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Dehydroacetic acid

Dehydroacetic acid is a synthetic organic compound and pyrone derivative with the molecular formula C8H8O4 and IUPAC name 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-methyl-2H-pyran-2-one, characterized by a six-membered heterocyclic ring containing both ketone and lactone functional groups.^[1] It appears as an odorless, white to light yellow crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 168.15 g/mol, a melting point of 109–113 °C, and limited solubility in water (approximately 0.05 g/100 mL at 25 °C), though it dissolves more readily in organic solvents like ethanol and acetone.^[2]^[3] First isolated in 1866 by pyrolysis of ethyl acetoacetate, dehydroacetic acid exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, effectively inhibiting bacteria, yeasts, and molds, which has led to its widespread use as a preservative.^[4] In the cosmetics and personal care industry, it is commonly incorporated at concentrations up to 0.6% to extend shelf life and prevent microbial contamination in products like creams, lotions, and shampoos.^[5] Its sodium salt form enhances water solubility for broader formulation compatibility. In food applications, dehydroacetic acid is approved for use as a preservative in certain products in the United States, such as cut fruits, vegetables, and egg glazes, at levels not exceeding 65 mg/kg, where it inhibits fungal growth without significantly affecting taste or appearance.^[6] Beyond preservation, it serves as a fungicide and bactericide in agriculture and has applications in synthesizing pharmaceuticals, veterinary medicines, and polymer stabilizers like those for polyvinyl chloride (PVC).^[7]^[8] Safety assessments indicate low acute toxicity, with an oral LD50 in rats of approximately 1,000 mg/kg, though it may cause mild skin irritation at higher concentrations.^[3]

Properties

Molecular structure

Dehydroacetic acid has the molecular formula C₈H₈O₄.^[9] Its preferred IUPAC name is 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-methyl-2H-pyran-2-one, reflecting its classification as a substituted 2H-pyran-2-one.^[10] The molecule features a six-membered heterocyclic pyrone ring containing one oxygen atom, with a lactone carbonyl group at position 2, a hydroxy group at position 4, and conjugated double bonds contributing to its aromatic-like stability. An acetyl group (-COCH₃) is attached at the 3-position and a methyl group (-CH₃) at the 6-position, forming a planar structure that enhances its reactivity in biological and synthetic contexts.^[11]^[7] Dehydroacetic acid exhibits keto-enol tautomerism due to its β-diketone substructure, interconverting between the keto form (3-acetyl-2-hydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one) and the enol form (3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-methyl-2H-pyran-2-one). The enol form predominates in solution and solid state, stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxy group and the ring carbonyl.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Physical and chemical characteristics

Dehydroacetic acid is an odorless, colorless to white crystalline powder. It has a molar mass of 168.15 g/mol, a melting point of 111–113 °C, and a boiling point of 270 °C at standard pressure.^[14] The density is approximately 1.18 g/cm³ (estimated).^[14] The compound exhibits low solubility in water, with less than 0.1 g dissolving in 100 mL at 25 °C, rendering it almost insoluble. It shows moderate solubility in organic solvents, such as 3 g/100 g in ethanol and higher solubility in acetone and propylene glycol.^[15]^[14] Dehydroacetic acid remains stable under normal storage conditions but decomposes upon heating to high temperatures. As a weak organic acid, it has a pKa value of approximately 5.3, indicating partial ionization in aqueous solutions.^[16]^[14] Spectroscopic characterization reveals key features attributable to its functional groups, including infrared (IR) absorption bands for carbonyl stretches around 1650–1720 cm⁻¹ corresponding to the acetyl ketone and pyrone lactone moieties, as well as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signals for the methyl groups and vinylic protons. Ultraviolet (UV) absorption occurs in the 250–300 nm range due to conjugated systems.^[17]^[18]

Synthesis

Laboratory preparation

Dehydroacetic acid is commonly prepared in the laboratory through the base-catalyzed dimerization of diketene, a straightforward and efficient method suitable for small-scale synthesis. An alternative classic method involves the self-condensation of ethyl acetoacetate under mildly alkaline conditions, such as with sodium bicarbonate, followed by distillation or extraction to isolate the product.^[19] This reaction involves the condensation of two molecules of diketene (C₄H₄O₂) to form dehydroacetic acid (C₈H₈O₄), as represented by the simplified equation:

$2 \ce{C4H4O2} \rightarrow \ce{C8H8O4}

Although the reaction is stoichiometrically balanced, minor byproducts such as polymeric materials may form depending on conditions. The procedure typically begins by dissolving a catalytic amount of a mild organic base, such as imidazole, 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO), or pyridine (0.1–1% by weight relative to diketene), in an inert anhydrous solvent like toluene or benzene (1–3 volumes per volume of diketene).^[20] Diketene (85–95% purity) is then added dropwise or portionwise to the stirred mixture at a controlled temperature of 30–60°C to promote selective dimerization while minimizing polymerization.^[21] The addition is usually completed over 1–2 hours, followed by continued stirring for 15–30 minutes. To isolate the product, the reaction mixture is cooled to 0–10°C, and the crude dehydroacetic acid is filtered and washed with chilled solvent. For higher purity, the filtrate is extracted with aqueous sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate (15–20% solution) to form the soluble sodium salt, which is then acidified with hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, or acetic acid to precipitate the free acid.^[20] The solid is collected by filtration, washed, and purified by recrystallization from ethanol, yielding white to pale yellow crystals.^[15] Typical yields for this method range from 70–90%, with optimized conditions using DABCO or imidazole achieving up to 88–98% based on diketene input.^[21]^[20] The product's purity after recrystallization often exceeds 98%, confirmed by melting point (108–110°C) and solubility tests.^[20] This base-catalyzed approach, developed shortly after the preparation of diketene by thermal dimerization of ketene, marks a significant advancement over earlier methods involving acetoacetic ester derivatives.

Industrial production

Dehydroacetic acid is primarily produced on an industrial scale through the base-catalyzed dimerization of diketene in continuous large-scale reactors, enabling high throughput and efficient automation of the catalytic process.^[22]^[11] This method leverages the reactivity of diketene, which is generated upstream via the thermal pyrolysis of acetone to ketene followed by spontaneous dimerization, often integrated within the same facility to minimize intermediate handling and logistics costs.^[23]^[24] Process variations typically employ inexpensive bases such as sodium acetate or pyridine as catalysts to promote the dimerization, with imidazole or sodium phenoxide used in some configurations for improved selectivity.^[22]^[11] The reaction occurs in an inert anhydrous organic solvent like toluene or benzene, with diketene concentrations maintained at 85-95% to optimize yields. Scale-up considerations include controlled temperatures between 30-60°C (up to 120°C in some variants) under atmospheric pressure, ensuring complete conversion while preventing side reactions; additives like pyrocatechol (0.5-3 wt%) are introduced continuously to boost yields above 90% and enhance product purity to 98-100%. Byproduct formation is minimal due to high selectivity, with waste minimization achieved through recycling of solvents and alkaline extraction for purification, aligning with efficient resource use in commercial operations.^[20] Global production is dominated by a few key manufacturers, including Lonza and Nantong Acetic Acid Chemical Co., Ltd., with the market valued at approximately USD 250 million annually as of 2024, reflecting steady demand for preservatives and antimicrobial agents.^[25] No major post-2020 advancements in green chemistry or catalysis efficiency have significantly altered the core process, though ongoing optimizations focus on solvent recovery to reduce environmental impact.

Applications

Preservative uses

Dehydroacetic acid functions as a broad-spectrum preservative in both food and cosmetic products, inhibiting the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds to extend shelf life and maintain product integrity. In food applications, dehydroacetic acid is approved as the additive E265 in certain jurisdictions, including Japan, where it is used to preserve commodities such as cut fruits, pickles, strawberries, beverages, and margarine at concentrations typically ranging from 0.03% to 0.3%. In the United States, the FDA permits its use specifically as a preservative for cut or peeled squash at a maximum level of 65 parts per million (0.0065%). These applications help prevent microbial spoilage and issues like pickle bloating, with efficacy enhanced in acidic formulations. As of 2025, its use in China has been restricted in categories such as starch products under GB 2760-2024.^[26] In cosmetics, dehydroacetic acid is widely employed as a preservative in products like lotions, creams, and shampoos at concentrations of 0.1% to 0.6%, where it is particularly effective against molds and yeasts. Under EU cosmetics regulations, the maximum authorized concentration is 0.6% (expressed as the acid), excluding use in aerosol sprays. Its broad-spectrum activity makes it suitable for water-based formulations, and it complies with standards from organizations like ECOCERT and COSMOS for natural and organic products.^[27] The preservative mechanism of dehydroacetic acid involves disruption of microbial cell membranes and inhibition of essential enzyme activity, leading to reduced microbial proliferation. This action is most effective in the pH range of 2 to 6, where the undissociated acid form predominates and penetrates microbial cells more readily. Dehydroacetic acid is frequently formulated in blends for enhanced performance; for example, it is combined with benzyl alcohol in products like Geogard 221, a preservative system offering synergistic broad-spectrum protection suitable for personal care applications across a wide pH range. Historically, dehydroacetic acid was introduced as a food preservative in the mid-20th century, with approvals emerging in regions like the EU during the 1960s before subsequent regulatory changes limited its food use there.

Antimicrobial applications

Dehydroacetic acid exhibits fungicidal properties suitable for agricultural applications, particularly in wood preservation to inhibit decay fungi. The sodium salt form of dehydroacetic acid is also employed as a wood preservative, enhancing durability against fungal degradation in treated timber.^[28] In bactericidal applications, dehydroacetic acid and its salts are incorporated into industrial formulations such as paints, adhesives, and metalworking fluids to prevent microbial contamination and spoilage. These uses leverage its ability to disrupt bacterial cell processes, maintaining product integrity during storage and use in non-food sectors.^[29] Efficacy studies demonstrate activity against key fungi like Aspergillus niger, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) around 400 ppm, and broader spectrum effects on bacteria, though specific MIC values for pathogens like Pseudomonas species are less documented in industrial contexts. Commercial formulations, such as Biocide 470F, utilize dehydroacetic acid directly for industrial disinfection, offering targeted antimicrobial control in these applications.^[30] Due to its low water solubility (slightly soluble at approximately 0.5 g/L), dehydroacetic acid has limited application in environmental settings like water treatment, where higher solubility is required for effective dispersion.^[5]

Safety and regulation

Toxicity and health effects

Dehydroacetic acid exhibits low acute toxicity via oral administration, with an LD50 value of 1,480 mg/kg in female rats according to OECD Test Guideline 401.^[31] Dermal exposure shows even lower toxicity, with an LD50 ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 mg/kg in rabbits.^[31] While no skin irritation was observed in rabbits over 4 hours per OECD Test Guideline 404, older animal studies indicated minimal eye irritation with mild effects, but recent in vitro studies (OECD Test Guideline 438) show no eye irritation.^[31]^[32] Chronic exposure studies reveal no evidence of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or reproductive toxicity in available animal data.^[33] The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel has concluded that dehydroacetic acid poses low concern for these endpoints based on comprehensive safety assessments.^[33] Similarly, the Environmental Working Group (EWG) rates it as low concern for cancer, allergies, immunotoxicity, and developmental/reproductive toxicity.^[34] Allergic reactions to dehydroacetic acid are rare but documented, primarily manifesting as contact dermatitis in users of cosmetics containing the compound or its sodium salt.^[35] Case reports highlight isolated instances of allergic contact dermatitis, often linked to topical applications, though overall sensitization potential remains low.^[35] Environmental toxicity is moderate, with dehydroacetic acid classified as harmful to aquatic life under GHS criteria.^[31] It shows ecotoxicity to algae (ErC50 of 32.1 mg/L for Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata per OECD Test Guideline 201) and daphnids (EC50 >100 mg/L per OECD Test Guideline 202), indicating potential harm at concentrations exceeding 1 mg/L in aquatic systems.^[31] Bioaccumulation potential is low, as the compound does not meet criteria for persistent, bioaccumulative, or toxic substances.^[36] Human exposure to dehydroacetic acid occurs primarily through dermal contact or incidental oral ingestion via preservative-containing cosmetics, foods, and personal care products. In vivo metabolism studies in rats and rabbits demonstrate rapid biotransformation, yielding metabolites such as triacetic acid lactone, hydroxy-dehydroacetic acid, and ultimately acetic acid derivatives like acetoacetic acid and carbon dioxide.^[37]

Regulatory approvals

Dehydroacetic acid is regulated as a food additive in the United States, where it is permitted for use as a preservative in cut or peeled squash at a maximum level of 65 parts per million (ppm), calculated as the acid equivalent, in accordance with specifications outlined in 21 CFR 172.130.^[38] It is not classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for broader food applications but is approved for this specific limited use based on safety assessments.^[39] In the European Union, dehydroacetic acid and its sodium salt are not authorized as food additives under Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008, reflecting concerns over potential health effects and lack of sufficient toxicological data for general food use.^[40] For cosmetics, dehydroacetic acid and sodium dehydroacetate are approved as preservatives in the European Union under Annex V of Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009, with a maximum authorized concentration of 0.6% (expressed as the acid) in ready-for-use products, excluding aerosol dispensers.^[27] The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel has concluded that both compounds are safe for use in cosmetics at concentrations up to 0.6% for sodium dehydroacetate and 0.7% for dehydroacetic acid, based on evaluations of toxicological data including dermal irritation and sensitization potential.^[33] In the United States, the CIR assessment supports their safety as used, aligning with FDA oversight for cosmetic ingredients without specific concentration limits beyond general good manufacturing practices. Under the European Union's REACH Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, dehydroacetic acid (CAS 520-45-6) is registered for industrial uses, including as a biocide and preservative, with an annual tonnage band of 100-1,000 tonnes, and no specific authorization requirements or restrictions beyond standard notification. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has listed dehydroacetic acid as an active ingredient in pesticide products, though it is considered an obsolete fungicide with no current active registrations or established residue tolerances for agricultural commodities.^[7] Internationally, dehydroacetic acid faces variations in approval; it is prohibited in organic food production under both EU and USDA regulations, as it is a synthetic preservative not listed among allowed substances on the National List or equivalent EU organic standards.^[41] The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has not established an acceptable daily intake (ADI) for dehydroacetic acid due to insufficient data from prior evaluations.^[42] In recent updates, China has expanded restrictions effective February 2025, banning its use in additional food categories such as starch products, bread, cakes, and fillings, while maintaining limited approvals in others like pickled vegetables.^[26] Post-Brexit, the United Kingdom has aligned its cosmetics regulations with the EU, retaining the 0.6% limit under retained EU law, with no substantive changes reported for dehydroacetic acid as of 2025.^[43]

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Dehydroacetic acid has a melting point of 109℃～112℃, with a solubility of (25℃,g/100g), ethanol 3,glycol 1.7, olive oil＜1.6, glycerin＜0.1, water＜0.1. Its pH ...<|separator|>
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