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Devakottai

Devakottai is a town and first-grade municipality in Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu, India, historically serving as the principal residence of the Nattukottai Chettiars, a mercantile community renowned for pioneering indigenous banking networks and commerce across colonial South India, Southeast Asia, and beyond.^[1] Located at approximately 9°37' N latitude and 78°40' E longitude on the banks of the Virusuliyar River, it spans 12.42 square kilometers and functions as a key service and trade hub for over 300 surrounding villages, with 93% of its workforce engaged in tertiary sectors like commerce.^[1] The town's economy emphasizes trade over agriculture or industry, reflecting the Chettiar legacy of financial intermediation, while its physical setting features predominantly red soil (90%) and an average annual rainfall of 770 mm, supporting limited groundwater resources at 12-20 meters depth.^[1] Constituted as a second-grade municipality in 1937 and upgraded in 1998, Devakottai recorded a population of 51,865 in the 2011 census, with high literacy rates exceeding 89% and a near-balanced sex ratio.^[2]^[1] Notable cultural landmarks include Chettinad-style heritage mansions built with limestone ("Karai Veedu") and the Sri Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple, featuring 108 statues of the deity Vinayakar, underscoring the town's religious and architectural significance within the broader Chettinad region.^[1] Climate extremes range from 39°C in summer to 20°C in winter, with development focused on infrastructure like water supply and waste management to sustain its role as a regional commercial node.^[1]

Geography

Location and Physical Features

Devakottai is situated in Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu, India, within the Chettinad region comprising villages across Sivaganga and neighboring Pudukottai districts. The town is positioned at coordinates 9°57′N 78°49′E.^[3] ^[4] The topography consists of flat plains typical of Tamil Nadu's eastern coastal lowlands, with an average elevation of 50 meters above sea level and elevation changes limited to under 30 meters within a 3-kilometer radius.^[5] This level terrain forms part of the broader regional plain extending inland from the Coromandel Coast. Dominant soil types in the vicinity include red laterite soils developed on weathered granite-gneiss parent material, alongside red, black, and alluvial varieties suited to the semi-arid conditions.^[6] ^[7] The area lies within the Vaigai River basin, with the seasonal Manimuthar River—locally termed Devakottai Ar—passing through the town, contributing to the local hydrological features.^[8]

Climate and Environmental Conditions

Devakottai features a tropical climate dominated by hot, dry summers and a pronounced wet season driven by the northeast monsoon. Maximum temperatures routinely reach 42–43 °C during the peak heat of April and May, with average highs in May around 37 °C, while December and January bring milder conditions with highs below 30 °C on average.^[9]^[10] The district's annual rainfall averages 904.7 mm, with over half typically falling between October and December, reflecting the northeast monsoon's influence on regional hydrology and agriculture.^[9] November stands as the wettest month, recording about 155 mm of precipitation on average, while February sees the fewest rainy days and contributes to extended dry spells from late winter through early summer.^[5] These dry periods exacerbate water scarcity, particularly for rain-fed crops, as meteorological data highlight interannual variability in monsoon yields, with deficits in some years amplifying drought vulnerability in Sivaganga district per Tamil Nadu records.^[5]^[11] Environmental pressures include groundwater depletion linked to intensive agricultural extraction, where over-reliance on tube wells for irrigation in Sivaganga has strained aquifers amid limited recharge during inconsistent monsoons.^[12] District assessments note challenges from such practices, including declining water tables that impact farming sustainability without corresponding surface water alternatives.^[12]

History

Etymology and Early Settlement

The name Devakottai derives from the Tamil words Devi (goddess) and kottai (fort), originally rendered as Devikottai and signifying "fort of the goddess," likely referencing protective structures or endowments associated with local deities such as village goddesses (kottaiamman). This etymology underscores the town's foundational ties to temple-centric land grants and fortifications in pre-colonial Tamil society, where divine patronage legitimized territorial control.^[13] Early human settlement in the Devakottai area traces to the broader Ramnad kingdom's expansion in the late 17th century, when Regunatha Sethupathy (r. 1674–1710) allocated lands and military obligations to subordinate chieftains like Peria Oodaya Thevar, fostering agrarian outposts in the Sivaganga region's fertile plains. These poligar territories, including proto-settlements around Naalukottai near Sholapuram, supported rice and millet cultivation by dispersed farming communities under feudal oversight, as evidenced by Sethupathi dowry grants of forts such as Piranmalai to Sasivarna Thevar around 1710.^[14] By the early 18th century, as the Sivaganga estate coalesced under Sasivarna Thevar (post-1730), Devakottai's settlement patterns solidified through localized temple economies, where agrarian surplus funded rituals and minor trade in grains and salt, predating later mercantile influxes. Inscriptions from nearby temples, such as those in Sakkottai dating to the 15th–16th centuries, attest to enduring devotional land endowments that anchored community stability amid shifting poligar allegiances.^[15]^[14]

Colonial Period and Chettiar Economic Rise

During the British colonial era, Devakottai, located in the Chettinad region, became a central base for the Nattukottai Chettiars (also known as Nakarattars), a Tamil merchant-banking caste whose activities transformed the local economy. From the mid-19th century, Chettiar families migrated to Southeast Asian colonies, establishing branch offices in Burma, Ceylon, and Malaya to finance agricultural expansion and commodity trade under British rule. These ventures focused on key exports such as rice in Burma, tea and rubber in Ceylon, and rubber plantations in Malaya, leveraging the Chettiars' expertise in short-term credit to support colonial production without initial dependence on European banking networks.^[16]^[17] The Chettiars' banking system relied on family-owned firms (vattakkarar) organized through segmentary lineage networks, enabling efficient mobilization of deposits from the Chettinad home base, including Devakottai, for overseas lending. This indigenous model featured trust-based operations, where agents managed loans with minimal collateral, often secured by personal guarantees or crop yields, and emphasized rapid turnover of capital through 90-day kanakku loans. By avoiding formal European banks, the Chettiars facilitated capital flows that underpinned colonial economic growth, with their practices adapting to local needs like financing Burmese rice mills post-1880s annexation.^[18]^[19] Expansion accelerated after the 1870s, coinciding with British colonial openings in Southeast Asia; for instance, the number of Chettiar firms in Ceylon grew from 150 in 1870 to 700 by 1916, reflecting broader proliferation across regions with Devakottai serving as a key administrative and financial node for firm headquarters. This period saw the Chettiars foster proto-capitalist structures amid colonial constraints, amassing wealth that funded grand mansions and temples back home, while their networks handled billions in loans by the 1920s peak—equivalent to significant portions of regional agricultural credit.^[20]^[21]

Post-Independence Developments and Challenges

Devakottai taluk witnessed significant unrest during the Quit India Movement launched on August 8, 1942, with widespread protests, hartals, and processions led by Congress volunteers, resulting in police firings and the deaths of several participants on August 17, 1942.^[22] ^[23] Over 500 individuals were arrested in the taluk for acts including the sabotage of government infrastructure and clashes with authorities, reflecting mass participation across villages like Poolankurichi and Panankudi.^[24] ^[25] These events underscored the town's pre-independence fervor, which transitioned into post-1947 civic engagement under the Indian National Congress's local dominance. Following India's independence in 1947, Devakottai encountered economic disruptions from the repatriation of Nattukottai Chettiar families from Burma after its independence in January 1948, amid asset seizures and nationalization of agricultural lands under Burmese reforms, leading to losses estimated in the hundreds of crores for the community.^[26] ^[27] This repatriation, accelerated by wartime Japanese occupation and post-war instability, contributed to the contraction of traditional Chettiar banking networks in Chettinad towns like Devakottai by the mid-1950s, as overseas remittances and international moneylending dried up, forcing a shift toward domestic operations.^[28] Recovery efforts emphasized diversification into local commerce, real estate, and agriculture, bolstering resilience amid national land reforms and industrialization drives in the 1950s–1960s.^[27] More recent challenges include urban sprawl and infrastructure strain, addressed through the Devakottai Municipality's 2019 City Development Plan, which outlines strategies for physical planning, growth management, and enhancements in water supply, sanitation, and road networks to support a population exceeding 60,000.^[1] Local governance has focused on sustainable development, though fiscal constraints and environmental pressures from arid conditions persist.^[1]

Economy

Traditional Chettiar Banking and International Trade

The Nattukottai Chettiars of the Chettinad region, with Devakottai serving as a primary operational hub, established a caste-based banking system reliant on extended family firms identified by vilasam suffixes, such as "Annamalai Vilasam," which enforced internal supervision and accountability across domestic and overseas branches.^[29] ^[21] This structure minimized agency problems through kinship ties and communal oversight, yielding low default rates—evidenced at approximately 1.72% in documented operations—by leveraging social enforcement rather than extensive collateral.^[30] Interest rates for secured agricultural and trade loans typically ranged from 12% to 18% annually in the late 18th and 19th centuries, often below those of indigenous competitors, enabling scalable lending that bridged gaps left by formal colonial banks.^[31] Devakottai hosted key associations where standardized interest rates were ritually determined monthly on the 16th, coordinating hundreds of firms that headquartered operations there while dispatching agents abroad.^[16] These entities financed domestic rice milling and groundnut trade, alongside international ventures in Southeast Asia by the early 1900s, providing short-term nadappu and long-term thavanai loans to support commodity exports like rice and spices from coastal networks.^[32] In regions such as Burma, Malaya, and Ceylon, Chettiar credit fueled plantation economies, with remittances of profits repatriated via efficient networks, injecting capital that sustained Chettinad's wealth accumulation and local development without equivalent formal alternatives. ^[33] Innovations like kittangi—compact shophouse offices doubling as warehouses and lending stations—optimized costs and client access, allowing agents to handle deposits, passbooks, and jewel safekeeping in a pre-modern transition toward formalized banking.^[34] ^[35] This model demonstrated causal efficacy in credit expansion, as borrowers gained flexible terms including payment deferrals, fostering trade volumes that outweighed risks and countering claims of pure exploitation with records of economic enablement in underserved markets.^[36] ^[19]

Modern Industries and Agricultural Base

Agriculture forms the primary economic foundation in Devakottai, part of Sivaganga district, where paddy serves as the dominant crop, supplemented by millets, cereals, pulses, sugarcane, and groundnut.^[37] Irrigation infrastructure relies heavily on 4,966 local tanks, which account for 84% of the district's irrigated land, with the remainder supported by 18,016 wells.^[38] This tank-based system, traditional to the region, sustains crop yields despite the district's classification as semi-arid, with per capita income from agriculture reaching ₹1,81,651 in 2022-23.^[39] Small-scale industries, including textiles and food processing, contribute modestly to local employment but remain underdeveloped relative to agricultural output, reflecting Sivaganga's overall industrially backward status with only limited large-scale units.^[38]^[40] The post-independence decline of Nattukottai Chettiar banking, accelerated by bank nationalizations in 1969 that curtailed indigenous financial networks, has shifted reliance toward agricultural self-sufficiency and service sectors, augmented by remittances from the Chettiar diaspora abroad.^[41] Recent efforts by NABARD emphasize sustainable farming enhancements, including ₹135.07 crore allocated for climate-resilient initiatives in the district as of 2022-23, prioritizing irrigation modernization and crop diversification over dependency on subsidies to bolster long-term productivity.^[42] These measures align with broader state trends where agriculture engages over 60% of the rural workforce, though services now drive 54% of Tamil Nadu's GDP, indicating potential for Devakottai's urban peripheries.^[43]

Demographics

Population Trends and Census Data

According to the 2011 Census of India, the population of Devakottai municipality stood at 51,865, consisting of 26,171 males and 25,694 females.^[44] The sex ratio was recorded at 996 females per 1,000 males, indicating near parity.^[2] Literacy rate reached 89.99%, with male literacy at 94.45% and female at 85.49%, surpassing the Tamil Nadu state average of approximately 80.1%.^[2] The town's population exhibited a decadal growth of about 25% from 2001 to 2011, equating to an average annual increase of roughly 2.3%.^[45] This expansion reflected broader patterns in the Sivaganga district, where urban centers like Devakottai absorbed migrants from adjacent rural locales in the Chettinad region, though the municipality's share remained stable at around 33% of the Devakottai taluka's total 157,631 residents.^[46] Projections based on district-level trends estimate Devakottai's municipal population at approximately 75,000 by 2025, assuming moderated growth amid Tamil Nadu's decelerating fertility rates and state-wide annual increments below 0.5%.^[2] Sex ratio stability persisted post-2011, with no significant deviations reported in interim surveys, alongside consistent dependency ratios hovering near 45 dependents per 100 working-age individuals, underscoring enduring family structures.^[47]

Ethnic and Religious Composition

Devakottai's population is predominantly Hindu, with the 2011 Census recording 42,970 Hindus out of a total of 51,865 residents, constituting 82.85% of the populace.^[44] Christians and Muslims represent the principal religious minorities, aligning with broader taluka-level patterns where Christians account for 10.59% and Muslims for 4.19% of the 157,631 inhabitants in Devakottai taluka.^[46] These figures reflect a higher Christian presence in the town compared to the Sivaganga district average of 5.64%, potentially linked to historical missionary activities in the region, though district-wide Hindus remain at 88.57%.^[48] Ethnically, the community is overwhelmingly Tamil, with linguistic and cultural homogeneity characteristic of southern Tamil Nadu towns. The Nattukottai Chettiars, a Hindu mercantile subcaste known as Nagarathars, exert outsized influence on local social and economic structures despite forming a numerical minority; they are concentrated in trade-oriented occupations and trace their roots to the Chettinad area encompassing Devakottai.^[49] Scheduled Castes comprise 8.5% of the population, while Scheduled Tribes are minimal at 0.16%, underscoring limited indigenous tribal presence.^[50] The Chettiar community's internal organization has evolved from historical fragmentation—encompassing numerous sub-sects tied to specific temples and lineages—to greater consolidation following India's independence, facilitating unified institutional representation in commerce and philanthropy. No significant inter-community conflicts have been documented specific to Devakottai, distinguishing it from more volatile caste dynamics elsewhere in Tamil Nadu, where empirical records highlight tensions primarily in agrarian rather than urban trading contexts.^[51]

Governance and Administration

Municipal Structure and Local Politics

Devakottai operates as a first-grade municipality under the Sivaganga district administration in Tamil Nadu, governed by an elected municipal council that includes 27 ward councillors and a chairman selected through indirect election from among the councillors.^[52]^[53] The council oversees local governance, with executive functions supported by a commissioner appointed by the state government.^[54] Organizational structure features specialized departments for revenue, engineering, health, and town planning, enabling autonomous decision-making on municipal affairs while adhering to state oversight.^[1] Municipal elections occur periodically under the Tamil Nadu Municipalities Act, with the most recent urban local body polls in February 2022 determining councillor composition and subsequent chairman selection.^[55] Budgets derive from local taxes, such as property and other revenues, supplemented by state allocations for urban development, including loans and grants via programs like the Third Tamil Nadu Urban Development Project (TNUDP III) for infrastructure and planning enhancements.^[1] This funding supports efficient resource allocation, emphasizing local priorities like revenue collection and service delivery. Zoning policies follow the town's master plan, regulating land use to balance residential, commercial, and agricultural zones while restricting incompatible developments.^[1] Heritage preservation efforts target Chettinad mansions, integral to the region's architectural legacy, through municipal development plans that identify and protect these structures in areas like Devakottai to prevent urban encroachment and promote conservation.^[1] Local politics reflect Tamil Nadu's Dravidian party dominance, with the council featuring representatives from the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), though specific ward-level outcomes vary by election cycle.^[53] Voting in municipal polls has historically prioritized agendas centered on development and infrastructure, as evidenced by state-wide trends where coalitions emphasizing economic progress secure majorities in urban bodies.^[56] This pattern underscores local autonomy in aligning governance with tangible improvements over ideological divides.

Civic Infrastructure and Public Services

The Devakottai Municipality sources water supply from groundwater via 24 bore wells, delivering 81 liters per capita per day for one hour daily, equating to 4.18 million liters drawn per day across 62 km of distribution mains and 5,862 house connections.^[57]^[58] Infrastructure gaps include aging and damaged mains leading to low pressure in elevated areas and uneven coverage in extensions, as identified in the 2008 City Development Plan (CDP).^[1] Solid waste generation stands at 15 metric tons per day, with 90% collection efficiency using 15 tricycles, 70 push carts, and two mini-lorries; however, the absence of a dedicated compost yard or landfill site has historically constrained processing.^[1] The municipality employs bio-mining for legacy waste and operates a pyrolysis unit, enabling 100% source segregation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes by 2017.^[59]^[60] Sanitation infrastructure lacks an underground sewerage system, relying on individual septic tanks and open drains, which exacerbates open defecation and slum conditions affecting 32% of the population (approximately 10,940 residents).^[1] Swachh Bharat Mission efforts since 2014 have driven gains in segregation awareness and public toilet provision (seven existing, with expansions planned), though CDP reports highlight persistent gaps in housing quality and comprehensive sewerage coverage.^[1] Electrification aligns with India's urban near-universal access at 99.5% as of 2023, supported by Tamil Nadu's extensive grid expansion; the municipality operates 2,235 street lights (93.5% tube lights), with investments targeted for energy-efficient replacements.^[61]^[1] Public safety services encompass a town police station and fire service station, operating under state oversight amid Tamil Nadu's low cognizable crime rate of approximately 64.5 offenses per lakh population in select categories as of 2023 data.^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65]

Culture and Society

Chettiar Heritage and Entrepreneurial Ethos

The Nattukottai Chettiars, a mercantile community originating from the Chettinad region encompassing Devakottai, developed a distinctive entrepreneurial ethos rooted in thrift, family-based enterprises, and calculated risk-taking in international trade. This cultural framework emphasized intergenerational wealth accumulation through disciplined saving and reinvestment, with family firms serving as the primary organizational structure for banking and commerce activities spanning Southeast Asia and beyond.^[27]^[16] Architectural legacies such as the expansive Chettinad mansions exemplify the wealth generated from these ventures, featuring intricate designs with imported materials like Italian marble and Burmese teak that symbolized prosperity derived from trade in commodities including rice, textiles, and precious stones. Constructed primarily between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these structures housed extended families and business operations, reflecting a fusion of local Tamil traditions with global influences acquired through mercantile networks. Community temples, often funded collectively, further underscored this ethos by channeling resources into philanthropy, including the establishment of village schools that promoted literacy among Chettiar youth from an early age.^[66]^[67]^[68] In banking practices, the Chettiars cultivated high levels of trust through kinship ties and clan-based oversight, enabling efficient capital mobilization with intra-community lending at lower interest rates than extended to outsiders, which evidenced robust social capital and minimized risks in informal financial systems. This insularity, while fostering concentrated capital and low intra-group default risks via reputational enforcement, has been critiqued for restricting broader economic integration and adaptability post-independence, as the community's close-knit structure became a hindrance amid nationalized banking reforms.^[16]^[69]^[70] The Swarnamurtheeswarar Temple in Kandadevi, near Devakottai, hosts an annual temple car festival featuring a grand procession where devotees pull the chariot through village streets, a tradition revived in 2024 after a 17-year suspension due to inter-community disputes over pulling rights from 1998 to 2001.^[71] ^[72] The 2025 event on July 8 proceeded with extensive preparations, including security inspections by senior police officials and resolutions ensuring cooperative participation across communities.^[73] ^[74] Other local observances include Dasara celebrations in October, marked by cultural processions and temple rituals emphasizing Tamil heritage.^[75] Chettinad cuisine in Devakottai relies on sun-dried meats, salted vegetables, and an array of spices like star anise, reflecting the Chettiar traders' historical access to Southeast Asian ingredients via maritime commerce.^[76] Signature non-vegetarian dishes feature spicy preparations such as chicken curry with coconut-based gravy and seafood masalas like crab or prawn variants, prepared with freshly ground masalas for intense flavor profiles.^[76] ^[77] Vegetarian staples include fermented rice items like panniyaram and steamed dumplings such as kozhukkattai, alongside potato roasts and okra curries, showcasing balanced use of local produce.^[76] These dishes, adapted in Devakottai households, preserve trade-era techniques while supporting regional tourism through specialized eateries.^[78] Social customs in Devakottai's Chettiar community center on extended joint family units, where ancestral mansions housed multiple generations and aligned business operations with kinship obligations, a structure integral to traditional moneylending firms.^[19] ^[79] These systems persist in rural settings, fostering collective decision-making on marriages and inheritance, though urban migration has prompted adaptations toward nuclear units while retaining rituals like communal feasts during festivals.^[80] Community philanthropy and piety, evident in temple endowments, reinforce social cohesion amid these shifts.^[81]

Infrastructure and Connectivity

Transportation Networks

Devakottai relies predominantly on road transportation for local and regional connectivity, with extensive bus services operated by state transport corporations serving as the primary mode for passengers and goods. The town is linked to Madurai, approximately 93 kilometers away via well-maintained state highways, and to Karaikudi, just 18 kilometers distant, facilitating efficient intra-regional travel and supporting trade logistics in the Chettinad area.^[82] Historically, Devakottai's road networks played a crucial role in enabling Nattukottai Chettiar merchants to access coastal ports like Nagapattinam and Tuticorin for overseas voyages, underpinning their banking and trading enterprises in colonial Burma, Ceylon, and Southeast Asia from the late 19th century onward.^[83] In the modern era, upgrades to Tamil Nadu's state highways, including widening and four-laning initiatives under the Chief Minister's Road Development Programme, have improved freight movement and reduced travel times, enhancing the town's utility as a commercial hub.^[84] Rail access remains limited, with Devakottai Road railway station, situated about 15 kilometers from the town center, handling select passenger services such as the Rameswaram Express between Chennai and Rameswaram.^[85] For air travel, Madurai International Airport, located roughly 99 kilometers away and reachable in about 1.5 hours by road, offers the nearest domestic and limited international flights.^[86]

Education and Healthcare Facilities

Devakottai Municipality recorded a literacy rate of 89.99% in the 2011 census, with a sex ratio of 996 females per 1,000 males, reflecting strong community-driven educational emphasis among the local Chettiar population.^[2] The broader Devakottai Taluka literacy stood at 81.69%, with male literacy at 89.36% and female at 73.87%, indicating persistent gender disparities despite overall progress.^[46] Primary and secondary education is served by institutions such as the Government Higher Secondary School and Chettiar-founded schools like Lotus An. Venkatachalam Chettiar School, an ICSE-affiliated co-educational facility established to promote quality schooling.^[87] ^[88] Similarly, the NSMVPS Higher Secondary School for boys and elementary school, initiated by local philanthropists, underscore early Chettiar contributions to accessible education infrastructure.^[89] Higher education options remain limited locally, with students often relying on affiliated colleges like Sree Sevugan Annamalai College, founded in 1950 by the A.V. Meenakshi Ammal and A.V. Chettiar Educational Trust and linked to Alagappa University in nearby Karaikudi for arts, science, and commerce programs.^[90] This gap in advanced facilities has prompted Tamil Nadu state initiatives, including faculty recruitment drives and scholarships like the ₹1,000 monthly stipend for government school girls pursuing higher education since 2022, aimed at boosting enrollment and retention amid statewide shortages.^[91] ^[92] Healthcare infrastructure includes the Government Taluk Hospital in Devakottai, providing general medical services, alongside primary health centers such as the one in Velayuthapattinam serving rural outreach.^[93] ^[94] District-level data from Sivaganga shows improvements in infant mortality rates, with primary health center-specific figures declining from earlier highs in the early 2000s, aligning with Tamil Nadu's broader reductions to around 15-20 per 1,000 live births through expanded immunization and maternal care programs.^[95] Private clinics, often supported by Chettiar community philanthropy, supplement public facilities, though comprehensive district studies highlight ongoing needs for specialized care in areas like pediatrics.^[96] State investments have enhanced primary centers with stockpiles for emergencies and better water access, addressing rural gaps.^[97]

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[29]
From Vilasam to the Bank of Chettinad: The Supervision of Chettiar ...
May 13, 2024 · This article offers two contributions to the historiography of financial supervision based on historical scholarship on the Nattukottai ...Missing: Devakottai | Show results with:Devakottai
[30]
Chettiars - Tale of money lending community
Dec 15, 2016 · ... default rate of 1.72%. What You Will Learn: - Navigate the complexities of P2P lending - Understand the inherent risks and potential ...What were the key roles and contributions of the Nattukottai ...The 'Chettiars' (popular through 1940's till 1970's ... - FacebookMore results from www.facebook.com
[31]
PROFESSIONAL MONEYLENDERS AND THE EMERGENCE OF ...
At the end of the eighteenth century, Hamilton reported interest rates of 12-18 per cent for secured agricultural loans, and 12 per cent for secured non- ...
[32]
Caste and Capitalism in Colonial India - UC Press E-Books Collection
The Nakarattar firms established in these outposts were branches of agencies already established in Calcutta (Lakshmanan Chettiar 1954) and had probably ...
[33]
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004408609/BP000010.pdf
[34]
Micro India: The Chettiars of Market Street - BiblioAsia
By Subbiah's reckoning, Market Street had, in its heyday, as many as seven kittangi, and housed some 300 to 400 Chettiar firms. As recently as the 1970s, when ...
[35]
The Chettiars: Singapore's First Financiers - Roots.sg
Jan 18, 2022 · Mostly located in Market Street, in the city's financial centre, the kittangi were shophouses from where the Chettiars ran their money-lending ...
[36]
[PDF] NUANCES OF CHETTIAR FINANCING AT BRITISH MALAYA, C ...
Yet borrowers still approached the Chettiars because they were also quite flexible in regularly allowing the postponement of payments and accepting a lower rate ...Missing: kittangi | Show results with:kittangi
[37]
[PDF] SIVAGANGAI-FINAL.pdf
This District is a backward region from the point of view of agriculture, industry and general economic conditions of the people, mainly due to the feudalistic ...
[38]
[PDF] PLP 2016-17 Sivagangai District
The major sources of irrigation are 4966 tanks (84%) and. 18016 irrigation wells (16%). The district is classified as industrially backward. Demography of ...
[39]
Tamil Nadu District Factbook : Sivaganga District
Main source of income in the district is from the agriculture sector and per capita income is Rs. 1,81,651 for the year 2022-2023. The crime rate in the ...
[40]
View of INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF SIVAGANGA DISTRICT
This sector assume a huge job in enhancing family livelihoods and producing beneficial work in the rural sector, especially among the landless workers, ...
[41]
[PDF] Workings of a Nineteenth Century Indigenous Banking System
A number of Nattukottai Chettiar firms had to suspend business operations. Others had to close down permanently. Rudner (1994:78) writes of the first firm's ...Missing: Devakottai vilasam
[42]
[PDF] संभाव्यता युक्त ऋण योजना 2022-23 potential linked credit plan 2022-23
Jan 2, 2011 · Sivaganga is classified as industrially backward. ... Under climate change initiatives, NABARD has released an amount of Rs.135.07 crore.
[43]
[PDF] State Focus Paper 2023-24
In 2020-21, at current prices, agriculture, manufacturing, and services sectors contributed to. 13%, 33%, and 54%, respectively, of the state economy. The ...<|separator|>
[44]
Devakottai Population, Caste Data Sivaganga Tamil Nadu
The total population of Devakottai is 51,865 out of which 26,171 are males and 25,694 are females thus the Average Sex Ratio of Devakottai is 982. The ...Missing: history geography economy
[45]
Devakottai (Sivaganga, Tamil Nadu, India) - City Population
The population development of Devakottai as well as related information and ... 2.5% Annual Population Change [2001 → 2011]. Map Chart Weather ...Missing: growth rate
[46]
Devakottai Taluka Population, Religion, Caste Sivaganga district ...
Devakottai Taluka of Sivaganga district has a total population of 157,631 as per the Census 2011. Out of which 79,606 are males while 78,025 are females. In ...Missing: history geography economy
[47]
Devakottai Population 2025: Religion, Literacy, and Census Data ...
As per the 2011 Census, Devakottai Tehsil has a population of 1.58 Lac (1,57,631) with 79.61 k (79,606) males and 78.03 k (78,025) females.The sex ratio in ...Missing: history geography
[48]
Sivaganga District Religion Data - Hindu/Muslim
Hinduism constitutes 88.57% of Sivaganga population. District, Sivaganga. Population, 1,339,101. Hindu, 88.57 %. Muslim, 5.55 %. Christian, 5.64 %. Sikh, 0.01 %.
[49]
History of the Nattukottai Chett
The Nattukottai Chettiars were the forerunners in modern day finance companies. More than 50% of the deposits of the early finance companies came from this ...
[50]
Devakottai, Tamil Nādu, India - Mark Horner
5,900 people works in agricultural land as a labour in Devakottai, men are 3,069 and 2,831 are women. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 8.5% ...Missing: geography | Show results with:geography
[51]
Origins and Historical Background of the Nagarathar Community
Aug 26, 2025 · The Chettiars had a network of money lending firms with uniform interest rate practices. They later diversified their ventures with big firms ...<|separator|>
[52]
Devakottai Muncipality - tnurbantree.tn.gov.in
Devakottai Municipality was constituted in the year 1937 as per Local Self Government G.O.No.4698, dated 27.10.1936 and upgraded as 2nd Grade Municipality 28.10 ...Missing: history geography economy
[53]
Councillors – Devakottai Muncipality
Sl.No. Ward No. Name of the Municipal Councillors. (Thiru / Thirumathi). Address, Mobile No. Photo. 1, 1, K.SUNDARALINGAM. Chairman. 279, Thiruppathur Road.
[54]
Devakottai, Municipality | Sivaganga District, Government of Tamil ...
Commissioner, Municipal Office, 371/156, Thiruppathur Road,, Devakottai– 630302, Sivaganga District. Email : commr[dot]devakkottai[at]tn[dot]gov[dot]inMissing: structure | Show results with:structure
[55]
Local Body Election – Devakottai Muncipality
16.09.2016, 215, Chairman Reservation Gazette Notification ; 16.09.2016, 217, Councillors Reservation Gazette Notification ; 14.12.2018, 407, Ward delimitation ...
[56]
DMK, allies pip ruling AIADMK combine in TN rural civic polls
Jan 3, 2020 · CHENNAI: In a closely fought contest in polls to rural civic bodies in 27 districts in Tamil Nadu, the opposition DMK and its allies emerged ...
[57]
Water Supply – Devakottai Muncipality
Water is supplied daily for 1 hours with 81 LPCD. Details of water supply Scheme, Source of water supply from Ground water. Daily 4.18MLD of water is drawn ...Missing: Kudimiyanmalai | Show results with:Kudimiyanmalai
[58]
Major Water Supply Schemes 36 - Twad Board
Devakottai Municipality is served by a protected water supply system. The source of water for the Municipality is the Ground water from 24 bore wells located ...Missing: Kudimiyanmalai | Show results with:Kudimiyanmalai
[59]
Solid Waste Management – Devakottai Muncipality
Action points, : Bio-Mining method is adopted and going on for legacy waste disposal and Pyrolysis unit were installed and running by the Municipality for 100% ...
[60]
Karaikudi and Devakottai set high standards in solid waste ...
Dec 29, 2017 · The two municipalities had drawn out systems for 100% segregation of biodegradable and non-degradable wastes at source and disposed of the ...
[61]
India Electricity Access | Historical Chart & Data - Macrotrends
India electricity access for 2023 was 99.50%, a 0.3% increase from 2022. India electricity access for 2022 was 99.20%, a 0.4% decline from 2021.Missing: Devakottai | Show results with:Devakottai
[62]
Police Stations near me in Devakottai - Justdial
Rating 3.8 (5) The Devakottai Police Station is located in Devakottai South, Devakottai, with contact number +(91)-9498101696.
[63]
Emergency Services in Karaikkudi - karaikudi.tamilnaduonline.in
Singampunari Fire Service Station - 954577-242225. Devakottai Fire Service Station - 954561-272200. Thiruppattur Fire Service Station - 954577- 266245. You may ...
[64]
T.N. the safest State with low crime rate: DGP Shankar Jiwal
Oct 19, 2023 · Explaining that law and order is understood by the statistics presented, he said, “64.5 offences per lakh population are against women. That is ...Missing: Devakottai | Show results with:Devakottai
[65]
[PDF] Crime Review 2019 - Tamil Nadu Police
“Crime Review - Tamil Nadu – 2019” is an annual publication brought out by the State Crime Records. Bureau, Tamil Nadu based on the pattern of “Crime in. India” ...
[66]
India's 10,000 forgotten mansions - BBC
Apr 5, 2023 · These gigantic, often glamorous, houses were built by the rich merchant families of the Nattukottai Chettiar community, who amassed great wealth ...
[67]
Nagarathars' Philanthropic Contribution to Education - ResearchGate
Dec 23, 2022 · Thisstudyexplores the contribution of Nagarathars to enhance the literacy level of Tamil Nadu. The Nagarathar sorNattukottai Chettiars ...
[68]
Where Are We Headed? - Nagarathar Sangam of North America
From time immemorial, every Chettiar boy could read and count. Every village in Chettinadu had its own school, funded entirely by Nagarathar. It was no surprise ...
[69]
Banker's Trust and the Culture of Banking among the Nattukottai ...
Laksm Chettiar (Somalay), who died in November 1986. Somalay was a prolific write editor whose work covered too many topics to enumerate. His knowledge of the p ...
[70]
[PDF] CULTURE & COMMUNITIES - BiblioAsia
20. The close-knit, almost insular, nature of overseas Chettiar communi- ties, a source of mutual strength in colonial times, was to prove a liability in the ...
[71]
Kandadevi temple car festival held after 17 years - Times of India
Jun 22, 2024 · The car procession ran into controversy between 1998 and 2001 after two communities clashed for the right to pull the chariot.Missing: Swarnamurtheeswarar | Show results with:Swarnamurtheeswarar
[72]
17 years on, communities join hands for Kandadevi temple car ...
Jun 22, 2024 · It has been 17 years since the Kandadevi Swarnamoortheeswarar Temple's car festival was last held, in 2006.Missing: Devakottai Swarnamurtheeswarar<|separator|>
[73]
Preparatory meeting held for Swarnamurtheeswarar temple car ...
Jun 18, 2025 · The temple car festival of the Swarnamurtheeswarar Temple in Kandadevi, Devakottai, which is to be held on July 8, informed officials during the preparatory ...
[74]
ADGP inspects arrangements at Swarnamurtheeswarar Temple in ...
Jul 5, 2025 · G. Chandeesh inspected the arrangements made for the temple car festival to be held on July 8 at the famous Swarnamurtheeswarar Temple in Kandadevi, Devakottai ...
[75]
Experience the Vibrant Energy of Dasara 2025 in Devakottai
Oct 2, 2025 · Dasara 2025 in Devakottai is a celebration of Tamil Nadu's rich cultural heritage and traditions. The festival is a testament to the ...
[76]
Chettinadu Cuisine - Tamil Nadu Tourism
Some of the popular vegetarian dishes from the Chettinad kitchen are Panniyaram, Kozhukkattai, Urlai Roast, Vendakkai Mandi, Seedai and Athirasam. Explore more ...
[77]
Goin' South: Chettinad cuisine - redscarab - WordPress.com
Mar 19, 2014 · Signature Chettinad dishes like nandu (crab) masala, sura puttu (shark fin curry), eral (prawn) masala, meen kuzhambu (fish gravy) and vaalai ...
[78]
Taste with a twist - The Hindu
Apr 7, 2010 · When it comes to Chettinad cuisine not many would spare a thought for the traditional Devakottai style of food making, as Chettinad food ...Missing: specialties | Show results with:specialties
[79]
[PDF] A Case Study Of Chettinad Region, India - Migration Letters
In order to conserve these houses and the settlements as a whole, it is important to reverse migration. This is possible only if all levels of sustainability.
[80]
Village Temples and Dominant Lineage Segments
They were constituted by members of a lineage segment whose ancestors had partitioned the common estate once held by their deceased (fore)fathers, but who ...
[81]
About - SVA Heritage
We hail from the traditional Nattukottai Nagarathar Chettair Community of Devakottai. Our founder Late Sri O.RM.M.SP.SV.A. Annamalai Chettiar was noted for ...
[82]
Madurai to Devakottai - 2 ways to travel via car, and taxi
The distance between Madurai and Devakottai is 93 km. The road distance is 93.2 km. ... How do I travel from Madurai to Devakottai without a car? The ...Missing: NH87 | Show results with:NH87
[83]
History of The Nattukottai Chettiars | PDF | Banks | Loans - Scribd
Rating 3.7 (3) As merchant bankers, they dominated Indo-Ceylon trade in the 19th century and financed much of Sri Lanka's transition from coffee to tea and rubber ...
[84]
Several State highways roads to be upgraded into four-lane facilities ...
Apr 1, 2025 · Nearly 220 km of State Highways roads would be upgraded to four lanes in various parts of the State under the Chief Minister's Road Development Programme.
[85]
How to Reach – Devakottai Muncipality
The nearest Railway Station is Devakottai Salai about 15 kms from Devakottai. Rameswaram Express is running between Rameswaram and Chennai. ... Regular bus ...
[86]
Madurai Airport (IXM) to Devakottai - 2 ways to travel via car, and taxi
Yes, the driving distance between Madurai Airport (IXM) to Devakottai is 99 km. It takes approximately 1h 29m to drive from Madurai Airport (IXM) to Devakottai.Missing: air access
[87]
The Government Higher secondary School - Devakottai - Justdial
Rating 5.0 (1) For detailed information on the admission process, fees, and required documents, interested individuals can visit the admissions office or the official website.Missing: literacy rate
[88]
Lotus An Venkatachalam Chettiar School Devakottai, Sivagangai
Lotus An Venkatachalam Chettiar School is a Co-Ed school affiliated to Council for Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)
[89]
NSMVPS Group of Schools
Oct 12, 2025 · NSMVPS Higher Secondary School (Boys) and NSMVPS Elementary School were founded in Devakottai, marking the beginning of our educational journey.
[90]
Sree Sevugan Annamalai College - Devakottai
DEVAKOTTAI ... Chettiar Educational Trust, established a prestigious College in Devakottai to provide quality education to the students in and around Devakottai.
[91]
TN scores high in college education but fund, faculty challenges ...
May 9, 2025 · TN scores high in college education but fund, faculty challenges remain. The severe shortage of faculty in government arts and science colleges ...
[92]
Tamil Nadu Sees a Sharp Rise in Government School Students ...
Apr 21, 2025 · Introduced in 2022, this scheme provides ₹1,000 every month to girl students from government schools who enroll in higher education institutions ...Missing: Devakottai | Show results with:Devakottai
[93]
Government Hospital,DEVAKOTTAI | The Land With A Hoary Past
Government Hospital,DEVAKOTTAI. Phone : 9443141627. Category/Type: Government Hospital. Content Owned by District Administration, Sivaganga.
[94]
Primary Health Center | Sivaganga District, Government of Tamil Nadu
Primary Health Center ; DEVAKOTTAI · 22, VELAYUTHA PATTINAM, Govt.PHC-Velayuthapattinam Pincode:630311, 04565-203557 ...
[95]
7: PHC wise Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and its rank order of...
Download Table | 7: PHC wise Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and its rank order of Sivagangai District for the year 2002 to 2005 from publication: MDGS-based ...
[96]
A Study on Healthcare System in Sivagangai District - ResearchGate
Feb 10, 2021 · In this regard, the paper analyses the effective functioning of Health Care System in Sivagangai District. Key words: Health, Health ...
[97]
[PDF] sivagangai district - TNSDMA - Government of Tamil Nadu
Total area. 4189. Sq.km. Total population. 13,39,101. Height from sea level. 39.83 m MSL. Latitude. 9.499 N to 10.2 8N. Longitude. 77.47 E to 78.49 E.