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Crossbite

A crossbite is a type of dental malocclusion characterized by the misalignment of the upper and lower teeth, where the upper teeth fit inside the lower teeth when the jaws are closed, reversing the normal occlusion pattern. Crossbites affect approximately 5-15% of children, with posterior types being more prevalent.^[1] This condition can involve one or more teeth and may affect the front (anterior) or back (posterior) regions of the mouth, potentially leading to functional and aesthetic issues if untreated.^[2] Crossbites are classified into several types based on their location and extent. An anterior crossbite occurs when the upper front teeth are positioned behind the lower front teeth, sometimes resembling an underbite if the jaw is involved.^[3] Posterior crossbites, more common, involve the back teeth where the upper molars or premolars sit inside the lower ones, which can be unilateral (affecting one side) or bilateral.^[1] Less frequently, a buccal crossbite or Brodie bite features the upper back teeth biting entirely outside the lower teeth.^[1] The etiology of crossbites is multifactorial, often stemming from genetic predispositions such as discrepancies in jaw size or tooth positioning inherited from family members.^[3] Environmental factors also contribute, including prolonged habits like thumb sucking, mouth breathing, or atypical swallowing patterns that alter jaw development, as well as delayed loss of primary teeth or abnormal eruption of permanent teeth.^[2] In many cases, the precise cause remains unidentified, with studies indicating that up to 92% of malocclusions, including crossbites, have an unknown etiology.^[2] Symptoms of a crossbite may include jaw shifting to one side during biting, uneven tooth wear, and facial asymmetry due to imbalanced jaw growth, particularly if the condition develops in childhood.^[1] More severe manifestations can involve difficulty chewing, speech impediments, and increased risk of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders, tooth damage, or gum issues from improper alignment.^[3] Diagnosis typically involves a clinical oral examination by an orthodontist, supplemented by radiographs such as panoramic X-rays or cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) to assess the extent of misalignment and underlying skeletal involvement.^[2] Treatment for crossbites aims to correct alignment and prevent complications, with options varying by age and severity. In growing children, early intervention using palatal expanders can widen the upper jaw to resolve posterior crossbites, often combined with braces or clear aligners for precise tooth movement.^[1] For adults, treatments may include braces, retainers, or surgical options like orthognathic surgery in cases of significant skeletal discrepancy, with durations ranging from 18 months to several years depending on the approach.^[3] Untreated crossbites can exacerbate over time, potentially necessitating more invasive interventions later.^[2]

Definition and Overview

Definition

A crossbite is a dental malocclusion in which one or more maxillary teeth are positioned lingually relative to their mandibular antagonists during occlusion, thereby reversing the normal buccolingual relationship of the dental arches.^[4] Crossbites can be dental, involving tooth inclination, or skeletal, due to jaw size discrepancies.^[4] This misalignment disrupts the proper alignment and contact between opposing teeth, potentially affecting masticatory function and jaw positioning.^[5] In contrast, normal occlusion features the maxillary teeth overlapping the mandibular teeth slightly in a buccal (outward) direction when the jaws are closed, ensuring stable intercuspation and even distribution of occlusal forces.^[6] This ideal alignment promotes efficient chewing, speech, and facial aesthetics.^[7] The condition primarily involves the maxilla (upper jaw), mandible (lower jaw), and the occlusal surfaces of the teeth, where discrepancies in transverse dimensions or tooth inclinations lead to the inverted positioning.^[8] Crossbites may occur as anterior or posterior variants, depending on the affected teeth.^[3]

Prevalence and Epidemiology

Crossbite is a common orthodontic malocclusion observed in children and adolescents worldwide, with overall prevalence estimates for anterior and posterior crossbites ranging from 5% to 15% depending on the type and population studied. A systematic review of 58 studies involving over 100,000 healthy children and adolescents reported pooled prevalences of 7.8% for anterior crossbite, 9.0% for posterior crossbite, and 12.2% for crossbite with functional shift. These figures align with broader epidemiological data indicating that crossbite affects approximately 8-10% of the pediatric population globally, though rates can vary significantly by subtype and geographic region.^[9] Regional variations highlight genetic and environmental influences on crossbite occurrence, with higher rates of anterior crossbite in Asian populations (mean 10.3%, SD 6.5%) compared to American (1.0%, SD 0.6%) or European (5.6%, SD 4.0%) groups. Posterior crossbite shows greater prevalence in the Americas (approximately 17%) than in Europe (around 4%), potentially linked to differences in skeletal patterns among ethnic groups, such as higher incidence in white populations. In permanent dentition, untreated crossbites persist in 50-90% of cases from primary or mixed dentition, leading to persistence in approximately 5-10% of adults if early intervention is absent.^[9]^[10]^[11] Most crossbites are detected during primary and mixed dentition stages, particularly between ages 6 and 12 years, when skeletal growth allows for timely assessment and treatment. Gender differences are subtle, with skeletal crossbites showing a slightly higher prevalence in males, possibly due to variations in mandibular growth patterns. Recent epidemiological surveys from the 2020s, including cross-sectional studies in diverse populations, indicate urban-rural disparities, with malocclusion rates (including crossbite) often higher in rural areas (up to 76%) compared to urban settings (around 62%), attributed to differences in healthcare access and early screening opportunities.^[10]^[12]^[13]

Classification

Anterior Crossbite

Anterior crossbite is a specific form of crossbite characterized by the lingual positioning of one or more maxillary anterior teeth relative to their mandibular counterparts, involving the incisors and canines such that the upper front teeth fit inside the lower ones during occlusion.^[14] This misalignment contrasts with the normal overjet where maxillary teeth are positioned anteriorly.^[15] Anterior crossbites are classified into several subtypes based on their underlying causes. The dental subtype arises solely from positional anomalies of individual teeth, such as palatal eruption of maxillary incisors or proclination of mandibular incisors, without skeletal involvement.^[15] The skeletal subtype involves a transverse discrepancy in jaw positioning, often a minor maxillary deficiency contributing to the reversed bite.^[15] Single-tooth anterior crossbite typically affects one maxillary tooth, commonly a palatally displaced lateral incisor, resulting from abnormal eruption paths or local factors like retained primary teeth.^[16] The functional subtype occurs due to mandibular deflection or shifts during closure, often linked to occlusal interferences or habits, leading to an edge-to-edge or reversed incisor relationship.^[15] Clinically, anterior crossbites present unique features that distinguish them from other malocclusions, including a pseudo-Class III appearance with a concave facial profile and forward mandibular shift in habitual occlusion, though centric relation may reveal normal skeletal alignment.^[15] This can result in abnormal enamel abrasion and wear on the incisor edges from improper contact, as well as increased risk of trauma to the anterior teeth or gingival recession due to the reversed positioning.^[15] Such features may compromise aesthetics and anterior guidance during function.^[14] Anterior crossbites are frequently observed in primary dentition, with a prevalence of approximately 4-5% in the general population during primary and early mixed dentition phases among children.^[17] Prevalence varies by population, ranging from 1.6% to 12%, and they represent a notable subset of crossbite cases, particularly in younger patients where early detection is common.^[15]

Posterior Crossbite

Posterior crossbite refers to a malocclusion in which the buccal cusps of the mandibular premolars and molars occlude buccally to the lingual cusps of the maxillary premolars and molars, typically affecting the posterior dentition unilaterally or bilaterally.^[4] This condition is more prevalent than anterior crossbite, occurring in approximately 5% to 8% of children aged 3 to 12 years, with variations reported as low as 4% in European populations and up to 17% in American adolescents.^[4]^[18] It often stems from transverse maxillary deficiency, where the maxillary arch is narrowed relative to the mandibular arch, leading to improper buccolingual relationships.^[4] Subtypes of posterior crossbite are distinguished based on etiology and direction of misalignment. A true posterior crossbite arises from inherent structural discrepancies, such as skeletal or dental transverse deficiencies without mandibular displacement.^[19] In contrast, a functional posterior crossbite involves a mandibular shift toward the affected side due to occlusal interferences, often exacerbating the transverse discrepancy; about 90% of such cases are linked to underlying maxillary narrowing.^[4] Regarding direction, a buccal crossbite occurs when the mandibular buccal cusps align buccally to the maxillary buccal cusps, while a lingual crossbite (also known as a scissor bite) positions the mandibular buccal cusps lingually to the maxillary lingual cusps.^[4] Clinically, posterior crossbite manifests with distinctive features that impact facial and occlusal harmony. Patients may exhibit facial asymmetry, with deviation of the mandibular midline toward the crossbite side upon closure, resulting from functional shifts or skeletal imbalances.^[19] Additionally, uneven wear on the occlusal surfaces of the molars and premolars can develop due to atypical loading during mastication, potentially leading to accelerated attrition on the affected teeth.^[4] These features underscore the importance of early identification, as the condition frequently correlates with transverse maxillary deficiency, influencing overall arch development.^[19]

Etiology

Genetic Factors

Crossbite development can involve inherited traits that predispose individuals to skeletal discrepancies, particularly in families exhibiting Class III malocclusion tendencies. Mandibular prognathism, characterized by excessive forward growth of the lower jaw, or maxillary hypoplasia, involving underdevelopment of the upper jaw, often clusters within families, contributing to anterior or posterior crossbites. These traits arise from polygenic influences on craniofacial morphogenesis, where variations in genes regulating bone and cartilage growth lead to anteroposterior and transverse imbalances. For instance, genetic loci on chromosomes such as 1p36, 6q25, and 19p13.2 have been associated with mandibular prognathism in Class III cases.^[20] Certain genetic syndromes are strongly linked to crossbite manifestations due to congenital craniofacial anomalies. In Crouzon syndrome, caused by mutations in the FGFR2 gene, patients frequently present with bilateral posterior crossbite resulting from severe maxillary hypoplasia and a constricted dental arch. Similarly, Apert syndrome, also involving FGFR2 mutations, is characterized by midfacial hypoplasia leading to Class III malocclusion with unilateral or bilateral crossbites, often accompanied by anterior open bite and crowding. These syndromic crossbites highlight the role of fibroblast growth factor receptor pathways in disrupting normal maxillary expansion and alignment during embryonic development.^[21]^[22] Crossbite etiology reflects polygenic inheritance, where multiple genes interact to influence craniofacial growth patterns. Pathways involving bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) and endothelin 1 (EDN1) play critical roles in patterning the pharyngeal arches and neural crest cell differentiation, which can result in transverse discrepancies predisposing to skeletal crossbites. BMP4 variants, for example, have been linked to jaw size variations and crowding that exacerbate crossbite in non-syndromic malocclusions. Familial and twin studies underscore this genetic component, with heritability estimates for skeletal crossbites ranging from approximately 36% to higher values in specific occlusal traits, indicating a substantial inherited influence modulated by environmental factors.^[23]^[24]^[25]

Environmental and Habitual Factors

Environmental and habitual factors play a significant role in the development of crossbite, particularly through modifiable behaviors and external influences that alter jaw growth and dental alignment during childhood. These factors often interact with normal developmental processes, leading to maxillary constriction or mandibular shifts that result in anterior or posterior crossbites. Unlike genetic predispositions, these elements are largely preventable through early intervention in habits and environmental management.^[2] Prolonged oral habits, such as thumb-sucking and pacifier use beyond the age of 4, can exert uneven pressure on the developing dentition, causing narrowing of the maxillary arch and subsequent posterior crossbite. Thumb-sucking, for instance, pushes the upper anterior teeth lingually while the lower teeth remain in position, potentially leading to a lateral shift in the mandible over time. Similarly, extended pacifier use mimics this pressure pattern, increasing the risk of crossbite by up to 2-3 times in affected children compared to non-habitual users. Tongue thrusting, an abnormal swallowing pattern where the tongue presses against the teeth instead of the palate, further contributes by promoting anterior open bite or crossbite through persistent forward force on the incisors.^[26] Trauma and early tooth loss represent acute environmental disruptions that can induce crossbite by allowing adjacent teeth to drift into misaligned positions. Premature loss of primary molars due to caries, injury, or extraction often results in unchecked mesial migration of posterior teeth, creating space discrepancies that manifest as unilateral or bilateral crossbites upon eruption of permanent teeth. Facial or dental trauma, such as fractures from falls or sports injuries, may directly displace developing jaws or teeth, exacerbating misalignment if not addressed promptly. These events highlight the importance of timely space maintenance to preserve arch integrity.^[27] Chronic mouth breathing, frequently stemming from adenoid hypertrophy or nasal obstructions, leads to maxillary constriction and a higher incidence of crossbites by altering tongue posture and reducing the expansive forces on the palate. Children with enlarged adenoids often adopt open-mouth postures, which prevent proper nasal airflow and result in a narrower upper jaw, with studies showing a significant association between adenoid-related mouth breathing and posterior crossbite prevalence. Additionally, nutritional factors like prolonged soft diets in infancy—common in bottle-feeding or processed food reliance—diminish masticatory muscle activity, hindering robust jaw development and increasing susceptibility to crossbites through underdeveloped maxillary breadth. Breastfed infants, benefiting from firmer feeding mechanics, exhibit lower rates of such malocclusions.^[28]^[29]

Signs and Symptoms

Clinical Presentation

Crossbite manifests as a visible reversal of the normal buccolingual relationship between the maxillary and mandibular teeth upon occlusion, where the lower teeth are positioned buccal or labial to the upper teeth.^[4] This discrepancy can occur unilaterally or bilaterally and may involve anterior or posterior teeth, leading to an abnormal alignment observable during clinical inspection.^[30] In cases of unilateral crossbite, facial asymmetry often becomes apparent, characterized by a midline shift or deviation of the mandibular midline toward the affected side, potentially resulting in a concave facial profile, retrusive upper lip, and prominent chin in skeletal anterior variants.^[4] Occlusal patterns further highlight the condition, with anterior crossbites sometimes presenting edge-to-edge contact of the incisors in centric relation, while posterior crossbites may exhibit a scissor bite where the lower buccal cusps occlude lingual to the upper lingual cusps.^[4] The presentation varies by dentition stage; in primary dentition, crossbites have a prevalence of 5% to 8%, whereas they tend to persist into the permanent dentition, affecting up to 51% bilaterally and 47% to 54% unilaterally among orthodontic patients.^[4] Functionally, individuals may exhibit mandibular hyperpropulsion to achieve maximum intercuspation, resulting in observable difficulties with articulation or unilateral chewing direction.^[4]

Associated Pain and Discomfort

Crossbite can lead to various subjective symptoms of pain and discomfort, primarily arising from the malalignment of dental arches that alters normal occlusal function. Patients often report jaw pain, which stems from uneven loading on the masticatory muscles during chewing and other oral activities. This uneven distribution is particularly pronounced in unilateral posterior crossbite, where the mandible shifts laterally to achieve occlusion, resulting in asymmetric muscle activation and subsequent fatigue in the temporalis and masseter muscles.^[31] Muscle tenderness and soreness in these areas are common complaints, exacerbated by prolonged use, and may manifest as a dull ache that intensifies with jaw movement.^[32] Tooth sensitivity is another frequent discomfort associated with crossbite, often resulting from accelerated wear on the affected teeth due to atypical contact forces. In anterior crossbite, the lower incisors may rub against the palatal surfaces of the upper incisors, leading to enamel attrition and eventual exposure of dentin, which heightens sensitivity to temperature, touch, or pressure.^[33] Posterior crossbite can similarly cause uneven enamel erosion on the buccal surfaces of upper molars or lingual surfaces of lower molars, contributing to hypersensitivity that patients describe as sharp or lingering pain during biting or brushing.^[34] Speech and swallowing difficulties further compound the discomfort in certain crossbite presentations, especially anterior cases where the reversed incisor alignment interferes with tongue positioning and airflow. Individuals may experience lisping or distortion of sibilant sounds (such as "s" and "z"), as the tongue struggles to contact the palate properly for articulation, leading to self-consciousness and fatigue during conversation.^[35] Headaches, particularly tension-type, are reported by some patients with crossbite, attributed to compensatory overuse of neck and jaw muscles to maintain proper head posture and occlusion. This chronic muscle strain, often involving the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid alongside masticatory muscles, can radiate pain to the temporal and occipital regions, presenting as a tight band-like sensation around the head. Such symptoms are more noticeable after extended periods of oral activity, highlighting the functional burden of the malocclusion.^[32]

Diagnosis

Clinical Examination

The clinical examination for crossbite begins with an extraoral assessment to evaluate facial symmetry, profile, and soft tissue contours, which helps distinguish between dental and skeletal components of the malocclusion. A concave facial profile may suggest mandibular prognathism contributing to the crossbite, while asymmetry in the chin or midline deviation can indicate unilateral involvement.^[4] Palpation of the temporomandibular joint and muscles of mastication during jaw movements assesses for any associated deviations or tenderness that might relate to functional shifts.^[36] Intraoral examination focuses on direct visualization and manual evaluation of the occlusal relationship in the buccolingual dimension. The clinician observes whether maxillary teeth are positioned lingually or mandibular teeth buccally relative to their antagonists, classifying the crossbite as anterior, posterior, unilateral, or bilateral. To differentiate centric relation (CR) from centric occlusion (CO), the mandible is gently guided into a retruded contact position, and any lateral or anterior shift upon closure into maximum intercuspation is noted, often indicating a functional crossbite due to occlusal interferences. Palpation along the buccal and lingual aspects of the teeth and jaw during opening and closing detects mandibular displacement, which is common in pseudo-Class III malocclusions.^[4]^[36] Bite registration techniques, such as using articulating paper, are employed to identify premature contacts and interferences that perpetuate the crossbite. The patient bites down on thin, colored paper strips, which leave marks on the occlusal surfaces highlighting areas of uneven force distribution or deflective contacts; these are then selectively adjusted to evaluate improvements in alignment.^[37] Evaluation of the dentition stage is integral, as crossbite presentation varies between primary, mixed, and permanent phases. In primary dentition, posterior crossbites are often functional and transient, with a prevalence of about 5-8%, while in mixed dentition, skeletal discrepancies become more evident alongside erupting permanent teeth; permanent dentition assessments confirm stability and rule out ongoing shifts. This staging informs the likelihood of self-correction versus the need for intervention.^[4]

Imaging and Diagnostic Tools

Diagnosis of crossbite relies on imaging modalities that provide objective measures to differentiate between dental and skeletal components, assess root orientations, and evaluate transverse relationships. Cephalometric radiographs, particularly posteroanterior and lateral views, are essential for distinguishing skeletal from dental crossbites by quantifying maxillary and mandibular widths and inclinations. For instance, posteroanterior cephalograms measure the effective maxillary width (jugale-left to jugale-right) and mandibular width (antegonion-left to antegonion-right) to compute the skeletal maxillary-to-mandibular width ratio, which helps identify transverse skeletal discrepancies contributing to posterior crossbites. Lateral cephalograms further evaluate mandibular plane angles and lower face heights, which correlate with intermolar width ratios and aid in classifying the etiology as primarily skeletal or dentoalveolar. Panoramic radiographs complement cephalometric imaging by visualizing root positions and angulations in both arches, which is crucial for assessing potential complications like root resorption or impactions in crossbite cases. These radiographs provide a broad overview of dental development and alveolar bone support, allowing orthodontists to evaluate how root orientations influence the transverse malocclusion without the superimposition issues common in intraoral views.^[19] Three-dimensional imaging, such as cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT), offers superior visualization of transverse discrepancies by enabling precise measurement of jaw widths, basal bone relationships, and dental compensations. In crossbite patients, CBCT reveals narrower maxillary basal widths and wider mandibular bases, particularly in bilateral cases, while also quantifying first molar inclinations to differentiate true skeletal issues from dental tipping.^[38] Digital models derived from intraoral scans or CBCT facilitate simulation of treatment outcomes and precise arch form analysis, enhancing diagnostic accuracy for transverse planning.^[38] Study models, whether traditional plaster casts or digital intraoral scans, are used to measure arch widths directly, such as intercanine and intermolar distances, to confirm transverse deficiencies associated with crossbites. These models allow for assessment of posterior tooth tipping and overall arch asymmetry, with increased mandibular intercanine widths often noted in crossbite groups compared to normals.^[39] ^[19] Diagnostic criteria for crossbite incorporate adaptations of Angle's classification, which primarily addresses anteroposterior relationships but is extended by systems like Ackerman-Proffit's to include transverse dimensions, categorizing crossbites as edge-to-edge, normal, or reverse overjet with buccolingual inversions. This integrated approach classifies crossbites within Angle Class I, II, or III frameworks while specifying unilateral or bilateral transverse involvement for targeted intervention.^[40]

Complications

Temporomandibular Disorders (TMD)

Crossbite, particularly unilateral posterior crossbite, is associated with an increased risk of temporomandibular disorders (TMD), with evidence indicating that it elevates the odds of symptoms such as TMJ clicking by approximately 6 times over long-term follow-up.^[41] This heightened risk stems from asymmetric occlusal loading on the temporomandibular joints (TMJs), where the mandible shifts laterally toward the crossbite side during function, leading to uneven force distribution.^[42] In cases of mixed anterior and posterior crossbite, the risk of painful TMD is further amplified, with one study reporting a 2.625-fold greater likelihood compared to those without such malocclusion.^[43] The primary mechanisms linking unilateral posterior crossbite to TMD involve chronic joint stress and muscle imbalance induced by the functional mandibular shift. This shift, often measuring 2-3 mm toward the crossbite side, alters the condylar position within the glenoid fossa, promoting uneven compressive forces on the TMJ articular surfaces and potentially leading to internal derangement, including anterior disc displacement.^[44] Resultant muscle hyperactivity, particularly in the masseter and temporalis on the ipsilateral side, exacerbates the imbalance, contributing to myofascial pain and joint overloading over time.^[45] Recent studies from the 2020s highlight a notable co-occurrence of TMD and unilateral posterior crossbite in adults, with TMD prevalence reaching up to 59% in affected cohorts, significantly higher than the general adult population rate of 10-31%.^[46]^[47] Specifically, the mandibular shift in unilateral cases often manifests as TMJ clicking due to disc interference during translation or, in more severe instances, locking from non-reducing disc displacement, underscoring the functional implications.^[41] These findings emphasize the role of early identification in mitigating TMD progression.^[48]

Dental and Periodontal Issues

Untreated crossbites exert abnormal occlusal forces on the teeth, leading to uneven attrition, particularly on the palatal surfaces of upper teeth or buccal surfaces of lower teeth in the affected area. This progressive wear can compromise enamel integrity and, in severe cases, increase the susceptibility to fractures due to the imbalanced distribution of masticatory loads. For instance, in anterior crossbites, the lower incisors may experience labial tipping and excessive contact, accelerating attrition and potentially resulting in chipped or fractured incisal edges over time.^[49] Periodontal complications arise from the chronic trauma induced by crossbite misalignment, which disrupts the normal periodontal ligament function and alveolar bone remodeling. In anterior crossbites, this manifests as gingival recession, often due to thinning of the vestibular alveolar bone on the lower incisors from premature occlusal contacts, with reported recession depths up to 4 mm in untreated cases. Posterior crossbites contribute to deeper periodontal pockets, with mean depths of 3.86 mm compared to 3.32 mm in normal occlusion, indicating heightened risk for attachment loss and localized bone resorption around affected teeth. Alveolar bone loss is particularly noted in the supporting structures of proclined lower incisors, further exacerbating periodontal instability.^[50]^[49]^[51] The misalignment also promotes plaque accumulation in irregular interdental spaces and along misaligned contact points, elevating the risk of dental caries. Buccal crossbites, in particular, are associated with a significantly higher odds of caries (OR: 6.57), as the altered occlusion hinders effective oral hygiene and facilitates food trapping. Additionally, prolonged uneven forces can lead to tooth mobility, especially in the lower incisors of anterior crossbites, where labial root displacement reduces periodontal support and stability.^[52]^[53]^[49] In anterior crossbites, these dental and periodontal changes compound aesthetic concerns by producing an uneven smile line through progressive incisal wear and visible gingival recession, diminishing the harmony of the anterior dentition.^[50]

Treatment

Early Intervention in Primary Dentition

Early intervention in primary dentition focuses on monitoring crossbites in young children, typically between ages 3 and 6, to assess for natural resolution while identifying cases requiring prompt correction to guide developing jaw structures.^[54] Functional posterior crossbites, often arising from mandibular shifts due to occlusal interferences, exhibit a self-correction potential ranging from 12.2% to 77.1% during the transition to mixed dentition, with higher rates observed in some cohorts.^[55] This variability underscores the importance of regular clinical evaluations to distinguish self-resolving cases from those likely to persist, as untreated functional shifts can influence asymmetric growth patterns.^[56] For mild crossbites not anticipated to self-correct, simple removable appliances are employed to address the malocclusion without invasive measures. Removable maxillary expanders, such as quad-helix or hyrax designs adapted for primary teeth, gradually widen the upper arch to eliminate posterior crossbites by promoting dental tipping and skeletal adaptation during growth.^[54] Habit-breaking appliances, including tongue cribs or rollers integrated into retainers, target associated parafunctional behaviors like tongue thrusting that contribute to anterior crossbites, thereby facilitating occlusal normalization.^[57] These appliances are patient-compliant and reversible, allowing for adjustments as the primary dentition evolves. Intervention is ideally timed before age 8, coinciding with peak maxillary growth periods, to leverage natural developmental changes and minimize compensatory skeletal adaptations.^[1] The American Association of Orthodontists recommends an initial orthodontic evaluation by age 7 to detect such issues early. Successful early correction prevents progression to more severe skeletal discrepancies, such as maxillary constriction or mandibular asymmetry, reducing the need for complex treatments later.^[17] Long-term studies indicate that timely intervention in primary dentition enhances occlusal stability and averts associated complications like uneven wear or temporomandibular strain.^[54]

Orthodontic Treatment in Mixed and Permanent Dentition

Orthodontic treatment for crossbite in the mixed and permanent dentition stages focuses on established malocclusions, typically confirmed through clinical examination and imaging to differentiate dental from skeletal components.^[58] These interventions employ fixed and removable appliances to achieve transverse correction, tooth alignment, and occlusal harmony, often prioritizing dentoalveolar expansion and tipping movements in older patients where skeletal growth is less modifiable.^[10] For posterior crossbites, rapid maxillary expansion (RME) using devices like the Hyrax or Haas expander is a primary fixed appliance, particularly effective in the late mixed and early permanent dentition to widen the maxilla by separating the midpalatal suture and increasing intermolar width by 4-7 mm. In permanent dentition adolescents aged 12-16, RME is effective for crossbite correction and arch expansion, with activation typically involving 0.5-1 mm daily turns until overcorrection is achieved.^[18] Unilateral posterior crossbites benefit from the quad-helix appliance, a fixed transpalatal arch that provides asymmetric expansion through inner bows and helices, correcting midline deviations with fewer appointments than removable options.^[59] This appliance is activated gradually over 4-6 weeks and excels in mixed dentition cases due to its stability and reduced treatment time compared to expansion plates.^[10] Dental crossbites, often anterior in nature, are addressed with traditional fixed braces or clear aligners like Invisalign, which facilitate controlled tipping and bodily movement of incisors.^[60] In fixed orthodontic systems, brackets on upper and lower arches combined with Class III elastics (3-5 oz force) correct anterior crossbites by proclining maxillary incisors and retroclining mandibular ones.^[61] Clear aligners provide a removable alternative for dental corrections, using sequential trays with attachments to generate 1-2 mm of incisor movement per stage, suitable for permanent dentition patients seeking aesthetic treatment without compromising efficacy in non-skeletal discrepancies.^[60] Emerging options as of 2025 include myofunctional appliances like Myobrace for anterior crossbites in early mixed dentition and improved superelastic Ni-Ti alloy wires for skeletal Class III cases, showing promising results in preliminary studies.^[62]^[63] Treatment duration generally spans 12-24 months, influenced by crossbite severity and patient compliance, with active phases followed by retention using Hawley retainers to maintain transverse stability and prevent relapse through circumferential clasps and acrylic coverage.^[18] These retainers are worn full-time for 3-6 months post-expansion, then nightly, effectively stabilizing intermolar widths over short-term follow-up.^[64] Success rates for dental crossbites exceed 80-90% with orthodontic appliances alone, reflecting high correction stability due to favorable tooth movement mechanics.^[10] For skeletal crossbites, rates are lower at 70-80% without adjunctive therapies like headgear or functional appliances, as residual discrepancies may persist from underlying jaw asymmetry.^[65] Long-term stability post-treatment averages 80%, with relapse risks minimized through overcorrection and vigilant retention protocols.^[66]

Surgical Options for Severe Cases

Surgical options for severe crossbite cases are indicated when orthodontic treatment alone cannot correct significant skeletal discrepancies, such as maxillary hypoplasia contributing to posterior crossbite and Class III malocclusion in adults. These procedures address underlying jaw imbalances that persist after facial growth completion, improving occlusion, facial harmony, and function.^[67]^[68] The cornerstone procedure is the Le Fort I osteotomy, a maxillary surgery that involves horizontal cuts above the teeth to mobilize and advance the upper jaw, typically by 5-10 mm to resolve the crossbite. It is frequently combined with orthognathic surgeries like bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO) of the mandible for setback in cases of mandibular prognathism, or genioplasty for chin adjustment. Pre-surgical orthodontics, lasting 12-18 months, aligns teeth to facilitate precise bone repositioning and postoperative stability.^[68]^[69] Surgery is timed after skeletal maturity to prevent relapse from ongoing growth, generally after age 16 for females and 18 for males, with total treatment spanning 2-3 years including presurgical and postsurgical phases.^[67]^[70] Potential risks include skeletal relapse, with studies reporting a mean of 18% of the initial maxillary advancement lost over three years, and clinically significant relapse exceeding 2 mm in about 14% of patients, influenced by the extent of advancement and fixation method. Despite this, outcomes demonstrate high success, with patient satisfaction rates of 80-100% for Class III corrections, reflecting enhanced bite stability, aesthetics, and quality of life.^[71]^[72]

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Pediatric Treatment of Anterior-Upper-Single Dental Crossbite Using ...
Jan 21, 2025 · It is classified as a dental crossbite if it is the result of a palatal displacement of a maxillary tooth, often associated with the ...
[16]
Early Interceptive Correction for Anterior Crossbite Using a ...
Mar 13, 2024 · Anterior crossbite is a malocclusion that occurs for a variety of reasons, causes significant issues, and may be corrected in a variety of ways.
[17]
Orthodontic treatment for posterior crossbites - PubMed
Dec 24, 2021 · The prevalence of posterior crossbite is around 4% and 17% of children and adolescents in Europe and America, respectively.
[18]
[PDF] Correction of Posterior Crossbites: Diagnosis and Treatment - AAPD
The incidence of posterior crossbite varies from a low of 7.3% in the Hispanic population to a high of 9.6% among African Americans, with whites in be- tween ...
[19]
Towards Genetic Dissection of Skeletal Class III Malocclusion
Class III skeletal malocclusion phenotype is characterized by maxillary (midface) retrusion (A), mandibular protrusion (mandibular prognathism; (B), a ...
[20]
Familial Crouzon syndrome - PMC - NIH
The dental arches were “U” shaped with bilateral posterior crossbite. Maxilla showed a high vault palate with lateral palatal swellings [Figure 1d, Chart 1] ...
[21]
The spectrum of Apert syndrome: phenotype, particularities in ...
Intraorally: Class III with reclined lower incisors, anterior open bite, bilateral crossbite, and crowding in both arches. V-shaped maxillary arch with midline ...
[22]
Genetics of the dentofacial variation in human malocclusion - PMC
This review summarizes the most common dentofacial variations associated with malocclusions and reviews the current knowledge of the roles of genes in the ...
[23]
Wnt Signaling Interacts with Bmp and Edn1 to Regulate Dorsal ...
Craniofacial development requires signals from epithelia to pattern skeletogenic neural crest (NC) cells, such as the subdivision of each pharyngeal arch ...Missing: crossbite | Show results with:crossbite
[24]
Genetic analysis of occlusal variation in twins - PubMed
Arch size, individual tooth displacement scores, and cross-bite show significant genetic variance, averaging only about 36 percent of the total variance of ...
[25]
Influence of bad oral habits upon the development of posterior ... - NIH
Nov 25, 2023 · The identified favoring factors were pacifier use, thumb sucking, oral breathing and tongue thrusting or immature swallowing.<|separator|>
[26]
Poor oral habits and malocclusions after usage of orthodontic pacifiers
Aug 22, 2019 · Tongue thrust swallow affected 16.16% of the sample. The 5.56% of the data indicated the presence of fingersucking/thumbsucking habit. The noted ...
[27]
What is crossbite in children: causes and treatment
Apr 28, 2022 · Crossbite is a type of malocclusion in which there is an incorrect relationship between the upper and lower jaw. That is, the patient ...What Is Crossbite In... · Crossbite Types In Babies... · Anterior Crossbite<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
Anterior Crossbite: Understanding Causes, Symptoms & Treatment
Mar 21, 2025 · Anterior crossbite is a prevalent orthodontic issue occurring when the upper front teeth sit behind the lower front teeth when biting down.Missing: definition subtypes prevalence
[29]
The effects of adenoid hypertrophy and oral breathing on ...
Jan 3, 2024 · Adenoid hypertrophy can lead to airway obstruction; thus forces a child to breathe through their mouth, thus affecting the normal development of the dental and ...
[30]
Relationship between Nutrition and Development of the Jaws in ...
Feb 5, 2024 · Studies demonstrated that bottle-fed children are more likely to suffer posterior crossbite compared to breastfed children [25,30,31].
[31]
A clinical review of crossbite in an orthodontic population - PubMed
Crossbite was a frequently occurring anomaly in the Lagos population, with anterior crossbite being more common. There appear to be gender or age difference ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[32]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12004977/
[33]
The impact of malocclusion on the prevalence of pain-related ...
Apr 3, 2025 · Participants with an anterior crossbite experienced pain in the jaw joint and chewing muscles, along with deviation during mouth opening, ...
[34]
Interceptive Correction of Anterior Crossbite Using Short-Span Wire ...
Apr 5, 2018 · Anterior crossbite may give rise to enamel wear mainly close to the incisal edge due to heavy contact between the opposing tooth/teeth [6].Missing: erosion | Show results with:erosion
[35]
7 Common Types of Bite Problems and Their Orthodontic Solutions
Crossbite. A crossbite occurs when the upper teeth fit ... Underbites also increase jaw pain and discomfort because of the added stress on the jaw joints.Missing: symptoms | Show results with:symptoms
[36]
Malocclusion of Teeth - UF Health
May 27, 2025 · Malocclusion means the teeth are not aligned properly. Alternative Names: Crowded teeth; Misaligned teeth; Crossbite; Overbite; Underbite; Open bite.
[37]
Malocclusion and Its Relationship with Sound Speech Disorders in ...
Malocclusions are often associated with atypical swallowing, a non-physiologic condition characterized by the persistence of infantile swallowing patterns even ...
[38]
None
### Summary of Clinical Examination for Anterior Crossbite
[39]
Articulation Paper - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Articulating paper should be used to check for occlusal interferences, and the occlusion be adjusted if necessary.
[40]
Cone-beam computed tomography transverse analysis. Part I
The purposes of this study were to investigate a portion of transverse dimension relationships by using CBCT and to propose a transverse analysis.
[41]
Evaluation of Crossbites in Relation with Dental Arch Widths ...
Dental arch widths were measured directly from the models by two calibrated examiners. The data were analysed statistically using chi-square and Fisher's ...
[42]
A New Approach to Diagnosis to Posterior Cross Bite: Intraoral ...
Aug 1, 2022 · A posterior crossbite is an occlusion disorder that occurs in the transverse plane. It occurs when the buccal cusps of the upper premolars and ...
[43]
Incidence of temporomandibular joint clicking in adolescents with ...
Aug 6, 2015 · The present study showed a significant association between unilateral posterior cross-bite and TMJ self-reported clicking at 10-year follow-up ( ...
[44]
Unilateral posterior crossbite with mandibular shift: a review - PubMed
Evidence that crossbites are not self-correcting, have some association with temporomandibular disorders and cause skeletal, dental and muscle adaptation ...
[45]
The Prevalence of Temporomandibular Disorders and Dental ... - NIH
Feb 12, 2021 · Only crossbite that presents simultaneously on the anterior and the posterior dentition (mixed X-bite) may have some effect on the level of pain ...
[46]
The functional shift of the mandible in unilateral posterior crossbite ...
Posterior crossbite is defined as a malocclusion in the canine, premolar, and molar regions, char- acterized by the buccal cusps of the maxillary teeth ...Missing: true | Show results with:true<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
The Electrical Activity of the Temporal and Masseter Muscles in ...
Mar 26, 2015 · The aim of this study was to assess the influence of unilateral posterior crossbite on the electrical activity of the temporal and masseter ...
[48]
Temporomandibular disorder prevalence in malocclusion patients
Feb 26, 2025 · Among malocclusion types, Class II (40%) and posterior unilateral crossbite (59%) had the highest TMD prevalence. Sensitivity analysis confirmed ...
[49]
Longitudinal trends in temporomandibular joint disorder symptoms ...
Apr 27, 2023 · It has been hypothesized that unilateral posterior crossbite increases the risk for myofascial pain, arthralgia and TMJ clicking.
[50]
The impact of malocclusion on the prevalence of pain-related ...
Apr 2, 2025 · It has been observed that unilateral posterior crossbite and accompanying midline deviation are associated with signs and symptoms of TMDs (83).
[51]
Early correction of anterior crossbites: A systematic review
Aug 9, 2025 · 4 Untreated crossbite may result in tooth damage in crossbite due to attrition, gingival recession, loss of alveolar bone support for the ...
[52]
Gingival Recession in a Case of Anterior Crossbite with Angle Class ...
Ngom and coll. (2006) found that the correlation between anterior crossbite and GR could be explained by primary occlusal trauma [8]. The tooth or teeth in ...
[53]
[PDF] Relationship Between Crossbite and Periodontal Status - JIDMR
Crossbite is one of the most common types of malocclusion. It is a potential cause of trauma from occlusion, and it can be a cofactor of periodontal ...Missing: complications | Show results with:complications
[54]
Association between malocclusion, caries and oral hygiene in ...
Nov 27, 2019 · Crowding and buccal cross bite were associated with caries, whereas increased overjet and anterior open bite were associated with gingivitis.
[55]
Relationship between dental caries, oral hygiene and malocclusion ...
Dec 7, 2021 · Malocclusion may increase the risk of caries and periodontal ... trapping and plaque accumulation and consequently more carious lesions.
[56]
[PDF] Management of the Developing Dentition and Occlusion in Pediatric ...
Patients with crossbites and concomitant Class III skeletal patterns and/or skeletal asymmetry should receive compre- hensive treatment as covered in the Class ...Missing: tension | Show results with:tension<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
Self-correction of posterior crossbite in childhood - PubMed
Nov 30, 2023 · The results showed posterior crossbite self-correction frequencies ranging from 12.2 to 77.1% during the transition from primary to mixed dentition.Missing: rate 50-70%
[58]
A new challenge for crossbite treatment - PMC - NIH
Jun 21, 2023 · For some clinicians, crossbite resolution in the primary dentition will occur through physiological self-correction based on the growth process ...
[59]
A Single Versatile Appliance for Habit Interception and Crossbite ...
A versatile modified quadhelix appliance incorporating a roller was designed to clinically correct the habit and its resulting dentofacial deformities.
[60]
Expert consensus on early orthodontic treatment of class III ... - Nature
Apr 1, 2025 · Most of Class III malocclusion are manifested as anterior crossbite, which mostly involves six upper anterior teeth, and sometimes four incisors ...
[61]
Management of Posterior Crossbite with Maxillary Expansion
Sep 13, 2025 · A functional posterior crossbite occurs as the result of interference between two or more teeth when an individual closes their jaw. The strain ...
[62]
Skeletal effects of posterior crossbite treatment with either quad helix ...
May 10, 2024 · The QH is a more successful method in terms of correcting a posterior crossbite and also has a significantly shorter treatment time.INTRODUCTION · MATERIALS AND METHODS · RESULTS · DISCUSSION
[63]
Indication of clear aligners in the early treatment of anterior crossbite
The present report aims at presenting the benefits of an alternative therapy for the early treatment of anterior crossbite using clear aligners.
[64]
An efficient method for correction of anterior crossbite without using ...
So, by the use of simple bondable Begg bracket and elastics we devised a method to disocclude the bite and help in correction of anterior crossbite. It is easy, ...
[65]
Retention period after treatment of posterior crossbite with maxillary ...
Six months of retention with either fixed or removable appliances seem to be enough to avoid relapse or to guarantee minimal changes in a short-term follow-up.
[66]
Long‐term stability of posterior crossbite correction, treated in the ...
Jul 9, 2023 · Based on epidemiological data, the prevalence of unilateral posterior crossbite in the mixed dentition varies between 4% and 30%. Several ...INTRODUCTION · MATERIALS AND METHODS · RESULTS · DISCUSSION
[67]
Jaw surgery - Mayo Clinic
Jan 30, 2025 · Jaw surgery is best done after growth stops. The timing is usually ages 16 to 18 and older for females and ages 18 to 21 and older for males.
[68]
Combined Orthodontic and Surgical Management for Treatment of ...
Jun 28, 2021 · Le Fort I osteotomy and/or bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO) are the most commonly used surgical procedures to treat severe class III ...
[69]
Stability of Le Fort I Osteotomy in Bimaxillary ... - ScienceDirect.com
Three-dimensional analysis of condylar remodeling and skeletal relapse following bimaxillary surgery: A 2-year follow-up study ... relapse rate was 35.4% (range: ...
[70]
Timing of orthognathic surgery: paradigm shift by surgery-first ... - NIH
Apr 25, 2017 · The surgery-first approach seems to reduce the total treatment time and results in immediate improvement of the facial appearance.
[71]
LeFort I maxillary advancement: 3-year stability and risk factors for ...
Aug 7, 2025 · A mean relapse of 18% of the surgical advancement occurred. In 14% of the patients, clinically significant skeletal relapse (> or = 2 mm) was ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
Evaluation of Satisfaction Levels Following Orthognathic Treatment ...
Nov 17, 2024 · Satisfaction rates range from 83% to 100%, with class III patients reporting higher satisfaction levels than class II patients. The type of ...