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Current density

Current density is a fundamental vector quantity in electromagnetism that quantifies the electric current flowing per unit cross-sectional area of a conductor or medium, with its magnitude given by J = \frac{I}{A}, where I is the total current and A is the perpendicular cross-sectional area, and its direction aligned with the flow of positive charges.^[1]^[2] It is expressed in amperes per square meter (A/m²) in the SI system and arises from the collective motion of charge carriers, such as electrons in metals, under an applied electric field.^[3] This concept extends beyond uniform currents, allowing for the description of spatially varying charge flows in complex materials and fields.^[2] In detail, the current density \vec{J} can be derived from the charge density \rho and the average drift velocity \vec{v} of charge carriers as \vec{J} = \rho \vec{v}, where \rho = nq with n being the number density of carriers and q their charge, enabling the calculation of total current through a surface as I = \int \vec{J} \cdot d\vec{A}.^[2]^[3] It plays a central role in the continuity equation, \nabla \cdot \vec{J} + \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} = 0, which enforces local conservation of charge by linking the divergence of current density to the rate of change of charge density.^[2]^[3] In steady-state conditions, such as magnetostatics, this implies \nabla \cdot \vec{J} = 0, meaning the current density is divergenceless, akin to an incompressible fluid flow.^[3] Current density is integral to Ohm's law in its microscopic form, \vec{J} = \sigma \vec{E}, where \sigma is the material's conductivity and \vec{E} is the electric field, relating local current flow to applied fields and material properties.^[2] It also appears in Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction, \nabla \times \vec{B} = \mu_0 \vec{J} + \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \vec{E}}{\partial t}, governing the generation of magnetic fields by currents and their time-varying counterparts.^[4] These relations highlight its importance in diverse applications, from analyzing conduction in metals—where free electrons drift opposite to the field direction—to modeling plasma physics, semiconductors, and electromagnetic wave propagation.^[1]^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

In electromagnetism, current density is a vector field that quantifies the flow of electric charge through space at a given point and time. It provides a local description of how charges are moving, essential for understanding phenomena where current varies across a conductor or region. Mathematically, the current density \mathbf{J}(\mathbf{r}, t) is defined as \mathbf{J}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \rho(\mathbf{r}, t) \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}, t), where \rho(\mathbf{r}, t) is the charge density (charge per unit volume) and \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}, t) is the drift velocity of the charges.^[5]^[6] The direction of the vector \mathbf{J} aligns with the motion of positive charges, while its magnitude indicates the rate at which charge crosses a unit area perpendicular to that direction, measured in charge per unit area per unit time.^[5] This vectorial nature distinguishes current density from the scalar total current I, which aggregates the flow over an entire cross-section. Specifically, the total current through a surface S is obtained by integrating the current density over that surface:

I = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{A},

where d\mathbf{A} is the infinitesimal area vector normal to the surface.^[7] The concept of current density was introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century to extend and unify earlier formulations of electromagnetism, particularly in generalizing Ampère's circuital law within his dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field.^[8] This innovation enabled a more precise treatment of electromagnetic interactions in continuous media.

Units and Dimensions

In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit for current density is the ampere per square meter (A/m²), a derived unit formed from the base units of electric current (ampere, A) and length (meter, m).^[9] This unit quantifies the electric current flowing through a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow.^[9] As a vector quantity, current density \vec{J} has components each measured in A/m², allowing description of both magnitude and direction of current flow within a material. The magnitude |\vec{J}| represents the scalar intensity in A/m², particularly when evaluating flow through two-dimensional cross-sections where the area is perpendicular to the vector. The dimensional formula for current density is [J] = I L^{-2}, where I is the dimension of electric current and L is the dimension of length, reflecting its nature as current per unit area. In engineering applications, such as semiconductor device design and electroplating, non-SI units like amperes per square centimeter (A/cm²) are commonly used due to the smaller scales involved. The conversion factor is $1 \, \mathrm{A/cm^2} = 10^4 \, \mathrm{A/m^2}, facilitating practical comparisons across contexts.^[10]

Components in Materials

Free Current Density

The free current density, denoted \mathbf{J}_f, arises from the collective motion of free charges, such as conduction electrons or ions, that are not bound to atomic structures and can move freely within a material. It is mathematically defined as \mathbf{J}_f = \rho_f \mathbf{v}_f, where \rho_f is the free charge density (in coulombs per cubic meter) and \mathbf{v}_f is the average drift velocity of these charges (in meters per second). This vector quantity points in the direction of positive charge flow and has units of amperes per square meter (A/m²).^[11]^[12] In conductors like metals, \mathbf{J}_f results from the accelerated drift of free electrons under an applied electric field, where the drift velocity \mathbf{v}_f is proportional to the field strength and inversely proportional to the electron mass and scattering rates. For instance, in copper with a free electron density of approximately $8.5 \times 10^{28} m⁻³, a current density of $10^6 A/m² corresponds to a drift speed of about $7.4 \times 10^{-5} m/s. In electrolytes, such as aqueous solutions, \mathbf{J}_f stems from the migration of positively and negatively charged ions, enabling conduction in batteries and biological fluids.^[11] The free current density is linearly related to the electric field \mathbf{E} through the microscopic form of Ohm's law: \mathbf{J}_f = \sigma \mathbf{E}, where \sigma is the electrical conductivity (in siemens per meter, S/m), a material property reflecting the density and mobility of free charges. This relation assumes steady-state conditions and neglects nonlinear effects at high fields. Conductivity values illustrate the scale: metals like copper exhibit \sigma \approx 6 \times 10^7 S/m due to abundant free electrons, while electrolytes like seawater have \sigma \approx 4.8 S/m from ionic mobility.^[11]

Bound Currents from Polarization and Magnetization

In materials exposed to electric fields, dielectrics exhibit polarization \mathbf{P}, which represents the electric dipole moment per unit volume arising from the alignment of molecular or atomic dipoles. These dipoles consist of bound positive and negative charges separated by small displacements, leading to no net charge transport but creating regions of bound charge accumulation. The volume bound charge density is \rho_b = -\nabla \cdot \mathbf{P}, while the surface bound charge density is \sigma_b = \mathbf{P} \cdot \hat{n}, where \hat{n} is the outward normal to the surface. When the applied field varies with time, causing \mathbf{P} to change, the shifting of these bound charges generates a polarization current density \mathbf{J}_p = \frac{\partial \mathbf{P}}{\partial t}. This current density accounts for the motion of bound charges within the material without involving free carriers.^[13]^[14] In magnetic materials such as ferromagnets, magnetization \mathbf{M}, defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, emerges from the collective alignment of atomic-scale current loops formed by electron orbits and spins. These loops act as microscopic amperian current elements, producing bound currents equivalent to the macroscopic magnetization. For steady-state conditions, the volume bound current density is \mathbf{J}_m = \nabla \times \mathbf{M}, with a corresponding surface bound current density \mathbf{K}_m = \mathbf{M} \times \hat{n}. In non-uniform magnetization, the curling nature of \mathbf{M} reflects incomplete cancellation of these atomic loops internally, resulting in effective volume currents. For time-varying magnetization, the bound current retains the form \mathbf{J}_m = \nabla \times \mathbf{M}, while \frac{\partial \mathbf{M}}{\partial t} contributes to the dynamic response through terms in Maxwell's equations that influence field evolution.^[15]^[13]^[14] Bound currents from both polarization and magnetization differ fundamentally from free currents, as they stem from the reconfiguration of charges inherently tied to the material's lattice or atomic structure, rather than the drift of mobile charge carriers. Consequently, these currents do not result in net charge accumulation or depletion across the material boundaries but play a critical role in shaping the internal and external electromagnetic fields, such as by modifying the effective permeability and permittivity. In the context of total current density, the bound components \mathbf{J}_p and \mathbf{J}_m are added to the free current to yield the overall current that sources the magnetic field in Ampère's law.^[13]^[11]

Total Current Density

The total current density \mathbf{J} in materials is the vector sum of the free current density \mathbf{J}_f, the polarization current density \mathbf{J}_p = \frac{\partial \mathbf{P}}{\partial t}, and the magnetization current density \mathbf{J}_m = \nabla \times \mathbf{M}, representing all steady-state and time-varying contributions from charge motion and atomic alignments:

\mathbf{J} = \mathbf{J}_f + \mathbf{J}_p + \mathbf{J}_m.

This expression accounts for both conduction by mobile charges and bound effects from material polarization \mathbf{P} and magnetization \mathbf{M}.^[16] In Maxwell's equations, the total current density appears in the microscopic form of Ampère's law, which governs the curl of the magnetic field \mathbf{B}:

\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \left( \mathbf{J} + \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} \right).

Here, \mathbf{J} encapsulates all material currents, ensuring the equation holds universally without separating free and bound components explicitly.^[16] The composition of total current density varies by material type. In conductors, such as metals, \mathbf{J}_f dominates due to high mobility of free electrons, often following Ohm's law \mathbf{J}_f = \sigma \mathbf{E} with conductivity \sigma \gg 0, while bound contributions are negligible. In insulators or dielectrics, \mathbf{J}_f \approx 0 owing to low \sigma, so \mathbf{J} arises primarily from bound terms like \mathbf{J}_p in time-varying fields or \mathbf{J}_m in magnetic materials.^[16] This total current density formulation maintains continuity across media in electromagnetic theory, bridging vacuum (where \mathbf{J}_p = \mathbf{J}_m = 0) and dense materials by using the same microscopic equations, facilitating consistent boundary condition applications at interfaces.^[16]

Dynamic Aspects

Displacement Current Density

The displacement current density represents an effective current arising from the time-varying electric field, introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1865 paper to resolve inconsistencies in Ampère's law and ensure the continuity of charge conservation.^[8] In vacuum, it is defined mathematically as

\mathbf{J}_d = \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t},

where \epsilon_0 is the vacuum permittivity and \mathbf{E} is the electric field; this term acts as a source for the magnetic field in Maxwell's equations, analogous to conduction current.^[17] In practical scenarios, such as a charging capacitor, the displacement current density accounts for the "current" flowing through the dielectric or vacuum gap between the plates, where no free charges move. As the electric field builds up due to accumulating charge on the plates, \mathbf{J}_d equals the conduction current in the connecting wires, maintaining a consistent total current that generates the surrounding magnetic field.^[16] For materials, the concept extends to include polarization effects, with the displacement current density given by

\mathbf{J}_d = \frac{\partial \mathbf{D}}{\partial t},

where the electric displacement field \mathbf{D} = \epsilon_0 \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{P} incorporates the vacuum contribution and the polarization \mathbf{P} of the medium.^[17] This generalization allows the framework to apply to dielectrics, ensuring the Ampère-Maxwell law holds in time-varying fields across diverse media.^[8]

Continuity Equation

The continuity equation expresses the principle of local charge conservation in electromagnetism, stating that the rate of change of charge density at a point equals the negative divergence of the current density, ensuring no charge is created or destroyed within a volume except through net flow.^[2] To derive this, consider a fixed volume V enclosed by surface S. The total charge Q inside V is Q = \int_V \rho \, dV, where \rho is the charge density. The time rate of change of Q is \frac{dQ}{dt} = \int_V \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} \, dV. The net charge outflow through S is \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{A} = -\frac{dQ}{dt}, by conservation. Applying the divergence theorem, \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{A} = \int_V \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} \, dV, yields \int_V \left( \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} \right) dV = 0. Since this holds for arbitrary V, the integrand vanishes pointwise, giving the differential form:

\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = 0

Here, \mathbf{J} is the total current density from free and bound charges.^[18] In time-varying electromagnetic fields, the basic form alone is insufficient without the displacement current, as originally identified in the context of Ampère's law; the displacement term \frac{\partial \mathbf{D}}{\partial t} (where \mathbf{D} is the electric displacement field) must be included to maintain consistency with charge conservation.^[19] Specifically, for free charges, the equation becomes:

\nabla \cdot \left( \mathbf{J}_f + \frac{\partial \mathbf{D}}{\partial t} \right) = -\frac{\partial \rho_f}{\partial t}

This ensures the continuity equation holds globally, as the divergence of the total effective current (free plus displacement) balances the free charge variation, resolving inconsistencies in scenarios like charging capacitors where conduction current ceases between plates but fields evolve.^[20] In steady-state conditions, where charge densities do not vary with time (\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} = 0), the continuity equation simplifies to \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = 0, implying that the current density is divergenceless and charge is conserved through balanced inflow and outflow at every point.^[2]

Relations and Calculations

Connection to Electric Field and Conductivity

In conductive media, the free current density \mathbf{J} is linearly related to the applied electric field \mathbf{E} by the generalized form of Ohm's law, \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E}, where \sigma is the electrical conductivity, a material-specific scalar quantity for isotropic conductors.^[21] This relation describes how charge carriers drift under the influence of \mathbf{E}, producing a steady current in the direction of the field.^[22] For anisotropic materials, such as certain crystals or composites, the conductivity is direction-dependent, and the relation generalizes to the tensor form \mathbf{J} = \boldsymbol{\sigma} \mathbf{E}, where \boldsymbol{\sigma} is a symmetric second-rank tensor with principal components reflecting the material's symmetry.^[23] The value of \sigma varies widely by material type; for metals like copper, it is approximately $5.8 \times 10^7 S/m at room temperature, enabling high current flow, while for semiconductors, it ranges from about $10^{-3} to $10^3 S/m depending on doping and temperature, allowing tunable conductivity.^[24]^[25] At the microscopic level, this relation arises from the Drude model of charge transport, which treats conduction electrons as a classical gas subject to scattering; the conductivity is given by \sigma = \frac{n e^2 \tau}{m}, where n is the free carrier density, e the elementary charge, \tau the average relaxation time between collisions, and m the effective electron mass.^[26] This model provides a foundational understanding of how material properties like carrier concentration and scattering rates determine macroscopic conductivity. In the presence of a magnetic field \mathbf{B}, the simple linear relation breaks down due to the Lorentz force, leading to phenomena like the Hall effect, where a transverse electric field develops perpendicular to both \mathbf{J} and \mathbf{B}.^[27] This transverse relation, characterized by the Hall coefficient R_H = \pm \frac{1}{n e}, where the sign is negative for electrons and positive for holes, allows measurement of carrier type and density, highlighting deviations from isotropic Ohm's law in magnetoconductive systems.^[28]

Calculation in Different Media

In dielectrics, the calculation of current density accounts for both conduction and displacement currents, particularly in the frequency domain where materials exhibit losses. For harmonic fields, the total current density \mathbf{J} is given by \mathbf{J} = (\sigma + j \omega \epsilon) \mathbf{E}, where \sigma is the conductivity, \omega is the angular frequency, \epsilon is the permittivity, and \mathbf{E} is the electric field; this expression combines the ohmic conduction current \sigma \mathbf{E} with the displacement current j \omega \epsilon \mathbf{E}.^[29] The complex permittivity \tilde{\epsilon} = \epsilon' - j \epsilon'' incorporates material losses, with the imaginary part \epsilon'' relating to effective conductivity via \sigma_{eff} = \omega \epsilon_0 \epsilon'', enabling computation of \mathbf{J} from measured or modeled \mathbf{E}.^[29] In plasmas and semiconductors, current density calculations extend beyond simple drift to include carrier diffusion, especially in non-uniform carrier distributions. The total current density \mathbf{J} incorporates a diffusion term as \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E} + q D \nabla n, where \sigma = q (\mu_n n + \mu_p p) is the conductivity from drift (with mobilities \mu_n, \mu_p and densities n, p), q is the elementary charge, D is the diffusion coefficient, and \nabla n is the carrier density gradient; for electrons specifically, the diffusion component is J_{n,diff} = q D_n \frac{dn}{dx}.^[30] This form arises from the drift-diffusion model, solving coupled equations for carrier transport under applied fields or concentration gradients, as in p-n junctions where diffusion drives minority carrier flow.^[30] For inhomogeneous media, where conductivity or permittivity varies spatially, analytical solutions are often infeasible, necessitating numerical methods like the finite element method (FEM) to compute current density. FEM discretizes the domain into elements, solving Maxwell's equations or Poisson's equation for the electric potential \phi, from which \mathbf{E} = -\nabla \phi and \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E} are derived; boundary conditions and material properties are assigned per element to handle variations, such as in biological tissues with differing conductivities.^[31] This approach accurately captures field distortions in complex geometries, with mesh refinement improving resolution near interfaces.^[31] In alternating current (AC) scenarios, the skin effect concentrates current density near conductor surfaces, requiring specialized calculations for high frequencies. The current density decays exponentially from the surface as J(d) = J_s e^{-d/\delta}, where J_s is the surface density and d is depth; the skin depth \delta = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\omega \mu \sigma}} defines the characteristic distance, with \mu the permeability and \sigma the conductivity, leading to 63% of current within one \delta.^[32] This effect, derived from solving the diffusion equation for magnetic fields in conductors, significantly alters effective resistance at frequencies above a few kHz.^[32]

Applications

In Electromagnetism and Circuit Theory

In electromagnetism, the current density \mathbf{J} plays a fundamental role as a source term in Maxwell's equations, directly influencing the generation of magnetic fields. Specifically, in Ampère's law (with Maxwell's correction), it appears as \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{J} + \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}, where the \mathbf{J} term accounts for the magnetic field produced by steady currents, while the displacement current term handles time-varying fields.^[33] The current density also connects to Gauss's law for electricity through the continuity equation, \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} + \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} = 0, which enforces local charge conservation by linking the divergence of \mathbf{J} to the rate of change of charge density \rho.^[2] This relation arises from taking the divergence of Ampère's law and substituting Gauss's law \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \rho / \epsilon_0, ensuring consistency across the equations.^[2] In circuit theory, current density facilitates the lumped element approximation, which treats circuit components as idealized elements with uniform \mathbf{J} within each, neglecting spatial variations. This assumption holds when the circuit size is much smaller than the signal wavelength (typically size \ll \lambda / 10), allowing electromagnetic effects like propagation delays to be ignored in favor of algebraic relations between voltage and current.^[34] Under these conditions, the total current I = \int \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{A} through a cross-section simplifies circuit analysis, enabling the use of Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's rules for predicting behavior in low-frequency regimes.^[34] For electromagnetic waves, \mathbf{J} in conducting media induces ohmic losses that cause wave attenuation, as the electric field drives currents that dissipate energy, leading to exponential decay characterized by the skin depth \delta = \sqrt{2 / \omega \mu \sigma}, where \sigma is conductivity.^[35] The Poynting theorem quantifies this energy flow and dissipation, stating that the work done by fields on charges is \int \mathbf{E} \cdot \mathbf{J} \, dV = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \int \left( \frac{\epsilon_0}{2} E^2 + \frac{1}{2\mu_0} B^2 \right) dV - \oint (\mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{H}) \cdot d\mathbf{A}, where the \mathbf{E} \cdot \mathbf{J} term represents power loss per unit volume in the conductor.^[36] This highlights how \mathbf{J} bridges field propagation and material response in waveguides and transmission lines. The integration of current density into these frameworks is crucial for predicting electromagnetic fields from charge flows, as seen in antennas where the distribution of \mathbf{J} along the structure determines the radiated field's pattern and efficiency. For instance, in a short dipole antenna, assuming uniform \mathbf{J} across the wire cross-section allows calculation of the far-field radiation via the vector potential derived from \mathbf{J}.^[37] This predictive capability unifies microscopic charge motions with macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena, essential for designing radiating systems.^[37]

Practical Measurement and Examples

Current density is experimentally determined using various techniques tailored to the scale and context of the measurement. For local measurements in materials like superconductors or thin films, scanning Hall-probe microscopy employs a Hall sensor to map magnetic fields generated by the current, allowing reconstruction of two-dimensional current density distributions with high spatial resolution.^[38] This method is particularly useful for characterizing non-uniform local variations, as demonstrated in studies of coated conductors where Hall probes detect critical current densities up to 10^9 A/m².^[39] For integrated current over a conductor's cross-section, current clamps indirectly yield current density by measuring total current via the magnetic field around the conductor and dividing by the known cross-sectional area; these devices are widely used in power systems for non-invasive assessments up to thousands of amperes.^[40] In biological systems, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables non-invasive mapping of neuronal currents by detecting magnetic field perturbations from ionic flows, with techniques like neuronal current MRI achieving detection of low-amplitude signals in intact tissues such as the cerebellum.^[41] Real-world examples illustrate the range of current densities encountered. In high-voltage power transmission lines using copper conductors, typical current densities reach approximately 10^6 A/m² under normal operating conditions, as seen in distribution cables carrying 8 MW with cross-sections around 200 mm² per phase.^[42] In semiconductor devices like PN junction diodes, forward-biased operation often involves current densities on the order of 10^4 A/m², balancing efficiency and heat dissipation in applications such as rectifiers or solar cells.^[43] Biological action potentials in nerves generate transient current densities of about 10-100 A/m², arising from sodium and potassium ion fluxes across axonal membranes during depolarization, which propagate signals at velocities up to 100 m/s.^[44] Measuring and applying current density faces practical challenges, including non-uniform distributions within conductors. In electrical wires and cables, factors like skin effect at high frequencies or uneven stranding lead to current concentrating at the periphery or specific filaments, increasing losses and complicating uniform field assumptions.^[45] High densities also induce Joule heating, where the power dissipated per unit volume is given by

P = \frac{J^2}{\sigma},

with \sigma as conductivity; this effect limits operational densities in metals to avoid thermal runaway, as excessive heating degrades insulation and efficiency in power lines.^[46] In modern applications, superconductors enable extraordinarily high current densities exceeding 10^9 A/m² at the critical threshold J_c, beyond which resistance reappears due to vortex motion. Rare-earth barium copper oxide (REBCO) tapes, for instance, achieve up to 1.9 \times 10^{10} A/m² in short segments, supporting compact magnets for fusion reactors and medical imaging without ohmic losses.^[47]

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Assuming that the current density is uniform throughout the cross-section of the antenna wire, we can show that: (Equation 29.28). If we apply a time ...
[37]
High-speed scanning Hall-probe microscopy for two-dimensional ...
High-speed scanning Hall-probe microscopy for two-dimensional characterization of local critical current density in long-length coated conductor · Abstract.
[38]
Advanced inversion algorithm for current density reconstruction in ...
Jun 12, 2025 · Experiments were conducted using a custom-designed scanning Hall-probe microscopy system to measure the surface magnetic field of REBCO CC tapes ...<|separator|>
[39]
Current clamps: all you need to know - DEWETRON
May 6, 2022 · The current clamp measures the electric current indirectly by detecting the changing magnetic field of the conductor cable.
[40]
Direct neural current imaging in an intact cerebellum with magnetic ...
The ability to detect neuronal currents with high spatiotemporal resolution using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is important for studying human brain ...
[41]
Power cables: carrying capacity and loss rates?
In stockA typical distribution line contains 3 x 200 mm2 copper conductors, at 15kV and 1.5 A/mm2 current density, carrying 8MW, weighing 6 tons/km and losing 0.1% in ...
[42]
Diode Equation | PVEducation
The diode equation gives an expression for the current through a diode as a function of voltage. The Ideal Diode Law, expressed as:
[43]
Current density threshold for the stimulation of neurons in the motor ...
The current density threshold for excitation of nerve fibres (20 microm in diameter) found in the literature is approximately 1 A/m(2) at frequencies lower than ...Missing: action potential m²
[44]
Numerical analyses of non-uniform current distribution within the ...
In this sort of cable, strands carry different currents. This phenomenon is known as nonuniform current distribution (NUCD). NUCD causes increase of AC loss and ...
[45]
What Is Joule Heating (Joule Effect)? | SimWiki
Nov 20, 2023 · Joule heating (Joule effect) is the physical effect by which the passing of current through an electrical conductor produces thermal energy.Missing: density J² / σ
[46]
New superconductor has record breaking current density
Sep 17, 2024 · A superconducting wire segment based on rare-earth barium copper oxide (REBCO) is the highest performing yet in terms of current density, carrying 190 MA/cm 2.