km/s, delineating the shift from felsic-dominated upper crust to mafic lower crust materials.^[9]^[42] This smaller velocity contrast at the Conrad often results in less distinct seismic signatures compared to the Moho's sharper boundary.^[6] Both discontinuities are primarily detected through seismic refraction and reflection methods, which reveal velocity contrasts via travel-time analyses of P- and S-waves.^[8] However, the Moho is more ubiquitous and reliably identified in global seismic profiles due to its larger amplitude signal and consistent presence as the crust-mantle interface, whereas the Conrad is not always discernible and may be absent in regions with gradual crustal transitions.^[9]^[43]

Modern Research and Debates

Observability in Seismic Profiles

The Conrad discontinuity is most clearly observable in refraction seismic profiles, particularly those employing long-offset shots, where it manifests as a distinct P-wave velocity jump separating the upper and lower crust. These profiles leverage critically refracted waves to delineate the boundary, often revealing a velocity increase from approximately 6.1 km/s to 6.7 km/s, as identified in mid-continental U.S. Precambrian crust.^[4] This method's effectiveness stems from its sensitivity to lateral velocity contrasts over large distances, allowing resolution of the discontinuity at depths of 15-20 km in many continental settings.^[6] In reflection seismic profiles, however, the Conrad discontinuity typically appears diffuse and less prominent due to the relatively low acoustic impedance contrast across the boundary, which produces weaker reflective signals compared to the Mohorovičić discontinuity. This results in variable mid-crustal reflectivity patterns rather than a sharp reflector, complicating direct identification. For example, the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) surveys across the United States in the 1970s and 1980s documented heterogeneous lower-crustal reflectivity, with the onset of prominent reflections sometimes aligning with the inferred Conrad depth but often offset by 2 km or more from the velocity jump observed in coincident refraction data.^[3]^[5] Such variability highlights the boundary's subtle nature in vertical-incidence data, where it may blend into broader zones of laminated lower crust.^[44] Observability is further limited by seismic noise and geological heterogeneity, which can mask the signal in complex terrains like rift zones or orogens, and the discontinuity is absent in approximately 20% of continental profiles, likely where velocity gradients are gradual rather than abrupt. An analysis of 50 refraction and 54 reflection profiles worldwide confirmed that while the velocity jump is detectable in most refraction datasets, it correlates inconsistently with reflectivity in reflection data, underscoring the need for integrated approaches to confirm its presence.^[5] These challenges emphasize that detection depends on data quality, profile length, and regional crustal structure, with sharper imaging in stable cratons than in tectonically active areas.^[44]

Integration with Other Geophysical Data

Gravity modeling integrates seismic identifications of the Conrad discontinuity with Bouguer gravity anomalies to delineate density contrasts within the continental crust, particularly in stable cratonic regions. In the North China Craton, inversions of Bouguer gravity data reveal the Conrad discontinuity deepening from approximately 15 km beneath the eastern coastal plains to 28 km under the northwestern Taihang and Yanshan Mountains.^[45] These models demonstrate how lateral variations in crustal density, constrained by seismic velocities, explain regional gravity signatures in cratons, where the Conrad marks a transition to denser materials influencing isostatic balance.^[46] Magnetic data complements seismic profiles by correlating anomalies with the lithological properties of the lower crust below the Conrad discontinuity, highlighting the role of magnetized mafic rocks. High-amplitude, long-wavelength positive magnetic anomalies observed in cratonic lithosphere arise from iron-enriched mafic granulites in the lower crust, which exhibit sufficient magnetization to produce detectable signals in aeromagnetic surveys.^[47] For instance, in the Tarim and Kazakhstan cratons, such anomalies align with evidence of a mafic lower crustal layer, indicating compositional changes that enhance magnetic susceptibility and aid in mapping lateral variations in crustal architecture.^[47] Three-dimensional tomographic inversions, often employing dense seismic arrays, refine the sharpness and geometry of the Conrad discontinuity by integrating P- and S-wave velocity data with prior seismic constraints. In regions like the Central Alps, inversions of teleseismic receiver functions yield 3D shear-wave velocity models that image the Conrad as a sharp velocity increase often exceeding 0.7 km/s in Vs, with depths varying from 10 to 55 km and associated with higher Vp/Vs ratios (1.80–1.90) indicative of mafic compositions.^[48] Similar approaches using portable arrays enhance resolution of mid-crustal boundaries by incorporating ambient noise tomography, revealing subtle lateral sharpness variations that correlate with tectonic stability in cratonic interiors.^[49] This interdisciplinary synthesis underscores the Conrad's role as a compositional boundary, where velocity perturbations inform density and magnetic interpretations.

Current Models and Uncertainties

Contemporary theoretical frameworks for the Conrad discontinuity emphasize two primary interpretations: a sharp chemical boundary or a more gradual rheological transition. In the chemical boundary model, the discontinuity marks a distinct compositional shift from felsic, granitic upper crust to mafic, gabbroic lower crust, evidenced by a step-like increase in P-wave velocity typically from 6.0–6.2 km/s to 6.5–6.8 km/s, as observed in refraction seismic profiles across stable continental platforms.^[6] This view aligns with early petrological models but has been refined through integrated seismic and geochemical data suggesting localized magmatic underplating contributes to the velocity contrast.^[4] Alternatively, recent interpretations favor a gradual rheological transition from brittle to ductile behavior at mid-crustal depths, where increasing temperature and pressure alter rock deformation mechanisms without a pronounced compositional change. Zhamaletdinov (2014) supports this based on deep geoelectrical surveys and drilling results from the Kola Superdeep Well, which reveal enhanced conductivity and fluid presence at the presumed Conrad depth, indicative of a shear zone rather than a lithological interface.^[50] This rheological model explains the discontinuity's variable reflectivity in seismic images and its association with mid-crustal seismicity in tectonically active areas. Significant uncertainties persist regarding the universality and detectability of the Conrad discontinuity. Global crustal models from the 2010s, such as CRUST1.0, do not consistently resolve it across all continental regions due to the model's 1° resolution and reliance on averaged 1D velocity profiles, which may mask lateral variations or introduce artifacts from heterogeneous crustal structure. Its absence in oceanic crust and certain continental domains, like parts of the Iberian Massif, further fuels debate, with some studies attributing non-detection to insufficient data density rather than true geological absence.^[15] Future research directions focus on high-resolution techniques to clarify these ambiguities, particularly ambient noise tomography, which leverages continuous seismic recordings to image lateral continuity and fine-scale velocity gradients at mid-crustal depths.^[49] Such methods hold promise for distinguishing genuine discontinuities from profile averaging effects and linking the Conrad's geometry to broader crustal evolutionary history in a single, integrated framework.

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thick upper crust with a density of 2.7 g/cm3, and a 25 km thick lower crust with a density of 2.94 g/cm3. ... crustal density is equal to approxi- mately 0.03 g/ ...Missing: mafic 2.9-3.0 Conrad discontinuity
[30]
(PDF) Appalachian Stress Study 3. Regional Scale Stress Variations ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Moho depth, Conrad discontinuity between lower and upper crust, and sediment thickness are estimated as 34.5 km, 13.1 km and 4.3 km, ...
[31]
Seismic velocities and composition of the Canadian crust
Analysis of intra-crustal conversions indicates little evidence for a well-defined, widespread Conrad discontinuity, although the lower crust appears to be more ...Missing: variability | Show results with:variability
[32]
[PDF] Structure of the Earth's Crust in Fennoscandia as ... - Geophysica
The C- boundary (originally called Conrad discontinuity, where P-wave velocity reaches a value of about 6.5 or 6.6 km/s) with a velocity of 6.6 km/s was ...<|separator|>
[33]
Determination of Conrad and Curie point depth relationship with the ...
The results confirm that the CPD, range between 7.68 and 20.3 km, CD, range between 16 and 25 km and lithospheric mantle thickness, range between 13.4 and 27. ...
[34]
[PDF] Mantle Origin and Crustal Differentiation of Basalts and Hawaiites of ...
The transitions in seismic velocity and crustal density are relatively sharp, yielding a well-defined Conrad discontinuity near 20 km depth. Magmatic ...
[35]
Petrological evolution of the crust and mantle - AGU Journals - Wiley
In its simplest form crust-mantle evolution can be thought of as a study of the processes by which material is lost from the mantle and forms new crust.
[36]
Lower Crustal Composition in the Southwestern United States
Feb 18, 2020 · The Conrad discontinuity defines the lower crust seismically (Conrad, 1925), but it is not ubiquitous. When the continental crust is split ...
[37]
Genesis of Intermediate and Silicic Magmas in Deep Crustal Hot ...
Sills of mantle-derived basaltic magma are injected at a variety of depths, including (1) the Moho, (2) the lower crust and (3) the Conrad Discontinuity between ...Introduction · Temperature And Melt... · Basalt Emplacement Rate
[38]
Growth of the lower continental crust via the relamination of arc ...
... Conrad discontinuity. The presence of a 20 km thick layer of mafic lower crust between the Conrad and Moho discontinuities would maintain crustal isostasy.
[39]
[PDF] Crustal structure of the northeastern margin of the Tibetan plateau ...
The Conrad discontinuity (interface C in Fig. 6) marks the boundary between the upper and lower crust. Like the whole-crustal thickness, the upper- and ...<|separator|>
[40]
Underthrusting of Tarim Lower Crust Beneath the Tibetan Plateau ...
Jan 26, 2024 · The CD1 signal is the Conrad discontinuity under the ETB corresponding to the continuous positive conversions at 18–28 km depth. The two ...
[41]
Seismic Evidence of the Conrad Discontinuity on the Northeast ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The results not only provide direct evidence of seismology for the existence of the Conrad discontinuity on the northeastern margin of the ...
[42]
The Conrad Discontinuity in the Midcontinent - jstor
Intermediate-depth earthquakes occur at or near a velocity change in the crust, which is presumed to be the Conrad discontinuity; therefore it is assumed that ...
[43]
The Nature of the Mohorovičić Discontinuity - NASA ADS
Numbers next to columns refer to depth (in kilometers) of corresponding velocity discontinuity. The Moho is the velocity discontinuity between the hachured and ...
[44]
[PDF] Lower Crustal Composition in the Southwestern United States
The Conrad discontinuity defines the lower crust seismically (Conrad, 1925), but it is not ubiquitous. When the continental crust is split into thirds, the ...
[45]
[PDF] Ambient seismic noise tomography of Canada and adjacent regions
Nov 21, 2013 · Velocity Gradients. [72] The original discovery of a common midcrust velocity discontinuity, often called the Conrad discontinuity, was based ...
[46]
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Summary of each segment:
[47]
Mapping the density structures of north China from gravity ...
Oct 14, 2009 · Our gravity inversion shows that the Conrad and Moho discontinuities increase northwestward gradually from 15km and 32km in the eastern coast ...
[48]
Crust-Mantle Boundary - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It is correlated with the positive Bouguer gravity anomaly which points to the presence of dense rocks at large depths. ... Conrad discontinuity, called P ⁎ and S ...
[49]
Mode of intracontinental mountain building controlled by lower ...
Oct 24, 2025 · It is thought that lower crustal mafic granulite is sufficiently magnetized to account for amplitudes of long-wavelength magnetic anomalies, ...
[50]
(PDF) Complex geological–geophysical 3D model of the crust in the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The complex geophysical 3D model of the Earth's crust and the upper mantle is created for the Archaean Karelian Craton and the Late ...
[51]
(PDF) A new approach to construct 3-D crustal shear-wave velocity ...
For this study we invert 4 independent parameters, which are the Moho discontinuity depth, the Conrad discontinuity depth, the P-velocity change at the Conrad ...Missing: PASSCAL | Show results with:PASSCAL
[52]
LLNL‐G3Dv3: Global P wave tomography model for improved ...
Oct 6, 2012 · We develop a global-scale P wave velocity model (LLNL-G3Dv3) designed to accurately predict seismic travel times at regional and teleseismic distances ...
[53]
The nature of the Conrad discontinuity with respect to the results of ...
Apr 28, 2014 · The nature of the Conrad discontinuity with respect to the results of kola superdeep well drilling and the data of a deep geoelectrical survey.
[54]
Ambient seismic noise tomography of Canada and adjacent regions ...
Nov 8, 2013 · The higher primary frequency band of the ambient noise provides better resolution of crustal structures than previous tomographic models based ...2 Data And Analysis · 3 Seismic Inversion Results · 3.3 Crust-Mantle Transition