Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Tropical climate

A tropical climate, classified as group A in the Köppen-Geiger system, is characterized by consistently warm temperatures, with every month averaging above 18°C (64°F), and high annual precipitation exceeding 1,500 mm (59 inches). These climates dominate regions near the equator, extending northward and southward to approximately 15° to 25° latitude, where the influence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone promotes abundant moisture and minimal seasonal cooling.^[1]^[2] The tropical group includes three main subtypes differentiated primarily by precipitation patterns: Af (tropical rainforest), featuring uniform heavy rainfall throughout the year with no dry season and the driest month receiving at least 60 mm of precipitation; Am (tropical monsoon), with a brief dry season of one or two months but overall high rainfall totals; and Aw (tropical savanna), marked by a distinct wet season of 6–9 months followed by a prolonged dry season where monthly precipitation drops below 60 mm. Each subtype supports unique ecosystems, from dense rainforests in Af regions to grasslands in Aw areas.^[2]^[3]^[4] Tropical climates exhibit small annual temperature variations, typically less than 3°C, due to the near-constant solar insolation, though diurnal ranges can be larger; high humidity levels, often exceeding 80%, contribute to the region's muggy feel and frequent cloud cover. These stable conditions foster exceptional biodiversity, particularly in tropical rainforests, which host over half of the world's species despite covering only about 6% of Earth's land surface.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Overview and Classification

Definition

A tropical climate is defined as a climatic zone where the average temperature remains above 18°C (64°F) in every month of the year, ensuring consistently warm conditions without seasonal cooling to frost levels. These climates typically encompass regions situated between the Tropic of Cancer at approximately 23.5° N latitude and the Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5° S latitude, where solar insolation is high year-round due to the sun's position relative to the equator.^[1]^[8] The term "tropical" originates from the Greek word tropos, meaning "turn," which alludes to the apparent turning or solstice points of the sun's path that delineate these latitudinal boundaries.^[9] This etymology reflects the region's defining feature: the overhead passage of the sun at least twice annually, driving persistent warmth. Tropical climates differ from subtropical ones primarily in their absence of frost and cooler winter periods; while subtropical areas may experience mild winters with occasional freezing temperatures, tropical regions maintain uniform heat throughout the year. Accompanying this thermal stability is a minimal annual temperature range, usually under 5°C, alongside high relative humidity levels averaging 70-90%, which fosters a persistently muggy atmosphere.^[10]^[11]^[12] The Köppen climate classification system offers a formal framework for identifying these traits through temperature thresholds.^[4]

Köppen Climate Classification

The Köppen climate classification system was initially developed by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884, with his seminal work "Die Wärmezonen der Erde" focusing on thermal zones and their relation to vegetation.^[13] Köppen refined the system through subsequent publications in 1900, 1918, and 1936, emphasizing empirical thresholds for temperature and precipitation to map global climate zones.^[14] In the mid-20th century, Rudolf Geiger updated the classification in 1954 and 1961, incorporating adjustments for seasonal patterns and producing the version widely used today, often referred to as the Köppen-Geiger system.^[15] Within this framework, tropical climates are designated as the A group, distinguished by the primary criterion that the average temperature exceeds 18 °C in every month of the year, ensuring consistently warm conditions without a true winter.^[16] This temperature threshold delineates the thermal equator, approximated by the 18 °C isotherm of the coldest month, which serves as the boundary between A and adjacent temperate (C) climates; the average annual temperature is computed as the mean of the 12 monthly averages to verify overall warmth, though monthly minima define inclusion. The A group is further subdivided into three main subtypes based on precipitation seasonality and amount, using thresholds that reflect moisture availability: Af for equatorial rainforest conditions with no dry season, where the driest month receives at least 60 mm of precipitation; Am for monsoon-influenced areas with a brief dry period, defined by the driest month having less than 60 mm but at least as much as 100 - (annual precipitation in mm / 25), and typically no more than three consecutive dry months; and Aw (or As for summer-dry variants) for savanna-like regimes with a pronounced dry season, where the driest month falls below 60 mm and meets or exceeds the 100 - (annual precipitation / 25) threshold, but with at least one to several months qualifying as dry.^[16] The key precipitation formula, P_dry ≥ 100 - (R / 25) where P_dry is monthly precipitation and R is annual precipitation, distinguishes marginal dry months across Am and Aw/As, preventing overlap with arid B-group climates.^[17] On global Köppen-Geiger maps, A climates form a broad equatorial belt spanning low latitudes, typically between 25° N and S, and cover approximately 19% of Earth's land surface, encompassing vast contiguous areas in Central Africa, the Amazon Basin, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia.^[18] These maps, derived from long-term observational data such as the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) time series, visually highlight the A group's dominance in regions of high solar insolation and convective rainfall, with subtypes differentiated by color-coded precipitation regimes for clarity in spatial analysis.^[18]

Climatic Features

Temperature Patterns

Tropical climates are characterized by consistently high temperatures, with annual averages typically ranging from 25°C to 28°C (77°F to 82°F) across much of the region.^[19] This warmth stems from the overhead position of the sun throughout the year, resulting in minimal seasonal variation, often less than 3°C between the warmest and coolest months.^[20] For instance, in Singapore, average monthly temperatures remain above 26°C year-round, exemplifying the uniformity in equatorial zones.^[21] The diurnal temperature range in tropical climates often exceeds the annual variation, typically spanning 5–15°C from day to night, with larger ranges (10–15°C) in drier savanna regions driven by intense solar heating during clear daytime skies and radiative cooling at night, while smaller ranges occur in humid rainforest areas.^[22] This daily cycle is more pronounced than seasonal shifts due to the stable solar input and lack of significant atmospheric disruptions from polar influences.^[8] Temperature patterns vary subtly with latitude within the tropics, showing the least fluctuation near the equator where solar insolation is nearly constant, and slightly greater variability toward the edges at approximately 23.5° latitude due to the sun's seasonal tilt.^[8] These thresholds align with the Köppen classification's group A, requiring all months to average at least 18°C.^[2] Microclimatic effects, such as urban heat islands in tropical cities, can elevate local temperatures by 2°C to 4°C compared to surrounding rural areas, exacerbated by impervious surfaces and reduced vegetation that trap heat.^[23]

Precipitation and Seasonality

Tropical climates are characterized by high annual precipitation, ranging from about 1,000 mm in savanna regions to over 4,000 mm in some rainforest areas, primarily driven by intense convective processes and the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] This convection arises from the strong heating of the Earth's surface near the equator, leading to rising air masses that form cumulonimbus clouds and produce heavy rainfall.^[28] The ITCZ, a band of low pressure where trade winds converge, shifts latitudinally with the sun's position, concentrating rainfall in its path and resulting in abundant moisture throughout the year in many tropical areas.^[29] Precipitation patterns exhibit varying degrees of seasonality across tropical regions. In equatorial zones, the climate is largely aseasonal, with daily afternoon showers occurring year-round due to consistent solar heating and minimal ITCZ displacement.^[30] Monsoon-influenced tropics feature pulse-like wet seasons, where rainfall intensifies dramatically for several months, often exceeding 80% of the annual total, followed by shorter dry intervals.^[31] In contrast, savanna-type tropics experience pronounced seasonality with prolonged dry periods lasting more than one month, during which precipitation drops sharply, sometimes to near zero.^[32] The primary driver of these seasonal variations is the north-south shift of the ITCZ, which follows the overhead sun and brings heavy rains to areas it passes over, creating distinct wet seasons.^[33] Higher temperatures enhance evaporation from warm oceans and land surfaces, fueling atmospheric moisture that amplifies convective activity and storm formation. This relationship underscores how the consistent high temperatures in the tropics—often above 25°C year-round—sustain elevated evaporation rates, supporting the overall hydrological cycle.^[28] Tropical regions are particularly vulnerable to extreme precipitation events, such as tropical cyclones, which can contribute 20-30% of annual rainfall in affected areas through intense, localized downpours.^[34] These storms, forming over warm tropical waters, often exacerbate wet season totals and pose significant flood risks. To quantify the moisture availability in tropical climates, scientists use the aridity index, defined as the ratio of precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (P/PET), with values greater than 0.65 indicating humid conditions typical of the tropics.^[35]^[36] This index helps distinguish tropical humid zones from drier climates by accounting for both incoming rainfall and the atmosphere's evaporative demand.

Major Subtypes

Tropical Rainforest Climate

The tropical rainforest climate, designated as the Af subtype in the Köppen classification, represents the wettest variant of tropical climates, where high temperatures persist year-round with no significant dry period. This subtype is defined by average temperatures exceeding 18°C in every month and precipitation in the driest month of at least 60 mm, ensuring fewer than one month falls below this threshold.^[37] Monthly precipitation typically surpasses 200 mm across all months, contributing to annual totals of 2,000 to 4,000 mm.^[7] Characteristic weather features include frequent daily thunderstorms driven by intense daytime heating and moisture convergence, maintaining relative humidity levels above 80%, often reaching 90% or more.^[38] Persistent cloud cover, ranging from 70% to 90%, further suppresses diurnal temperature variations and sustains the humid conditions.^[39] These elements create a consistently oppressive atmosphere, with little seasonal fluctuation in either temperature or rainfall. Prominent examples of Af climates occur in the Amazon Basin of South America, the Congo Basin of Central Africa, and parts of Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and Malaysia.^[7] In some equatorial regions within these areas, rainfall exhibits a unique bimodal pattern with two annual maxima, resulting from the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) passing over the equator twice during its seasonal migration.^[40] Unlike the tropical monsoon (Am) or savanna (Aw) subtypes, the Af climate lacks any distinct dry season, as all months receive ample rainfall without the transitional dry spells or pronounced winter droughts characteristic of those variants.

Tropical Monsoon Climate

The tropical monsoon climate, designated as the Am subtype in the Köppen classification system, is characterized by a short dry season where the driest month receives less than 60 mm of precipitation but at least 100 - (r/25) mm, where r is the annual precipitation in mm, with fewer than three such dry months overall, distinguishing it from more arid tropical variants.^[41]^[4] This subtype maintains average monthly temperatures above 18°C in all months, with high humidity and minimal seasonal temperature variation, typically ranging from 25°C to 30°C annually.^[42] The climate profile features a pronounced wet season that delivers 70-90% of the annual rainfall total, often ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 mm, driven primarily by seasonal reversals in wind patterns.^[43] During the wet season, moist air masses from oceans are pulled inland by low-pressure systems over heated landmasses, resulting in intense, convective downpours concentrated over several months. Precipitation seasonality serves as a key driver, amplifying these wind shifts and leading to reliable but variable rainfall cycles.^[44] In contrast, the brief dry season arises from the dominance of subsiding high-pressure systems and offshore winds, though total dryness is limited to prevent extended drought. Prominent examples of this climate occur in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, where the seasonal reversal of trade winds—shifting from northeast in winter to southwest in summer—orchestrates the monsoon dynamics.^[45] In the Indian subcontinent, summer southwest winds draw moisture from the Indian Ocean, saturating regions like Kerala and Tamil Nadu with heavy rains from June to September. Similarly, Southeast Asian areas such as parts of Thailand and Vietnam experience analogous patterns from the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea influences. A unique feature of the tropical monsoon climate is its potential for severe flooding, as rivers can swell dramatically during the wet season, with discharge volumes increasing by factors of 10 to 20 times compared to dry-season lows due to the rapid influx of rainfall.^[46] This surge often overwhelms riverbanks and low-lying areas, leading to widespread inundation and infrastructure challenges, particularly in densely populated monsoon zones. The term "monsoon" itself originates from the Arabic word mausim, meaning "season," reflecting ancient observations of these predictable wind reversals by Arab navigators in the Indian Ocean.^[47]

Tropical Savanna Climate

The tropical savanna climate, designated as Aw or As in the Köppen classification, is characterized by a distinct wet-dry dichotomy where all months have mean temperatures above 18°C, but with the precipitation in the driest month less than 60 mm and less than 100 - (r/25) mm, where r is the annual precipitation in mm, distinguishing it from more uniformly wet tropical climates.^[41]^[48] The wet season typically lasts more than six months, driven by convective processes associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, while the dry season features minimal rainfall and extended periods of aridity. In the Southern Hemisphere, the As subtype specifically denotes a dry season occurring during the austral summer, reflecting seasonal shifts in solar insolation and atmospheric circulation. Annual precipitation in tropical savanna regions generally ranges from 800 to 1,500 mm, concentrated almost entirely in the wet season through intense convective storms that deliver heavy, localized downpours. The dry season persists for 4 to 8 months, during which rainfall drops sharply, often below 60 mm per month, leading to widespread drought conditions and the proliferation of bush fires that clear undergrowth and influence vegetation structure. Temperatures remain warm year-round, averaging 24–28°C, but often peak during the late dry season due to clear skies and intense solar radiation, exacerbating heat stress before the onset of rains.^[49] Prominent examples of this climate include the Sahel region in Africa, where dry harmattan winds intensify aridity; the Cerrado in central Brazil, supporting diverse woody grasslands; and northern Australia, particularly the Top End, with its monsoonal wet periods followed by extended dry spells.^[50] A defining ecological feature is the fire regime, which shapes savanna landscapes by preventing forest encroachment and promoting grass dominance; lightning strikes ignite many of these fires, particularly during the transition to the wet season when thunderstorms are frequent.^[51] Tropical savanna climates often occupy transition zones, exhibiting a gradual shift from the dense, humid vegetation of tropical rainforests equatorward to arid deserts poleward, as precipitation thresholds decrease and seasonality intensifies.^[52] This intermediary position underscores their role in broader climatic gradients, where subtle variations in rainfall and temperature delineate biome boundaries.

Ecological Aspects

Natural Vegetation and Biomes

Tropical climates support some of the most diverse and structurally complex vegetation on Earth, primarily through three dominant biomes: tropical rainforests, monsoon forests, and savannas. Tropical rainforests feature a multi-layered canopy structure, including emergent trees, a high canopy, understory, and forest floor, which fosters immense habitat diversity and supports roughly half of the world's known species within their ecosystems.^[53]^[54] Monsoon forests, also known as tropical deciduous or seasonal forests, consist of broad-leaved trees that shed leaves during extended dry periods to conserve water, resulting in a more open canopy compared to evergreen rainforests.^[55]^[56] Savannas, transitional between forests and grasslands, are characterized by continuous tall grasses interspersed with scattered trees and shrubs, allowing sunlight to penetrate and sustain fire-adapted vegetation.^[57]^[58] These biomes thrive due to consistent high precipitation regimes that enable dense vegetative growth year-round or seasonally.^[53] Plants in these biomes exhibit specialized adaptations to the warm, humid conditions and resource competition. Broad leaves are common among understory plants and shrubs, maximizing photosynthesis in the dim light filtered through dense upper canopies by increasing surface area for light capture.^[59] Buttress roots, plate-like extensions from tree trunks, provide structural stability for tall trees in shallow, nutrient-poor soils by anchoring against wind and preventing toppling.^[60] Epiphytes, such as orchids and bromeliads, grow on tree branches rather than soil, absorbing moisture and nutrients directly from humid air and rain, which allows them to exploit canopy niches without competing for ground resources. Tropical regions, particularly rainforests, serve as global biodiversity hotspots for plant life, harboring approximately 50% of the world's plant species despite covering only about 7% of Earth's land surface.^[61] Endemism rates in these rainforests often exceed 50%, with many species uniquely adapted and restricted to specific tropical locales, underscoring their vulnerability to disruption.^[62] Human activities pose significant threats to these biomes, with global deforestation rates in tropical forests averaging 10 million hectares per year between 2015 and 2020, driven largely by agriculture, logging, and infrastructure expansion.^[63]^[64] However, tropical forests demonstrate notable regenerative potential through secondary succession, where pioneer species rapidly colonize cleared areas, facilitating the recovery of structural complexity and species composition over decades.^[65] Beyond biodiversity, tropical forests play a critical role in global carbon dynamics, storing 25-30% of terrestrial carbon in their biomass, soils, and dead wood, which helps mitigate atmospheric CO₂ levels.^[66] This storage capacity highlights the importance of conservation efforts to preserve these biomes' ecological functions.

Wildlife and Biodiversity

Tropical climates support an extraordinarily high level of biodiversity, hosting approximately 50% of the world's terrestrial species despite covering less than 10% of the Earth's land surface.^[67] This richness is particularly evident in insects, which comprise over 80% of all known species globally and are predominantly concentrated in tropical regions.^[68] Iconic examples include the jaguar (Panthera onca), a powerful apex predator in Central and South American rainforests; the orangutan (Pongo spp.), an arboreal primate endemic to Southeast Asian Borneo and Sumatra; and the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus), the world's largest snake, inhabiting aquatic and semi-aquatic environments in the Amazon basin.^[69] These species exemplify the diverse mammalian, reptilian, and primate life adapted to the layered canopies and waterways of tropical ecosystems. Animals in tropical environments exhibit specialized adaptations to cope with dense vegetation, high humidity, and intense competition for resources. Camouflage is prevalent, allowing species like the leaf-tailed gecko (Uroplatus spp.) to blend seamlessly with foliage and evade predators.^[70] Many adopt nocturnal habits to avoid daytime heat and predation, such as the kinkajou (Potos flavus), which forages at night in the forest canopy. Pollination in tropical settings often relies on unique mutualisms, with bats like the lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae) and hummingbirds such as the sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) using elongated tongues and hovering flight to access nectar from vibrant flowers.^[71]^[72] Tropical food webs are characterized by complex trophic structures with numerous interconnected levels, fostering resilience but also vulnerability to disruptions. Keystone species play outsized roles in maintaining ecosystem dynamics; for instance, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in savannas and forest edges act as ecosystem engineers by uprooting trees and creating pathways that promote grassland regeneration and access for smaller herbivores.^[73] Their foraging disperses seeds and nutrients, supporting a cascade of dependent species from insects to large carnivores. Habitat loss from deforestation and land conversion drives rapid biodiversity decline in tropical regions, with extinction rates estimated at 1,000 times or more above natural background levels, threatening thousands of species annually.^[74] Poaching exacerbates this, particularly for high-value species; around 20,000 African elephants are killed annually for ivory, severely impacting savanna and forest populations.^[75] Conservation efforts include establishing protected areas, which cover approximately 30% of remaining tropical moist forests, providing critical refuges for endemic fauna and mitigating further losses.^[76]

Global Distribution

Geographic Regions

Tropical climates, classified under the Köppen A group, predominantly occupy the equatorial latitudinal band between 0° and 23.5° north and south, encompassing the region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. In areas unaffected by rainshadow effects from mountain ranges, these climates can extend poleward to approximately 30° latitude, allowing for broader distribution in certain coastal or oceanic-influenced zones.^[1]^[8] These climates cover roughly 16-23% of Earth's land surface, with the largest extents concentrated in the Southern Hemisphere continents. Africa hosts about 33% of global tropical land area, primarily across its central and western equatorial regions, while South America accounts for approximately 36%, dominated by the Amazon Basin. The Asia-Pacific region contributes around 25%, including vast archipelagos and mainland Southeast Asia.^[48]^[77] Key geographic regions exemplifying tropical climates include the Amazon Basin in South America, characterized by the Af (tropical rainforest) subtype; West Africa and Central America, featuring the Aw (tropical savanna) subtype; and Indonesia, which spans both Af and Am (tropical monsoon) subtypes across its islands. Urban centers within these zones highlight human adaptation to tropical conditions, such as Mumbai in India with its Am climate and a population exceeding 20 million, and Nairobi in Kenya with an Aw climate and a metropolitan population surpassing 5 million.^[1]^[78]^[79]^[80] Subtypes of tropical climates vary regionally due to local precipitation patterns. Recent satellite observations from sources like NASA's CERES indicate that tropical zones have expanded, driven primarily by anthropogenic global warming, with poleward shifts of 0.25 to 0.5 degrees latitude per decade. This expansion is evident in updated mappings that reveal shifts beyond traditional boundaries, particularly in the subtropics.^[81]^[82]

Factors Influencing Tropical Climates

Tropical climates are fundamentally shaped by the high levels of solar insolation at the equator, where the average incoming solar radiation peaks at approximately 400 W/m² due to the near-perpendicular incidence of sunlight year-round.^[83] This intense energy input drives strong heating of the surface, promoting evaporation and the formation of deep convective clouds that characterize tropical weather patterns.^[83] Atmospheric circulation plays a central role through the Hadley cell, a large-scale overturning circulation in which warm air rises near the equator, flows poleward aloft, and descends in the subtropics around 30° latitude. The position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the band of rising air where trade winds converge, is closely tied to this circulation and migrates seasonally with the solar zenith, influencing the distribution of rainfall across the tropics.^[84] In the subtropics, the descending branch of the Hadley cell leads to subsidence, where vertical motion is downward (characterized by negative vertical velocity ω in atmospheric models, typically on the order of -0.01 to -0.1 Pa/s), suppressing convection and creating persistent dry zones through adiabatic warming and reduced humidity. Oceanic factors, particularly the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), introduce significant variability by altering sea surface temperatures and atmospheric teleconnections, which can change tropical rainfall by 20-50% in affected regions during events occurring every 2-7 years. Warm pools, such as those in the Indo-Pacific, further enhance convection by maintaining sea surface temperatures above 28°C, providing latent heat release that strengthens upward motion and precipitation over vast areas.^[85] On land, terrestrial influences like topography create rainshadow effects; for instance, the Andes Mountains block moist Amazonian air, leading to arid conditions on their western slopes and contributing to tropical savanna (Aw) climates in adjacent lowlands.^[86] Soil moisture feedbacks also amplify wet seasons, as increased rainfall enhances evaporation and atmospheric humidity, promoting further convection in a positive loop that intensifies seasonal precipitation.^[87] Recent studies indicate that anthropogenic greenhouse gases are driving a poleward shift in the tropics, with the Hadley cell boundaries expanding at a rate of about 0.25° latitude per decade since the late 20th century, potentially broadening tropical climate influences into mid-latitudes.^[88]

References

[1]
Climate Zones | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Jun 13, 2023 · A - Tropical Climates. Moist tropical climates extend north and south from the equator to about 15° to 25° latitude.
[2]
What Are the Different Climate Types? | NESDIS - NOAA
A: Tropical. In this hot and humid zone, the average temperatures are greater than 64°F (18°C) year-round and there is more than 59 ...
[3]
GRG301K - Koppen Climate Classification Flow Chart
"A" CLIMATES - TROPICAL / HOT. Af: TROPICAL RAINFOREST -ALL AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPS GREATER THAN 18C/64.4F -DRIEST MONTH WITH AT LEAST 6CM/2.40" OF PRECIPITATION
[4]
12.3 Köppen Classification System - Maricopa Open Digital Press
Tropical climates are found between 15 to 25 degrees north and south of the equator. These climates tend to have warm temperatures with every month averaging 18 ...
[5]
Tropical Moist Climates
Major types: tropical wet (Af). small seasonal temperature variations (less than 3 C); solar radiation is constant year round; the diurnal temperature variation ...Missing: subtypes | Show results with:subtypes
[6]
Rainforest - Kids Do Ecology - KDE Santa Barbara
The average temperature in tropical rainforests ranges from 70 to 85°F (21 to 30°C). The environment is pretty wet in tropical rainforests, maintaining a high ...
[7]
Rainforest: Mission: Biomes
The average daily temperatures range from 20°C (68°F) to 25°C (77°F). Precipitation. Rainforests receive the most rain of all of the biomes in a year! A typical ...Missing: subtypes | Show results with:subtypes
[8]
Meet the Tropics | METEO 3: Introductory Meteorology - Dutton Institute
But, some definitions actually consider the tropics to cover a larger area, between 30-degrees North latitude and 30-degrees South latitude, given the similar ...Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[9]
Tropic - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating in late 14c. from Medieval Latin tropicus and Greek tropikos, "tropic" means the celestial circles marking solstice points, relating to turning ...
[10]
Tropical Weather Systems - NOAA
Jul 26, 2023 · Meanwhile, at night, the abundant cloud cover restricts heat loss, and minimum temperatures fall no lower than about 72°F (22°C). Being around ...Tropical Cyclone Structure · Tropical Cyclone Introduction · Tropical Cyclone NamesMissing: annual | Show results with:annual
[11]
Global Temperature Map - Geography 101 Online
The average annual temperature range of the ocean surface around the Hawaiian Islands, for example is about 3°C (5° F), varying from about 26° C in summer to 23 ...
[12]
Relative Humidity - Florida Climate Center
Relative Humidity ; MIAMI, 71, 84 ; ORLANDO, 67, 87 ; PENSACOLA, 71, 82 ; TALLAHASSEE, 71, 86 ; TAMPA, 71, 86 ...Missing: regions | Show results with:regions
[13]
[PDF] CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF KOPPEN
Climate classification was first published as 'thermal zones of the earth' in 1884 in Russian language. Scholars E. Volken and S. Bronnimann translated the work ...<|separator|>
[14]
Köppen climate classification | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Köppen Climate Classification system was developed in 1900 by the Russian–German climatologist Wladimir Köppen, who introduced a mathematical system of ...
[15]
World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated
The most frequently used climate classification map is that of Wladimir Köppen, presented in its latest version 1961 by Rudolf Geiger. A huge number of climate ...Missing: history 1884
[16]
Appendix C: Koppen Geiger Classification Descriptions
Af = Tropical rainforest climate; average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month. Am = Tropical monsoon climate ... Aw or As = Tropical wet ...
[17]
A Quantitative Hydrological Climate Classification Evaluated With ...
Jun 29, 2018 · Thornthwaite attempts to address the perceived arbitrary nature of the Köppen-Geiger thresholds and to create a more rational classification ...
[18]
Köppen Climate Classification: Auxiliary Programs — EnergyPlus 8.2
Annual precipitation is greater than 1500 mm. Three minor Köppen climate types exist in the A group and their designation is based on seasonal distribution of ...
[19]
A 1 km global dataset of historical (1979–2013) and future (2020 ...
Nov 4, 2021 · We present a series of improved 1 km Köppen–Geiger climate classification maps for six historical periods in 1979–2013 and four future periods in 2020–2099.
[20]
Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification
Oct 11, 2007 · Here we have produced a new global map of climate using the Köppen-Geiger system based on a large global data set of long-term monthly ...Missing: history 1884
[21]
[PDF] The climates of the Tropics, and how they are changing
It is a warm region; mean annual temperatures exceed 20°C almost throughout the Tropics, except at high elevations, and exceed 25°C in many parts of the ...Missing: 25-28° | Show results with:25-28°<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
Tropical Climate Stability and Implications for the Distribution of Life
The range of possible interpretation is from similar to the present day (28°C) to several degrees higher than at present (Figure 6.1). Figure 6.1. Cretaceous ...
[23]
[PDF] Multi-scale urban system modeling for sustainable planning and ...
... monthly mean temperature (26–. 27.7ºC) and annual rainfall (2,300 mm). At regional scale, Singapore experiences two seasons, namely, the Northeast Monsoon ...
[24]
9.4.3: Tropical Wet/Dry (Savanna) Climate - Geosciences LibreTexts
May 24, 2024 · Diurnal temperature ranges of 10oC to 15oC during winter are not uncommon. During the summer, high daily temperatures, small temperature ranges ...
[25]
Urban heat island and thermal comfort conditions at micro-climate ...
According to Trihamdani et al. [27], the nighttime air temperature increases by 2–3 °C over the new expanded built-up area, the air temperature reaches 40– ...
[26]
Where Does Moisture Come From Over the Congo Basin? - Worden
Aug 2, 2021 · While its annual rainfall (1,500–2,500 mm) is lower than that of the Amazon (1,800–3,200 mm) (Alsdorf et al., 2016), its rainy seasons in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
LABORATORY 5: CLASSIFICATION OF GLOBAL CLIMATES
Annual precipitation is often greater than 1500 mm. Three minor Köppen climate types exist in the A group. These three categories of tropical moist climate are ...
[28]
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone - NOAA
Jul 18, 2023 · Both the number of rain days and total annual rainfall decrease progressively from the south to the north. The rains are generally heavy and ...Missing: 1500-2500 | Show results with:1500-2500
[29]
The Intertropical Convergence Zone - NASA Earth Observatory
Seasonal shifts in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics ...Missing: precipitation convection annual 1500-2500 mm
[30]
The Climate of Tropical Regions - The British Geographer
The three types of tropical climate are classified as Tropical Rainforest or Equatorial (Af), Tropical Monsoon (Am) and Tropical Wet and Dry or Savannah (Aw).Missing: savanna | Show results with:savanna
[31]
Climate Regions - Madeline James Writes
Sep 14, 2023 · A - Tropical Am (Tropical Monsoon) - Short dryer season - Typically between Af and Aw and 5-10 degrees from the equator. Aw - (Tropical Wet/Dry ...Missing: seasonality seasonal periods
[32]
10.3 Köppen Classification System – Physical Geography and ...
Tropical climates are found between 15 to 25 degrees north and south of the equator. These climates tend to have warm temperatures with every month averaging 18 ...<|separator|>
[33]
Annual Migration of Tropical Rain Belt | NOAA Climate.gov
May 4, 2011 · The tropical rain belt migrates north and south of the equator as seasons change, following the sun, causing wet and dry seasons. For example, ...Missing: variation | Show results with:variation
[34]
Relationship of convective precipitation with atmospheric heat flux
Atmospheric heat flux and sea surface temperature controls convective precipitation. · Increased convective cloud and surface evaporation enhances convective ...Missing: f( | Show results with:f(
[35]
Contribution of Tropical Cyclones to Rainfall at the Global Scale in
Tropical cyclones contribute 35-50% of mean annual rainfall in some areas, with highest totals in East Asia and Australia, and 40-50% seasonally in some areas.
[36]
World Dryland Areas - UNEP-WCMC Resources
Aridity zones were derived from an Aridity Index (AI) which is calculated ... P/PET ratios well above 0.65 and having few other dryland features. In a ...
[37]
Chapter 1 Status and Trends of Global Biodiversity
May 19, 2007 · Humid areas, defined by an aridity index of 0.65 or above, extend over more than 39% of the Earth's land surface. The remaining non-humid 61% is ...
[38]
Lecture 7 Global Climates
At least 60, often 80 inches or more annual precipitation, but dry season can generate moisture deficits. (b) Temperatures, like tropical rain forest, show ...
[39]
Tropical Rain Forest Climate
Humidity in the rain forest can be oppressive with dew point temperatures ranging from 15oC - 20oC (59oF- 68oF). Since humidity is so high during the day, when ...
[40]
A comparison of plot‐based satellite and Earth system model ...
Apr 23, 2015 · ... tropical rainforest NPP. Building on past studies, we developed ... Finally, tropical forests experience cloud cover for up to 70% of ...
[41]
Rare ground data confirm significant warming and drying in western ...
Apr 14, 2020 · The climate of equatorial Africa is characterised by a bimodal rainfall pattern. Two rainy seasons occur each year coinciding with the ...
[42]
Tropical monsoon climate (Am) | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
Tropical monsoon climates have monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C (64 °F) in every month of the year and a dry season.
[43]
[PDF] The Science of Climate Change - GOV.UK
Tropical climates that alternate between wet summers (brought by the. ITCZ) and short dry winters, giving a total rainfall of 1,000-2,000mm;. 3. Tropical semi ...
[44]
Devastating monsoon flooding from Sri Lanka to northwest Australia
Jan 23, 2015 · Widespread flash flooding, landslides and swollen rivers caused damage across the Maritime Continent.Missing: swelling | Show results with:swelling
[45]
What Are Monsoons and Why Do They Happen?
Billions of people live in the monsoon climates of South Asia, Africa, and the tropical Americas, and every spring they wait for the monsoon rains that will end ...
[46]
[PDF] Geothermal fluxes of alkalinity in the Narayani river system of central ...
Available monsoon season data indicate that the spring flux increases during the monsoon by a factor of 2–3, but this increased flow is diluted by the up to 10.
[47]
What Is a Monsoon? | NESDIS - NOAA
In fact, even the word monsoon comes from the Arabic word mausim, which means “season.” What Causes a Monsoon? A monsoon is caused by a seasonal shift in the ...
[48]
[PDF] Updated world map of the K¨oppen-Geiger climate classification
A description of the symbols and the criteria used to define the Köppen-Geiger climate types is provided in Table 1. The. 30 possible climate types in Table 1 ...
[49]
Thermal comfort in a tropical savanna climate: The case of home ...
Jul 1, 2022 · We analysed the energy and thermal comfort performance of 38 recently-built houses in the tropical savanna (Aw) climate of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Tropical savanna climate (Aw) | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
The dry season is longer too, often three months or longer. Total annual rainfall is typically 1000-1500 mm (40-60 inches).Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[51]
The Effect of Surface Fire in Savannah Systems in the Kruger ... - MDPI
Savannahs are mixed woody-grass communities where low-intensity surface fires are common, affecting mostly the grass layer and rarely damaging trees.
[52]
Savannah: Between desert and forest - Natucate
Sep 10, 2024 · Savannahs can be found in both tropical and subtropical areas of the earth, mostly in the transition zones between desert and rainforest.
[53]
Rainforest - National Geographic Education
May 30, 2025 · Roughly half of the world's known species can be found in tropical rainforests, with as many as 400 species of trees present in a single hectare ...
[54]
[PDF] Tropical Rainforest Biome
• most diverse and structurally complex biome. • multi-layered, evergeen canopy provides diversity of niches. • recurrent structural and physiological ...
[55]
5.4.4: Tropical Deciduous Forest - Biology LibreTexts
Jul 28, 2025 · During the rainy season, the forest is lush and full of foliage, whereas the dry season creates an open canopy, allowing plants under the canopy ...
[56]
The forest biome - University of California Museum of Paleontology
moist/dry deciduous forest (monsoon): the length of the dry season increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous).
[57]
13.3: Savanna Biome - Geosciences LibreTexts
Feb 19, 2022 · The Savanna biome is characterized by an extensive cover of grasses with scattered trees. It is a transitional biome between those dominated by forests and ...
[58]
World Biomes: Savanna - Kids Do Ecology - KDE Santa Barbara
WEATHER: An important factor in the savanna is climate. The climate is usually warm and temperatures range from 68° to 86°F (20 to 30°C). Savannas exist in ...
[59]
Plant Adaptations to Environments with Abundant Water
On tropical forest floors, grasses have broad leaves that are more effective at gathering light than narrow “grassy” leaf blades would be. Abundant water ...
[60]
Plant Adaptations - MBGnet
Buttress roots provide extra stability, especially since roots of tropical rainforest trees are not typically as deep as those of trees in temperate zones.Missing: climates | Show results with:climates
[61]
https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/types-of-forests
[62]
Biodiversity Hotspots | GEOG 30N - Dutton Institute
Even though now hotspots only cover about 2% of the land, 50% of the world's vascular plants and 42% of land vertebrates are endemic to a hotspot. To get a ...
[63]
Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020
In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015.
[64]
Deforestation and Forest Loss - Our World in Data
The UN FAO estimates that 10 million hectares of forest are cut down each year. This interactive map shows deforestation rates across the world.Forests and Deforestation · Imported deforestation · Annual deforestation · Drivers
[65]
Functional recovery of secondary tropical forests - PNAS
Tropical forests disappear rapidly through deforestation but also have the potential to regrow naturally through a process called secondary succession.
[66]
Carbon cycle in tropical upland ecosystems: a global review - Recent
Dec 8, 2021 · Tropical forests play a key role in carbon sequestration since they account for a quarter of global carbon storage (Bonan, 2008; Poorter et ...
[67]
Biodiversity in rainforests
Although they cover less than 2% of Earth's surface, rainforests are home to an estimated 50% of all terrestrial species. The exact number of species ...
[68]
(PDF) Strategic conservation of tropical insects - ResearchGate
Jul 16, 2025 · The tropics harbour > 80% of all insect species; however, information on their ecology and conservation status is largely lacking.Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[69]
11 Amazing Rainforest Animals
Mar 22, 2022 · 1. Mountain Gorilla · 2. Blue Morpho Butterfly · 3. Okapi · 4. Brown-Throated Three-Toed Sloth · 5. Jaguar · 6. Capybara · 7. Scarlet Macaw · 8. Poison ...
[70]
Top 7 Tropical Rainforest Animal Adaptations | Biology Explorer
Feb 3, 2025 · 1. Camouflage · 2. Mimicry · 3. Having A Limited Diet · 4. Poison · 5. Reduction of Size and Stature · 6. Nocturnality · 7. Changing of Habitats.
[71]
https://www.bioexplorer.net/tropical-rainforest-animal-adaptations.html
[72]
Adaptations – Pollinator Quest - Project Hero
Pollinating bats also tend to have long noses, and very long tongues that help them reach deep into the flowering cactus and drink up the nectar.
[73]
Keystone Species 101 - NRDC
Sep 9, 2019 · Elephants. A keystone species in eastern and southern Africa, the African savanna elephant consumes as much as 300 pounds of vegetation per day.
[74]
https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/biodiversity/biodiversity/
[75]
[PDF] THE HARD TRUTH - World Wildlife Fund
More than 30,000 elephants are killed every year primarily for their tusks to satisfy the demand for ivory products in Asia. There is a human cost involved as ...
[76]
Tropical forests in a changing environment - ScienceDirect.com
Governments have also protected 18% of the remaining tropical moist forest ... Coverage provided by the global protected-area system: is it enough?Tropical Forests In A... · Introduction · Global Anthropogenic Effects...
[77]
Tropical climates & ecosystems overview - Community forestry center
Sep 15, 2025 · Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria and India all have extensive tropical regions. Although the equator bisects this zone, tropical climates extend north ...
[78]
The Rainforest: tropical forest facts, photos, and information
Tropical rainforests typically occur in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, latitudes that have warm temperatures and ...
[79]
3 select case studies from urban areas of tropics in South Asia
Jan 30, 2022 · Mumbai, located at the latitude of 19° 0' N & 72° 48' E is one of the most densely populated cities of India with 20.7 million population in ...
[80]
Nairobi, Kenya Metro Area Population (1950-2025) - Macrotrends
The current metro area population of Nairobi in 2025 is 5,767,000, a 4.08% increase from 2024. The metro area population of Nairobi in 2024 was 5,541,000, ...
[81]
The tropics are expanding, and climate change is the primary culprit
Aug 18, 2020 · Scientists estimate from satellite observations that this widening is happening at a rate of 0.25 to 0.5 degrees latitude per decade. But ...
[82]
[PDF] Global Warming, Tropical Expansion and ENSO in OLR - nasa ceres
Global warming leads to La Niña-‐like states may be true, but requires much longer observa.onal data to confirm. • Be cau.ous on trends quan.fied from currently.
[83]
Insolation | EARTH 103: Earth in the Future - Penn State
Shows a more balanced distribution, peaking at around 400 W/m² near the equator (0° latitude). · Insolation gradually decreases toward both poles, reaching ...
[84]
[PDF] A Multivariate Probabilistic Framework for Tracking the Intertropical ...
Dec 2, 2018 · The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is the area where the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds converge to the low-pressure zone on ...
[85]
Impact of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool on the Hadley, Walker, and ...
Sep 24, 2020 · The IPWP plays a key role as a major energy source, supplying heat and water vapor through deep convection, which leads to intense air–sea ...<|separator|>
[86]
(PDF) The central andean west-slope rainshadow and its potential ...
Aug 5, 2025 · The west slope of the central Andes exhibits a pronounced rainshadow effect. Precipitation between 15° and 27 °S is dominated by summer convective activity ...
[87]
Diminishing seasonality of subtropical water availability in a warmer ...
Sep 30, 2022 · Using land–atmosphere coupling experiments, we demonstrate that 63% of the seasonality reduction is driven by seasonally varying soil moisture ( ...
[88]
Processes Driving the Intermodel Spread of the Southern ...
Nov 6, 2024 · The Hadley circulation (HC) has been expanding poleward in recent decades. ... expansion rate of 0.07° per decade. The rate of expansion is ...