Datis

Datis (*Dātiya- in Old Persian), a prominent Median noble, served as an admiral and general in the Achaemenid Persian Empire under King Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE). Best known for his command of the Persian naval expedition during the first invasion of Greece in 490 BCE, Datis co-led the campaign with Artaphernes, Darius's nephew, as retribution against Athens and Eretria for their support of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BCE).^[1]^[2] Appointed by Darius specifically for his expertise in dealing with Greek affairs, Datis commanded a fleet of approximately 600 triremes carrying an army estimated at 20,000–25,000 troops, including Median, Persian, and allied contingents.^[2] Prior to the Greek campaign, he may have participated in suppressing the Ionian Revolt, as suggested by administrative records from Persepolis referencing a high-ranking official named "Da-ti-ya" traveling from Sardis.^[1] The expedition began from Samos in Ionia, subduing islands like Naxos through enslavement and temple destruction, while notably sparing Delos out of respect for Apollo and Artemis, to which Datis offered substantial frankincense.^[2] Datis's forces besieged and captured Eretria on Euboea, deporting its inhabitants as slaves to Susa, before landing at the plain of Marathon near Athens. There, the Persians faced a smaller Athenian-Plataean force of about 11,000 under Miltiades, who employed a daring double-envelopment tactic to secure a decisive victory, inflicting heavy casualties and forcing Datis to withdraw by sea.^[2]^[1] The defeat at Marathon marked a significant check on Persian expansion into mainland Greece, though Datis's sons later served in Xerxes I's subsequent invasion. Despite the setback, ancient accounts portray Datis as a capable commander with cultural sensitivities toward Greek traditions, evidenced by his handling of sacred artifacts like a statue of Apollo returned to Delos.^[2]^[1]

Personal Background

Name and Etymology

Datis is known primarily through Greek sources as Δάτης (Dátis), with an occasional variant rendering as Datus.^[1] This name derives from the Old Iranian form *Dātiya-, attested in Achaemenid Elamite as Da-ti-ya in Persepolis administrative tablets, such as fortress tablet Q-1809 from around 494 BCE.^[1] The structure reflects a hypocoristic formation, combining the stem *dāta- with the suffix -iya-, which denotes a diminutive or affectionate nuance common in Iranian onomastics.^[1] The root *dāta- stems from the Old Iranian verb dā- meaning "to give" or "to place," evolving into a term for "law" or "ordinance" as something established or given by authority.^[3] In the context of personal names, *Dātiya- likely connoted qualities associated with justice or administrative duty, aligning with roles in Median nobility and Persian satrapial governance within the Achaemenid bureaucracy.^[1] Such nomenclature often highlighted hereditary or appointed positions involving oversight and equity in the empire's provincial systems.^[3] This etymology underscores Datis's Median heritage, as he is explicitly described by Herodotus as "the Mede" (ὁ Μῆδος), distinguishing him from Persian elites in a multi-ethnic Achaemenid realm that integrated diverse Iranian groups.^[1] The name's form and implications thus reflect the empire's reliance on Median aristocrats for military and administrative leadership, preserving non-Persian identities amid centralized Persian rule.^[1]

Origins and Family

Datis was a Median noble who served in the Achaemenid Empire under King Darius I, reigning from 522 to 486 BCE. As a Mede by birth, he originated from the satrapy of Media, a core region of the empire centered in northwestern Iran, which had been integrated into Persian rule following Cyrus the Great's conquest in the mid-sixth century BCE.^[4]^[1] His Median heritage positioned him among the empire's elite administrative and military class, where Medes often held prominent roles due to their historical prominence before Persian dominance.^[1] Datis's family connections further underscored his status within the Achaemenid hierarchy. He fathered two sons, Harmamithres and Tithaeus, who later rose to command cavalry units during the second Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I in 480 BCE. This familial involvement in high-level military service highlights the continuity of noble Median lineages in imperial campaigns, reflecting the interconnected networks that supported Achaemenid expansion.^[1] Herodotus provides evidence of Datis's proficiency in the Greek language and his respect for Greek cultural elements, traits indicative of an elite education or significant exposure to Hellenic influences within the diverse empire. During his campaign, Datis issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of Delos via herald, urging them to return to their homes and assuring them of the sanctity of their island's temple, while personally offering substantial frankincense at Apollo's altar—a gesture of reverence for a major Greek deity.^[5] Such actions, combined with reports of his halting but effective use of Greek, suggest that Datis, as a specialist in Greek affairs appointed by Darius, possessed the linguistic and cultural acumen necessary for diplomatic interactions in the western satrapies.^[1]

Military Career under Darius I

Involvement in the Ionian Revolt

Datis, a high-ranking Median official under Darius I, played a role in the suppression of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC), an uprising by Greek cities in Asia Minor against Achaemenid Persian rule, which had been sparked by military aid from Athens and Eretria to the rebels at the sack of Sardis in 498 BC. According to administrative records from Persepolis, in January–February 494 BC, Datis (identified as Datiya in Elamite) received special rations for an official tour of duty originating from Sardis, likely involving coordination of the final Persian campaigns to quell the revolt.^[1] This activity positioned Datis amid the escalating Persian efforts to crush Ionian resistance, particularly as the revolt reached its climax with the naval confrontation at Lade in late 494 BC. While ancient sources like Herodotus do not explicitly name Datis in the battle, where the Persian fleet under generals including Artaphernes defeated the Ionian alliance of approximately 353 ships—leading to the subsequent siege and sack of Miletus—some modern historians infer his possible command of Persian naval forces based on his documented presence in the region and expertise in Greek affairs.^[6] Through such engagements, Datis gained experience in amphibious operations and reasserting Persian control over the Aegean, including strategic inspections and reinforcements that contributed to the empire's reconquest of rebellious islands and coastal territories during the revolt's endgame.^[1]^[6]

Preparations for the Greek Invasion

Following the suppression of the Ionian Revolt, Darius I appointed Datis, a Median general, and Artaphernes, his nephew and satrap of Sardis, to lead a punitive expedition against Eretria and Athens for their role in aiding the rebels.^[7] The commanders received explicit orders to reduce both cities to subjugation and transport their inhabitants as slaves to the Persian heartland, underscoring the campaign's retaliatory intent.^[1] The expedition's forces assembled on the Aleian Plain in Cilicia, where the fleet and army converged in preparation for the voyage. Scholarly consensus estimates the armada at approximately 600 triremes, supplemented by horse transports, capable of conveying 20,000–25,000 troops drawn from Persian, Median, and allied contingents including Carians, Saka archers, and other subject peoples from the empire's western satrapies. This multinational composition reflected the Achaemenid practice of integrating levies from diverse regions to bolster the core Persian and Median elements.^[8] In spring 490 BC, the fleet departed Cilicia under Datis's coordination, sailing westward along the Ionian coast to Samos before proceeding through the Aegean via the Icarian Sea to circumvent hazardous routes like Mount Athos.^[8] Upon reaching the Cyclades, Datis demonstrated respect for sacred sites by anchoring off Rhenaea rather than Delos, the birthplace of Apollo, and offering lavish sacrifices of frankincense while proclaiming the island's neutrality to avoid divine retribution.^[9] This strategic deference highlighted the Persians' awareness of Greek religious sensitivities even amid conquest.^[1]

The First Persian Invasion of Greece

Siege of Eretria

In late summer 490 BC, the Persian expedition under the command of Datis and Artaphernes arrived on the northern coast of Euboea, landing their forces near the Eretrian settlements of Tamynae, Choereae, and Aegilea.^[10] The commanders disembarked troops and cavalry from a fleet of 600 triremes, initiating a coordinated siege against Eretria to punish the city for its role in the Ionian Revolt.^[11] Datis and Artaphernes jointly oversaw the siege operations, including the naval blockade and land assaults on the city's fortifications.^[10] The siege lasted six days, marked by intense fighting at the walls where Eretrian defenders, bolstered by 4,000 Athenian settlers, inflicted and suffered heavy casualties.^[10] The Athenian force withdrew from the city before its fall, on the advice of the Eretrian Aeschines who warned of the impending betrayal.^[12] On the seventh day, the city fell due to betrayal by two prominent Eretrian citizens, Euphorbus son of Alcimachus and Philagros son of Cineas, who opened the gates to the Persians in exchange for personal rewards.^[10] Upon entering Eretria, Persian forces plundered the city and burned its temples, exacting retribution for the Greek destruction of Sardis a decade earlier during the Ionian Revolt.^[10] In fulfillment of King Darius I's explicit orders, the inhabitants were rounded up and enslaved, with many transported to Persia as punishment for Eretria's support of the rebels.^[10] This swift capture secured Euboea as a base for the subsequent advance against Athens.^[13]

Landing and March to Marathon

Following the fall of Eretria, the Persian expedition under Datis and Artaphernes departed from the island of Euboea and sailed across the Euboean Gulf toward Attica.^[14] Guided by the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias, son of Pisistratus, the fleet targeted the Bay of Marathon, a coastal plain approximately 42 kilometers northeast of Athens, selected for its broad, flat terrain ideal for deploying cavalry and its relative proximity to the Athenian heartland.^[14] This location allowed the Persians to leverage their mounted forces effectively while positioning for a potential advance on Athens itself.^[15] Upon arrival, the Persians anchored in the sheltered bay and began disembarking their troops and horses from the transports, a process that underscored the expedition's emphasis on mobility through cavalry support.^[14] Herodotus notes that the commanders immediately prepared for confrontation after securing the beachhead, with the horses unloaded to enable rapid maneuvers on the open ground.^[14] The Athenian response was swift: under the strategic oversight of the polemarch Miltiades, approximately 10,000 hoplites marched from Athens to occupy defensive positions on the Marathon plain, blocking the main routes inland and confronting the invaders directly.^[15] From their landing site, the Persians advanced a short distance inland to establish a camp on the expansive Marathon plain, where the terrain favored their archers and horsemen.^[15] This positioning created a tense standoff, as Datis and Artaphernes awaited either an Athenian capitulation—possibly influenced by Hippias' hopes of restoration—or the arrival of reinforcements, while the Greeks held their ground in anticipation of Spartan aid.^[14] The delay lasted several days, during which both sides maneuvered logistically but avoided major engagement, heightening the strategic pressure on Athens.^[15]

Battle of Marathon and Aftermath

Command Role and Tactics

Datis and Artaphernes shared command of the Persian expeditionary force during the Battle of Marathon on September 12, 490 BC, with Datis, a Median noble and admiral, overseeing the naval operations and overall strategy, while Artaphernes, Darius I's nephew, directed the land infantry.^[16]^[15] This division reflected the amphibious nature of the campaign, where Datis managed the fleet of approximately 600 triremes that transported the army, and Artaphernes coordinated the ground troops once disembarked.^[16] Herodotus identifies both as joint leaders appointed by Darius to subjugate Athens and Eretria, emphasizing Datis's prominent role in addressing allied contingents and making key decisions.^[16] The Persian tactics at Marathon relied heavily on numerical superiority, with an estimated force of 20,000–25,000 troops facing roughly 10,000 Athenian hoplites supported by 1,000 Plataeans.^[15]^[17] The army included skilled archers and cavalry, core elements of Achaemenid military doctrine designed to soften enemy lines with missile fire before closing with infantry.^[15] However, the effectiveness of the cavalry—transported via dedicated horse-ships—was compromised, as some ancient and modern accounts suggest the horsemen were re-embarked on transports prior to the Greek charge, possibly to prepare a naval maneuver toward Athens or due to logistical constraints on the marshy plain.^[16]^[15] Strategically, Datis opted against sailing directly to Athens, influenced by the exiled tyrant Hippias's counsel to land at Marathon, a site offering open terrain advantageous for cavalry maneuvers and proximity to Eretria's recent conquest.^[16] This choice, however, positioned the Persians defensively on the plain, where they encamped and awaited Athenian engagement for several days, unable to outflank the Greeks due to the narrow coastal approaches and the Athenians' fortified position on higher ground.^[15] The resulting standoff highlighted the limitations of Persian mobility in the confined geography, forcing a reliance on static defense until the Athenians advanced.^[17]

Outcome and Personal Fate

The Battle of Marathon resulted in a decisive Athenian victory, with the Greek forces under Miltiades inflicting heavy casualties on the Persians. According to Herodotus, 192 Athenians and 11 Plataeans were killed, while approximately 6,400 Persians perished in the fighting. The surviving Persians retreated to their ships in disarray, abandoning their attempt to capture Athens and marking the failure of the immediate Persian objectives in Greece. Following the defeat, Datis and Artaphernes withdrew their fleet across the Aegean, returning to Asia Minor without launching any further assaults on the Greek mainland that year.^[11] This retreat halted the Persian momentum from the successful sack of Eretria, and the heavy losses at Marathon dissuaded an immediate follow-up invasion, allowing Athens a respite before the larger Persian campaign under Xerxes a decade later.^[15] The personal fate of Datis remains debated among ancient sources. Herodotus describes Datis returning safely to Asia with his co-commander Artaphernes, where they delivered the captured Eretrians to Susa, implying no fatal injury during the battle. In contrast, the later historian Ctesias of Cnidus claimed that Datis was killed at Marathon from wounds sustained in the fighting, and that the Athenians refused to return his body to the Persians for burial, though this account lacks corroboration and is considered less reliable by modern scholars.^[11]

Legacy

Depictions in Ancient Sources

The primary ancient source for Datis, the Median general who commanded Persian forces during the invasion of Greece in 490 BCE, is Herodotus' Histories, particularly Book 6, which provides the most detailed account of his expedition. Herodotus depicts Datis as a capable commander appointed by Darius I alongside Artaphernes to punish Eretria and Athens, leading a fleet of approximately 600 triremes from Cilicia to the Aegean. He portrays Datis positively in terms of cultural sensitivity, noting that upon reaching Delos, Datis proclaimed he would not harm the sacred island of Apollo and Artemis, sparing it from attack and even dedicating 300 talents of frankincense to the gods there. This respectful gesture contrasts with the broader Greek narrative of Persian aggression, suggesting Herodotus' account may reflect a bias toward highlighting Persian piety or restraint in certain contexts to underscore Greek victories elsewhere, though its reliability for campaign logistics is generally accepted by scholars due to Herodotus' access to eyewitness reports. After the defeat at Marathon, Herodotus states that Datis returned to Asia without mention of his death, emphasizing the expedition's failure rather than personal fate. In contrast, Ctesias' Persica, preserved only in fragments such as those excerpted by Photius, offers a differing portrayal that questions Datis' competence and survival. Ctesias claims Datis was slain during the Battle of Marathon by Athenian forces under Miltiades, with the Greeks refusing to return his body to the Persians despite their requests, implying a humiliating end that amplifies Persian defeat. This account contradicts Herodotus and lacks corroboration from other sources, leading historians to view Ctesias' reliability skeptically due to his tendency toward sensationalism and reliance on potentially flawed court traditions during his time at the Achaemenid court under Artaxerxes II. Such fragments highlight biases in later Greek historiography, where Persian figures like Datis could be demonized to glorify Athenian triumphs. Datis is notably absent from surviving Persian records, including the Behistun Inscription of Darius I, which details rebellions and royal victories but omits any reference to the Greek campaign or its commanders. The sole potential mention appears in an Elamite Persepolis tablet (Q-1809) from 494 BCE, recording a "Da-ti-ya" as a high-ranking official transporting a royal document from Sardis, indicating administrative competence but providing no details on military actions. This scarcity underscores the heavy reliance on Greek sources like Herodotus and Ctesias for Datis' biography, which are inherently biased toward Hellenocentric perspectives and often prioritize narrative drama over comprehensive Persian viewpoints.

Historical Significance

Datis's expedition in 490 BCE exemplified the Achaemenid Empire's advanced amphibious capabilities, as he commanded a fleet of approximately 600 triremes that transported a substantial army across the Aegean Sea, enabling rapid strikes against Greek islands and the mainland. This operation involved seamless coordination between naval transports and land forces, beginning with the subjugation of Naxos and culminating in the siege of Eretria before the landing at Marathon, demonstrating the Persians' ability to project power over maritime distances despite logistical challenges.^[6]^[18] As a Median noble serving under Darius I, Datis also highlighted the multi-ethnic nature of Achaemenid command structures, overseeing a diverse force that included Persian immortals, Median cavalry, and contingents from subject peoples across the empire, reflecting the inclusive hierarchical system that integrated non-Persian elites into high military roles.^[6]^[19] The defeat at Marathon, where Datis's numerically superior army—estimated at 20,000 to 25,000 troops—was repelled by around 10,000 Athenian and Plataean hoplites, exposed vulnerabilities in Persian strategy, such as potential underutilization of cavalry and overreliance on local collaborators like the exiled Hippias, whose influence had waned. This setback, though tactically minor for the vast empire, acted as a catalyst for escalation: it inflamed Darius's determination to conquer Greece, prompting preparations that his son Xerxes completed with a massive invasion in 480–479 BCE, in which Datis's own sons held prominent cavalry commands.^[20]^[17]^[6] Knowledge of Datis's campaign remains incomplete due to limited archaeological evidence, with excavations at Marathon yielding a tumulus containing ashes of 192 Athenian dead and scattered artifacts like iron spearheads, but few Persian remains to verify troop scales or tactics. Modern scholarship debates the expedition's strategic flaws, including whether it aimed primarily at punitive raids or full conquest, and critiques Herodotus's portrayal for potential Greek bias in exaggerating Persian overconfidence.^[21]^[18]^[20]