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Prawn

A prawn is a common name for various decapod crustaceans characterized by an elongated abdomen, exoskeleton, ten legs, and a body length ranging from microscopic to about 35 cm, with the terms "prawn" and "shrimp" often used interchangeably without strict taxonomic boundaries.^[1] In many contexts, particularly in biological and regional nomenclature, "prawn" specifically denotes species in the suborder Dendrobranchiata (such as the superfamily Penaeoidea, including the family Penaeidae), which feature branching gills, tile-like overlapping abdominal plates, and the release of eggs directly into the water rather than brooding them.^[2]^[1] These crustaceans inhabit diverse environments, including marine waters from shallow coastal zones to depths exceeding 2,100 m and brackish estuaries, where they migrate between nutrient-rich low-salinity areas for larval development and open seas for maturation.^[1]^[2] Prawns play vital ecological roles as both predators and prey in aquatic food webs, consuming items like small mollusks, polychaetes, algae, and detritus, while serving as food for larger fish and marine mammals.^[2]^[3] Economically, around 300 species hold commercial value, contributing to global fisheries and aquaculture production of approximately 11 million metric tons as of 2022, with key species such as the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) leading farmed output in regions such as Asia and Latin America due to their fast growth and high market demand.^[1]^[4]^[5]

Overview and Nomenclature

Definition

A prawn is a common name for aquatic crustaceans varying in size from a few centimeters to over 30 cm, belonging to the order Decapoda in the class Malacostraca, distinguished by their hardened exoskeleton and ten jointed legs, with the first pair often modified into claws.^[6] These decapod crustaceans typically inhabit marine or freshwater environments, where they contribute to ecosystem dynamics through diverse feeding strategies.^[7] In aquatic food webs, prawns generally serve as detritivores that consume organic debris, scavengers that feed on carrion, or predators targeting small invertebrates such as worms and larvae, thereby aiding in nutrient recycling and energy transfer.^[8]^[9] Their ecological roles support biodiversity by breaking down detritus and serving as prey for larger fish and birds.^[10] The word "prawn" derives from Middle English forms such as "prane" or "prayne," first attested around 1400, with an origin of uncertain etymology but possibly linked to the creature's curved body shape.^[11] Notable edible species include the common prawn (Palaemon serratus), a widespread coastal inhabitant, and the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), valued in aquaculture for its large size.^[12]^[13]

Shrimp vs. Prawn

The terms "shrimp" and "prawn" are often used interchangeably to refer to various decapod crustaceans in the order Decapoda, but there is no strict scientific distinction between them, leading to widespread confusion in both culinary and biological contexts.^[14] In scientific classification, "prawn" is commonly applied to species within the suborder Dendrobranchiata, such as penaeid prawns like Penaeus monodon, which feature branching gills, while "shrimp" more frequently denotes species in the infraorder Caridea, known as true shrimp, characterized by lamellar or plate-like gills.^[15]^[16] This taxonomic overlap arises because both groups belong to the broader clade of swimming decapods, with no unified boundary separating them, resulting in inconsistent commercial labeling where the same species may be marketed under either name depending on region or market preferences.^[17] Morphologically, prawns and shrimp exhibit subtle differences that contribute to their distinct appearances. Prawns typically have longer legs and a more rigidly segmented body, where each shell segment overlaps the one behind it, creating a straighter overall form.^[18] In contrast, shrimp possess shorter legs, shorter antennae relative to body size, and a more flexible, curved body due to the second shell segment overlapping both the first and third, along with claw-like pincers primarily on the front two pairs of legs.^[15]^[19] Prawns, however, often have claws on three pairs of legs, with the second pair being the largest.^[14] Reproductive strategies further highlight their biological divergence. Prawns engage in external broadcast spawning, releasing eggs freely into the water column where they develop independently, a trait adapted to their typically marine environments.^[18] Shrimp, on the other hand, usually carry fertilized eggs attached under the abdomen (known as berried females), providing protection until hatching, which is more common in their diverse freshwater and marine habitats.^[20] The historical and linguistic origins of these terms exacerbate the confusion, as they lack precise taxonomic ties. The word "shrimp" derives from Middle English "shrimpe," meaning "to shrivel" or referring to a puny person, evoking the crustacean's small, wrinkled form, and has been used broadly since the 14th century without a fixed biological meaning. "Prawn," originating from Middle English "prayne," similarly carries no unified taxonomic boundary, allowing for significant overlap in everyday and commercial usage across English-speaking regions.^[15]

Regional Distinctions

In the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations, the term "prawn" is predominantly applied to larger marine decapod crustaceans, such as species in the Palaemonidae and Penaeidae families, while "shrimp" is reserved for smaller species.^[21] This distinction reflects historical British usage, where "prawn" denotes swimming forms suitable for commercial harvesting, influencing local fisheries nomenclature across regions like Ireland and parts of Europe.^[18] In North America, including the United States and Canada, "shrimp" is the dominant term for nearly all edible decapod species, rendering "prawn" largely obsolete except for specific larger or freshwater types like the spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros).^[21] This preference stems from early 20th-century standardization in North American fisheries, where even palaemonid species traditionally called prawns elsewhere are classified as shrimp to simplify trade and consumer labeling.^[15] In Asia, particularly India and Southeast Asia, "prawn" is widely used for commercially significant marine species such as the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), a legacy of British colonial influence on English-language fisheries documentation.^[22] Local vernacular terms coexist, such as "chingri" in Bengali for various penaeid prawns in Indian coastal fisheries, highlighting the blend of indigenous and colonial nomenclature in regional commerce.^[23] Australia and New Zealand exhibit nuanced size-based distinctions within the broader "prawn" usage, where larger species like eastern king prawns (Penaeus plebejus) up to 25 cm are termed prawns, contrasting with smaller species that may be categorized as shrimps in some contexts.^[24]^[25] These regional terminological variations can impact international trade through labeling discrepancies affecting customs classifications and import preferences.

Physical Description

Anatomy

Prawns, as members of the suborder Dendrobranchiata within the order Decapoda, exhibit a segmented body plan typical of advanced crustaceans, consisting of a cephalothorax and an abdomen. The cephalothorax results from the fusion of the head and thorax, encased by a rigid carapace that provides protection and support for internal organs. The abdomen comprises six distinct segments, known as pleomeres, which are highly muscular and terminate in a telson forming a fan-like tail structure essential for propulsion.^[26] The prawn's appendages are diverse and specialized, reflecting their role in locomotion, feeding, and sensing. They possess ten thoracic legs, organized into five pairs of pereopods: the first three pairs are typically chelate, ending in pincers for grasping, while the remaining two pairs are ambulatory. Anteriorly, two pairs of antennae serve sensory functions—the antennules for chemoreception and mechanoreception, and the larger antennae for touch and balance. On the abdomen, five pairs of biramous pleopods, or swimmerets, facilitate swimming and, in females, brood egg attachment.^[26] Respiration occurs within the branchial chamber beneath the carapace, where gills extract oxygen from water. True prawns feature dendrobranchiate gills, characterized by branched, tree-like filaments that maximize surface area for gas exchange, distinguishing them from the lamellar gills found in caridean shrimps. Water is drawn in through the branchial chamber via scaphognathite pumping and expelled posteriorly.^[26]^[27] Sensory capabilities are enhanced by compound eyes mounted on movable stalks, allowing wide visual fields with thousands of ommatidia for detecting light and motion. Statocysts, located in the basal segment of the antennules, function as equilibrium organs, containing statoliths that sense gravity and orientation. The entire body is covered by an exoskeleton composed primarily of chitin, a polysaccharide reinforced with proteins and calcium carbonate in some regions; this structure is periodically molted to accommodate growth.^[26] The digestive system begins with the foregut, featuring a gastric mill in the cardiac stomach that mechanically grinds ingested food using ossicles and setae. This precedes the pyloric stomach, where filtration occurs, followed by the midgut for enzymatic digestion and absorption.^[26]

Size and Coloration

Prawns exhibit a wide range of sizes depending on the species, with smaller varieties such as species in the genus Acetes typically measuring 2-4 cm in total length as adults.^[28] In contrast, larger species like the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) can exceed 30 cm in length and weigh up to 320 g.^[29] Size variations are primarily influenced by species, age, and habitat conditions, including water temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability.^[30] In many penaeid species, such as P. monodon, males are generally smaller than females of the same age, reflecting sexual dimorphism where females develop larger body sizes and broader abdomens to accommodate egg carrying.^[29] Most prawns display translucent or grayish coloration in their living state, which serves as a baseline for blending into aquatic environments.^[31] Upon cooking, they turn pink or red due to the release and oxidation of astaxanthin, a carotenoid pigment stored in their exoskeleton and tissues.^[32] Species-specific patterns enhance this, such as the dark transverse stripes on the body of tiger prawns (P. monodon), which contribute to their distinctive appearance and commercial appeal.^[33] Camouflage adaptations are common, with many prawns featuring mottled or banded colorations that allow them to blend seamlessly with sediments, rocks, or vegetation on the seafloor.^[31]

Habitat and Ecology

Natural Habitats

Prawns, encompassing species in families such as Penaeidae and Palaemonidae, primarily inhabit coastal and estuarine ecosystems worldwide, with juveniles often occupying shallow inshore areas including mangroves, seagrass beds, and brackish estuaries that provide nutrient-rich, protected environments.^[34] These habitats support high productivity due to organic detritus and shelter from predators, while adults typically reside in deeper offshore waters, ranging from 20 to 110 meters or more on continental shelves.^[34] For instance, the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) favors such transitional zones for early development, transitioning to subtidal marine areas as it matures.^[34] Substrate preferences vary by species but generally include soft sediments conducive to burrowing behaviors, such as muddy or sandy bottoms in coastal bays and riverine systems. Banana prawns (Penaeus merguiensis), for example, show a strong affinity for muddy substrates in estuarine settings over sandy ones, which enhances their foraging efficiency and concealment.^[35] In freshwater-adapted species like the giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), habitats extend to river bottoms, including rocky or weedy areas near waterfalls and weirs, where they adopt a benthic lifestyle.^[36] Some species also utilize rocky intertidal pools, though these are less common for larger prawns. Water quality is critical for prawn survival and physiological function, with optimal conditions including salinities of 5-35 parts per thousand (ppt) across brackish to fully marine gradients, temperatures between 15-30°C, and dissolved oxygen levels exceeding 4 mg/L to prevent stress and support respiration.^[34]^[36]^[37] P. monodon thrives in 2-30 ppt salinity and 28-33°C temperatures, while M. rosenbergii tolerates 0-25 ppt but requires higher temperatures (29-31°C) for optimal activity in turbid freshwater influenced by brackish inflows.^[34]^[36] Zonation patterns reflect these tolerances, with inshore nurseries featuring lower salinities and higher turbidity, contrasting with stable, deeper offshore zones.^[38] Habitat threats pose significant risks to prawn populations, primarily through coastal development that leads to mangrove deforestation and erosion, reducing nursery availability by up to 38% in some Asian regions. Recent assessments indicate that shrimp aquaculture contributed to approximately 26% of global mangrove deforestation between 2000 and 2020.^[34]^[39] Pollution from agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and aquaculture chemicals further degrades water quality, elevating turbidity and contaminants beyond tolerance levels in estuaries and rivers.^[34] These pressures, compounded by sedimentation from land clearance, disrupt substrate integrity and oxygen dynamics, exacerbating vulnerability in shallow habitats.^[35]

Geographic Distribution

Prawns exhibit a predominantly tropical and subtropical distribution, with the Indo-Pacific region serving as a major center of diversity. The giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) exemplifies this, ranging naturally from the eastern coasts of Africa across South Asia and Southeast Asia to northern Australia.^[40] In the eastern Pacific, the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) occupies coastal waters from Sonora, Mexico, southward through Central America to Tumbes, Peru.^[41] These patterns reflect the species' affinity for warm, shallow marine environments influenced by regional oceanographic conditions. Certain prawn species extend into temperate zones, broadening their global presence. In the North Atlantic, the common prawn (Palaemon serratus) is distributed from the Danish coast southward to Mauritania, encompassing the Mediterranean and Black Seas.^[42] Similarly, in the North Pacific, the spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) inhabits waters along the North American west coast, from Unalaska Island, Alaska, to San Diego, California.^[43] These temperate extensions often involve species adapted to cooler, nearshore habitats at higher latitudes. Freshwater prawns, primarily from the genus Macrobrachium, occupy riverine systems across tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), a prominent example, is native to the Indo-Pacific, spanning from Pakistan through southern Asia to Vietnam, and eastward to northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.^[44] Human activities have expanded ranges beyond native limits; aquaculture introductions and escapes have led to established populations of species like L. vannamei in non-native areas outside its eastern Pacific origin, such as in Southeast Asia.^[45] Biogeographic factors such as ocean currents and larval dispersal play critical roles in constraining prawn distributions, often preventing widespread colonization across oceanic barriers.^[46] Globally, decapods encompass over 17,000 species, with prawns—encompassing the suborders Dendrobranchiata (around 540 species) and Caridea (over 3,900 species)—forming diverse groups that include many commercially significant taxa.^[47]

Behavior and Adaptations

Prawns exhibit a range of foraging behaviors adapted to their benthic lifestyles, often acting as nocturnal scavengers or opportunistic predators. Many species, such as the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), use their chelae to capture and manipulate prey including algae, detritus, small invertebrates, and occasionally fish, with chemosensory cues guiding selection of palatable foods.^[7] Some penaeid prawns employ filter-feeding mechanisms to strain plankton from water currents, enhancing nutrient intake in coastal environments.^[48] Social structures among prawns vary by species and life stage, typically involving solitary adults or loose aggregations rather than tight schools. In freshwater species like the giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), hierarchical dominance is evident, with blue-claw (BC) males establishing territories through aggressive displays and physical contests, suppressing growth in smaller submissive males (SM) via interference competition.^[49] Larval stages of many prawns, including penaeids, form schooling groups that provide collective protection during dispersal.^[7] Defensive adaptations in prawns prioritize rapid evasion and concealment to counter predation risks. The tail-flip escape response, a powerful flexion of the abdomen, propels individuals backward at speeds up to several body lengths per second, as observed in brown shrimp (Crangon crangon).^[50] Burrowing into sediments serves as a passive defense, allowing species like Penaeus merguiensis juveniles to hide from visual predators in estuarine flats.^[51] Chemical signaling through pheromones facilitates alarm responses and aggregation, while the post-molting phase renders prawns particularly vulnerable due to softened exoskeletons, prompting seclusion behaviors.^[52] Migration patterns in prawns are closely tied to reproductive and developmental needs, with adults often undertaking offshore movements to deeper, saline waters for spawning. Penaeid species, for instance, migrate from coastal nurseries to continental shelves, releasing larvae that drift with currents before returning as postlarvae.^[53] Juveniles subsequently migrate inward to brackish estuaries, utilizing salinity gradients for optimal growth.^[7] Sensory adaptations enable prawns to navigate complex environments effectively, with chemosensitive antennae playing a central role in detecting food, mates, and threats over distances. In Macrobrachium rosenbergii, antennules bear aesthetascs that sense amino acids and pheromones, directing foraging and pre-mating behaviors.^[49] Bioluminescence is absent in most coastal and freshwater prawns but present in certain deep-sea shrimps, including oplophoroid shrimps (Caridea) and some sergestid shrimps (Dendrobranchiata).^[54]

Life Cycle

Reproduction

Prawns in the suborder Dendrobranchiata typically reach sexual maturity between 3 and 6 months of age, at sizes ranging from 5 to 15 cm in total length depending on the species, with females achieving larger body sizes and greater reproductive output than males.^[41]^[55] Mating involves males depositing spermatophores onto the female's thelycum—a specialized structure on the ventral abdomen—using appendages like the petasma, which enables external fertilization without internal insemination.^[55] During spawning, mature females release 100,000 to 1 million eggs directly into offshore waters, typically at night, with no parental brooding as seen in caridean shrimps.^[56]^[55]^[57] Reproduction exhibits seasonality, peaking in warmer periods such as spring and summer in temperate zones, driven primarily by rising water temperatures and changes in photoperiod.^[56]^[55] Fecundity is influenced by female size and environmental conditions, allowing for multiple spawning events—usually 2 to 5 per reproductive season—with eggs measuring 0.2 to 0.5 mm in diameter.^[56]^[41]^[55]

Developmental Stages

The developmental stages of prawns, particularly in the penaeid family, involve a series of metamorphic changes that transition individuals from a pelagic existence to benthic adulthood, facilitating adaptation to diverse coastal ecosystems. This process begins immediately after spawning in offshore waters and culminates in maturity within estuarine or nearshore environments, driven by environmental cues such as salinity gradients and temperature.^[58]^[59] Penaeid prawn eggs are released into the pelagic zone and typically hatch within 12-24 hours under optimal temperatures of 26-30°C, yielding free-swimming nauplius larvae that rely on yolk reserves for initial nourishment.^[60]^[58] These nauplii progress through 5-6 substages over approximately 2 days before molting into protozoea, contributing to an overall planktonic larval phase lasting 2-6 weeks depending on species and conditions.^[58] The protozoea and mysis stages represent transitional, zoea-like phases where the larvae develop biramous swimming appendages and begin active feeding on microalgae and zooplankton, marking a shift toward more complex locomotion and nutrition.^[58]^[59] Protozoea typically comprises 3 substages lasting 3-5 days, followed by 3 mysis substages of similar duration, during which the abdomen elongates and thoracic appendages functionalize for future benthic life.^[58] Environmental factors like decreasing salinity trigger metamorphosis at the end of mysis, prompting the shift to postlarvae.^[61] Postlarvae emerge as miniature adults with developed pleopods for swimming, initiating a critical ecological transition from planktonic to benthic habitats by migrating into estuarine nurseries via selective tidal stream transport.^[61]^[62] This inward migration occurs 1-2 months post-hatching for many species, allowing settlement in low-salinity mangroves or seagrass beds where they burrow and forage.^[61]^[63] From the postlarval stage onward, prawns grow as juveniles into adults through repeated molting, with juveniles undergoing frequent ecdysis (up to every 1-2 weeks initially) that decreases to 10-20 cycles per year in later stages as size increases.^[64]^[65] Most penaeid species reach adulthood within 3-6 months, achieving lifespans of 1-2 years, though larger forms like the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) may live up to 3 years under favorable conditions.^[34]^[66] Throughout development, mortality is exceptionally high, with over 90% larval loss in the wild due to predation, starvation, and dispersal in planktonic phases, underscoring the role of environmental cues in synchronizing survival and recruitment.^[67]^[68]

Human Interaction

Commercial Fishing

Commercial fishing for prawns primarily involves wild harvest using specialized gear to target species in marine environments. The most common method is bottom trawling with otter or beam trawls in offshore waters, where cone-shaped nets are dragged along the seafloor to capture burrowing or bottom-dwelling prawns such as penaeids.^[69] In coastal areas, pots or traps are deployed, particularly for species like spot prawns (Pandalus platyceros), which offer lower environmental impact due to their selectivity.^[70] However, trawling often results in significant bycatch, including fish, sea turtles, and marine mammals; for instance, shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Mexico historically captured non-target species at ratios up to 3.5:1 before mitigation measures like turtle excluder devices (TEDs) were mandated.^[71] These devices, grids that allow larger animals to escape, have reduced turtle mortality by over 90% in U.S. fisheries while maintaining prawn catches.^[71] Major global prawn fisheries focus on high-value species and operate in key regions. In the Gulf of Mexico, the fishery targets white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus) and brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus), with U.S. landings reaching approximately 69,000 tonnes in 2023, primarily via otter trawls.^[72] Australia's Northern Prawn Fishery, using otter trawls, harvested 8,525 tonnes in 2023, including banana prawns (Penaeus indicus) and tiger prawns (Penaeus esculentus).^[73] In the North Sea, the brown shrimp (Crangon crangon) fishery employs beam trawls and produced around 13,000 tonnes in 2023, supporting over 500 vessels across Europe.^[74] These fisheries contribute to a global wild prawn capture of about 3.3 million tonnes annually as of 2022.^[75] Operations are typically seasonal, aligned with prawn migrations and spawning cycles to maximize yields and protect stocks. For example, the Pacific spot prawn trap fishery opens in May and runs for 6-8 weeks, coinciding with post-winter growth in deeper waters off British Columbia and Alaska.^[76] Industrial trawling for prawns emerged in the late 19th century, with early developments in Norway (1890s) and the U.S. Gulf (1910s), expanding rapidly post-World War II through mechanized vessels.^[69] Modern regulations include total allowable catches (TACs); the European Union sets annual TACs for North Sea brown shrimp at around 13,000 tonnes to prevent overfishing.^[69] Wild prawn fisheries generate substantial economic output, forming a key segment of the global seafood trade valued at approximately USD 159 billion for capture fisheries in 2022.^[75] Prawn harvests contribute an estimated USD 5-10 billion annually to this trade, with the Gulf of Mexico fishery alone valued at over USD 300 million in recent years, supporting thousands of jobs in processing and export.^[69]^[72]

Aquaculture

Aquaculture of prawns, primarily focusing on marine species within the genus Penaeus, has become the dominant source of global supply, with Penaeus monodon (giant tiger prawn) and Litopenaeus vannamei (whiteleg shrimp) as the key cultivated species. L. vannamei dominates production, accounting for approximately 75-80% of farmed output due to its faster growth, adaptability to high densities, and disease tolerance, while P. monodon comprises about 15-20% and is valued for its larger size and market premium in certain regions.^[77]^[41] Cultivation methods range from extensive systems, which use large earthen ponds (5-30 ha) with low stocking densities (4-10 postlarvae/m²) and rely on natural productivity for yields of 150-500 kg/ha per crop, to intensive approaches like biofloc technology in lined ponds or tanks, achieving densities over 150 postlarvae/m² and yields exceeding 40 tons/ha through microbial flocs that recycle nutrients and reduce feed needs.^[41]^[78] The production cycle begins in hatcheries, where broodstock are matured in controlled tanks and spawned to produce nauplii larvae, which develop into postlarvae (PL) over 12-21 days with survival rates above 60% using specific pathogen-free (SPF) lines. An optional nursery phase follows, lasting 1-5 weeks to rear PL to 0.2-0.5 g juveniles at densities of 80-160/m², enhancing survival before transfer to grow-out ponds. The grow-out phase typically spans 90-120 days in semi-intensive or intensive systems, reaching market size of around 20 g, with 2-3 cycles per year in tropical regions; super-intensive biofloc or recirculating systems can shorten this to 3 months while minimizing water exchange.^[41]^[78] Global prawn aquaculture production reached approximately 5.6 million metric tons in 2023, with over 80% originating from Asia, led by China, India, and Vietnam, which together account for more than half of output through a mix of pond-based intensive farming. This sector has driven a shift where farmed prawns now supply over 90% of the market, surpassing wild capture since the early 2000s. However, expansion has raised environmental concerns, including mangrove deforestation, with historical conversion rates of 30-50% of losses in coastal areas during the 1970s-1990s attributed to pond construction for extensive farming.^[5]^[79]^[80] Technological advances have improved sustainability and resilience, including the development of SPF strains since the late 1990s—initially in the U.S. and introduced to Asia in the early 2000s—which are bred free of major pathogens like white spot syndrome virus, boosting survival rates in intensive systems. Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) further enhance efficiency by recycling up to 99% of water, reducing effluent discharge and land use, with examples achieving 50 tons/ha yields while minimizing pollution in regions like Vietnam.^[81]^[82] Economically, prawn aquaculture employs millions worldwide, contributing to rural livelihoods in Asia and Latin America, and generates over $20 billion in annual export value, with the global market exceeding $40 billion in 2023 as demand grows at 7% annually. This farmed dominance has stabilized supply, reducing pressure on wild stocks while supporting food security in developing economies.^[83]^[84]

Culinary Uses

Prawns are commonly prepared by boiling, grilling, or stir-frying to highlight their delicate flavor and tender texture. Boiling fresh prawns in salted water or seawater for 3-7 minutes causes their shells to turn pink and signals doneness, while deveining—removing the dark intestinal tract along the back—is essential to eliminate potential grit and bitterness for a cleaner taste. Grilling or stir-frying prawns briefly over high heat, often with garlic, herbs, or spices, preserves their juiciness and enhances natural sweetness, typically taking 2-4 minutes per side to avoid overcooking. In global cuisines, prawns feature prominently in diverse regional dishes that showcase local ingredients and techniques. The Australian prawn cocktail layers chilled, boiled prawns with a creamy Marie Rose sauce, avocado, and lettuce for a refreshing starter. Indian prawn curry simmers prawns in a spiced coconut milk gravy with turmeric, ginger, and chilies, creating a rich, aromatic main course. Thai tom yum goong soup combines prawns with lemongrass, lime leaves, galangal, and chili in a hot, sour broth, balancing bold flavors. Spanish gambas al ajillo sautés prawns in olive oil infused with garlic and chili flakes, served as a sizzling tapas with crusty bread. Nutritionally, prawns offer a lean source of high-quality protein at approximately 20 grams per 100-gram serving, with low fat content (under 1 gram per 100 grams) and about 100 kilocalories per 100 grams. They are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, providing around 0.3 grams of DHA and EPA per 100 grams, which support heart health, and selenium at 48 micrograms per 100 grams, aiding antioxidant defense. For preservation, prawns are often frozen at sea using brine immersion or plate freezers at -20°C to -35°C to maintain quality for up to six months, canned after blanching in salt water and processing at 120°C, or dried after cooking for use in feeds or snacks. However, consumption requires caution due to common allergies triggered by the tropomyosin protein, which affects up to 2% of adults and can cause severe reactions like anaphylaxis. Culturally, prawns symbolize luxury in Western dining, often featured in upscale seafood platters and fine restaurants, while serving as a staple in Asian seafood markets where they are integral to everyday meals and traditional preparations.

Conservation and Sustainability

Prawn populations worldwide are threatened by overfishing, which has led to declines in several commercially important species, such as tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) in regions like Southeast Asia where stocks have been overexploited due to high capture rates exceeding sustainable levels.^[85] Habitat loss, primarily from the clearance of mangrove forests for shrimp aquaculture ponds, has reduced critical nursery grounds, with an estimated 35% of global mangroves lost since 1980, exacerbating vulnerability for coastal species.^[86] Climate change poses additional risks through ocean warming and acidification, which alter migration patterns and habitat suitability; for instance, pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum) in the Gulf of Mexico could lose up to 70% of suitable habitat by the end of the century.^[87] Diseases, particularly white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), have caused massive die-offs in both wild and farmed populations, resulting in economic losses exceeding $18 billion globally by 2012 and ongoing outbreaks linked to warmer waters.^[88] Conservation management efforts include the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) that restrict fishing in key prawn habitats to allow stock recovery, as seen in initiatives across the Indo-Pacific region. Bycatch reduction technologies, such as turtle excluder devices (TEDs) in trawl nets, have been mandated in many fisheries to minimize unintended captures of juvenile prawns and other species, improving overall ecosystem health. Certifications play a crucial role: the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) label ensures wild-caught prawns come from well-managed fisheries meeting sustainability criteria, while the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) standard promotes responsible farming practices that limit environmental impacts for species like vannamei shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei).^[89]^[90] Many prawn species are overexploited, with global assessments indicating that tropical shrimp fisheries contribute to 27% of total discards in marine captures, straining populations. Freshwater prawns, such as those in the genus Macrobrachium, face heightened risks, with approximately 30% of assessed caridean shrimp species listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List due to habitat degradation and pollution; for example, the coldwater prawn (Pandalus borealis) has been classified as near threatened in parts of Europe.^[69]^[91]^[92] Restoration initiatives focus on mangrove replanting to rehabilitate lost habitats, with projects in Southeast Asia integrating shrimp farming with restored ecosystems to enhance biodiversity and resilience; these efforts have accelerated since the 2010s through partnerships emphasizing sustainable aquaculture standards. Ongoing stock assessments by organizations like the FAO monitor population trends, informing adaptive management to prevent collapses.^[93] If sustainable practices are widely adopted, global shrimp production—dominated by aquaculture—is projected to grow by around 40% from 2017 levels by 2030, reaching higher volumes without further depleting wild stocks, though this depends on effective disease control and habitat protection.^[94]

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/397365209_Invasive_giant_river_prawns_as_opportunistic_generalist_predators_in_the_Amazon_Delta_Insights_from_metabarcoding
[11]
Common prawn - Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust
The common prawn inhabits weedy beds and stony crevices in the intertidal and shallow subtidal zones of the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean.
[12]
CRUSTACEANS
* Black tiger shrimp is another name often used for Penaeus monodon (ASFA, 1996). * Swimming crab is the most common name for Portunus trituberculatus (ASFA, ...
[13]
Prawns vs. Shrimp: 5 Differences Between Prawns and Shrimp - 2025
Aug 13, 2021 · Shrimp have lamellar gills, also known as plate-like gills, and prawns have branching gills. Shape: Prawns have straight bodies, while shrimp ...
[14]
Shrimp vs. Prawns: Differences in Anatomy, Size & Taste
Jun 24, 2025 · Shrimp have lamellar, or plate-like, gills, whereas prawns possess branching gills. Regarding their body structure, shrimp have a side plate ...Missing: Caridea | Show results with:Caridea
[15]
What's the Difference Between Shrimp and Prawns? - Treehugger
The two decapods also have different types of gills: shrimp have plate-like gills, while prawns have branching gills.
[16]
https://www.treehugger.com/difference-between-shrimp-and-prawns-6831583
[17]
Prawns vs Shrimp: What's the Difference? - Healthline
Mar 9, 2018 · In shrimp, the thorax overlaps the head and the abdomen. But in prawns, each segment overlaps the segment below it. That is, the head ...Definitions Vary Between... · Prawns And Shrimp Are... · They Can Be Different Sizes
[18]
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/prawns-vs-shrimp
[19]
https://www.southernliving.com/food/seafood/difference-between-shrimp-prawns
[20]
[PDF] - xiii - 1. INTRODUCTION
In North America the name "prawn" is practically obsolete and is almost entirely re- placed by the word "shrimp", even the species of Palaemonidae, like those ...Missing: differences | Show results with:differences
[21]
[PDF] prawn fisheries of india
Based on the environment in which the prawns are found, it may be convenient to recognize three' categories of prawn fisheries, namely, marine fisheries, ...
[22]
Prawn Fishery in India: Types, Firming and Preservation (with ...
Prawn, a crustacean which is commercially known as shrimp and commonly known in different parts' of the country as Chingri, Ghinga, Kolambi, Sungata, Chemen, ...
[23]
[PDF] Fish Name Fact File 6 Prawns and Shrimp
In fact, the Food and Agriculture Organisation. (FAO) uses both “prawn” and “shrimp” at random interchangeably across the genera. In Australia and Europe ...Missing: regional | Show results with:regional
[24]
Nutrition & Species - Australian Prawn Fisheries | ACPF
There are five major species of Australian wild prawns caught commercially; King, Banana, Tiger, Endeavour and School. With many more boutique species, all ...Missing: distinction | Show results with:distinction
[25]
Labels on seafood products in different European countries and ...
The present study analysed the labels of seafood products sold in different European countries in order to verify the presence of mandatory information required ...
[26]
Farfantepenaeus aztecus - Lander University
The body consists of three tagmata; the anterior head, middle thorax, and posterior abdomen (Fig 19-1). The head consists of five segments but they are fused ...Missing: prawn plan
[27]
Ray Bauer research: caridean and penaeid shrimps
... shrimps (or prawns) belong the crustacean order Decapoda. One group ... In the pleocyemate shrimps infraorders Caridea and Stenopodidea, embryos ...
[28]
Spot Shrimp Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Size Maximum length is over 12 inches; Age Maximum age is 11 years; Range/Distribution The spot prawn's geographic range extends from Southern California to ...
[29]
giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) - Species Profile
Size: up to 30 cm and 320 g (females larger than males of same age). Native Range: Indo-West Pacific oceans including East Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia ...
[30]
Pink Shrimp | NOAA Fisheries
Pink shrimp are crustaceans with 10 slender, relatively long walking legs and five pairs of swimming legs, located on the front surface of the abdomen. · They ...
[31]
Temperature-Induced Sex Differentiation in River Prawn ...
Jan 19, 2024 · Macrobrachium nipponense is gonochoristic and sexually dimorphic. The male prawn grows faster and usually has a larger size than the female.
[32]
Ray Bauer research: coloration and camouflage
Carotenoid pigments, especially astaxanthin (red) and canthaxanthin (orange, red), are the main source of color in shrimps. When the carotenoids alone produces ...
[33]
Why does cooked shrimp turn pink? - Exploratorium
Voila! Red-orange astaxanthin molecules are released. Because pigments related to the carotenes are stable, the astaxanthins now display their unique deep hues ...
[34]
Asian tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon
Maximum Size. 35 cm (13 3/4 in) ; Other Common Names. giant tiger prawn ; Previous Scientific Names ; Comments. The Asian tiger shrimp is an invasive species. It ...
[35]
The adaptive value of camouflage and colour change in a ...
Oct 30, 2018 · Prawn polymorphism has been thought to function as protective coloration and to provide camouflage against the seaweed types where prawns live.
[36]
Penaeus monodon | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Young giant tiger prawns are most commonly found in estuaries, lagoons and mangroves; they are very tolerant to a range of salinity levels from 2-30 ppt. Adults ...
[37]
[PDF] Importance of estuarine mangroves to juvenile banana prawns
We know that P. merguiensis favours areas of estuaries with muddy rather than sandy substrates (Vance et al., 1990; Kenyon et al., ...
[38]
[PDF] Giant River Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
The Giant River Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is native to Asian mainland, with males reaching 320mm. It tolerates a wide range of salinities and ...
[39]
Dissolved oxygen dynamics - Responsible Seafood Advocate
Aug 20, 2018 · Dissolved oxygen concentration below 3 mg/L are stressful to shrimp and most warmwater fishes and result in lower survival and production.Missing: prawn habitat
[40]
FAO - Macrobrachium rosenbergii
This species lives in tropical freshwater environments influenced by adjacent brackishwater areas. It is often found in extremely turbid conditions.
[41]
FAO - Penaeus monodon Fabricius
The giant tiger prawn inhabits the coasts of Australia, South East Asia, South Asia and East Africa. Similar to all penaeid shrimp, the rostrum well developed ...
[42]
FAO - Penaeus vannamei
The whiteleg shrimp is native to the Eastern Pacific coast from Sonora, Mexico in the North, through Central and South America as far South as Tumbes in Peru.
[43]
Common prawn (Palaemon serratus) - MarLIN
Global distribution. From Danish coast south to Mediterranean, Black Sea and Mauritania. Habitat. Present usually in groups, in crevices and under stones ...
[44]
Pandalus platyceros, Spot shrimp : fisheries - SeaLifeBase
Distribution Countries | FAO areas | Ecosystems | Occurrences | Introductions. Eastern Pacific: The west coast of north America from Unalaska Island to Kachemak ...
[45]
giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) - Species Profile
Macrobrachium rosenbergii are a nocturnal benthic (bottom dwelling) prawn found as adults in freshwater lakes and rivers.
[46]
[PDF] Abundance of introduced Pacific whiteleg shrimp Penaeus ...
Oct 18, 2021 · This species is native to the western coast of Central and South. America, from Mexico to Peru (Holthuis 1980; Perez Farfante and Kensley. 1997) ...
[47]
Oceanic dispersal barriers, adaptation and larval retention
The objective of this study was to assess the relative importance of various oceanographic and biological factors in maintaining the separation of genetic ...Figure 2 · Figure 3 · Methods
[48]
Benchmarking global biodiversity of decapod crustaceans (Crustacea
Aug 1, 2023 · A new assessment of the global biodiversity of decapod Crustacea (to 31 December 2022) records 17,229 species in 2,550 genera and 203 families.
[49]
https://www.fao.org/4/y4100e/y4100e11a.htm
[50]
Farming freshwater prawns. A manual for the culture of the giant ...
In freshwater prawns the most important social interactions are the growth enhancement of OC males (what is known as the 'leapfrog' growth pattern) and the ...
[51]
The Tail Flip Escape Response of the Brown Shrimp Crangon ...
Sep 27, 2019 · Abstract. This investigation has used high speed and conventional video techniques to investigate the tail flip escape behaviour of the ...
[52]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234056214_Chemical_Communication_in_Crustaceans
[53]
(PDF) Chemical Communication in Crustaceans - ResearchGate
Jan 7, 2015 · The pheromone enables males to detect the optimal time to mate just after the female molt with the timing of the reproductive event enabling ...Missing: vulnerability | Show results with:vulnerability
[54]
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.13093
[55]
[PDF] SUBORDER DENDROBRANCHIATA BATE, 18881)
FECUNDITY. Fecundity is positively related to shrimp size and can be measured in two ways: by the number of eggs spawned, or by calculating from dissected ...Missing: maturity | Show results with:maturity
[56]
e/7 maturation and spawning of the penaeid prawns of the ...
Five maturity stages: immature, early maturing, late maturing, mature and spent-recovering stages are distinguished and the maturation process in the female of ...
[57]
Atlantic Northern Shrimp | NOAA Fisheries
Northern shrimp are crustaceans, like lobsters and crabs. · They are much smaller than warm-water shrimp, averaging 2 to 4 inches in length. · When alive, the ...About The Species · Biology · Fishery Management
[58]
4. Life cycle - Shrimp Hatchery Design, Operation and Management
The nauplius undergoes six moltings within 50 hours into a protozoea. (Fig. 17). The body becomes elongated with a distinct cephalothorax. The early protozoea ...
[59]
Bacterial analysis in the early developmental stages of the black ...
Mar 17, 2020 · Like other crustaceans, shrimp undergo metamorphosis through the following stages: egg, nauplius, zoea, mysis, postlarva, juvenile, and adult.
[60]
[PDF] Prawn hatchery operations
At. 28-30°C, the eggs hatch 12-17 h after spawning. Nauplius Stage. The nauplius stage is the stage after eggs have hatched. The prawn nauplius is very tiny ...
[61]
White Shrimp - SCDNR - Species
In the vicinity of an estuary, postlarvae utilize selective tidal stream transport to migrate to estuarine nursery areas; that is, they stay close to the bottom ...
[62]
Penaeid prawns (Chapter 14) - Ecology and Conservation of ...
Recruitment of the postlarvae to the estuarine nursery grounds from the adult breeding grounds offshore is followed by a period of growth in the estuaries, ...<|separator|>
[63]
[PDF] Untitled - GCFI – Proceedings - Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
Postlarvae move into estuaries (salt marshes, mangroves, lagoons) where they become benthic and metamorphose into juveniles. Shrimp remain in these nursery ...
[64]
Mineral nutrition in penaeid shrimp - Truong - Wiley Online Library
Dec 29, 2022 · 1.3 Moulting. The moult cycle of penaeid shrimp comprises four major phases: (i) moult (reduced feeding and active ecdysis), (ii) post-moult ...
[65]
Penaeid shrimp genome provides insights into benthic adaptation ...
Jan 21, 2019 · For instance, the penaeid shrimp experiences about 50 molts during a lifetime2, far more than in other arthropods3.Missing: lifespan mortality
[66]
Pond Culture POND CULTURE OF PENAEID SHRIMP
Penaeid shrimp are with a few exception marine. Some of the marine shrimp spend part of their life cycles in brackishwater estuaries.
[67]
Pre-slaughter mortality of farmed shrimp - Rethink Priorities
Mar 12, 2024 · It is typical for ~50% of farmed shrimp to die before reaching slaughter age, with about 1.2 billion premature deaths a day.
[68]
Natural mortality of three commercial penaeid shrimps (Litopenaeus ...
The larval stages of the Pacific Brown Shrimp Penaeus californiensis HOLMES reared in the laboratory are described and illustrated, and a comparison is made ...Missing: molting | Show results with:molting
[69]
[PDF] Global study of shrimp fisheries
World production of shrimp, both captured and farmed, is about 6 million tonnes, of which about 60 percent enters the world market. Shrimp is now the most ...
[70]
Fishing gear and methods | California Sea Grant
Lobster and crab traps/pots are set in shallower waters (typically < 300 ft/100m), whereas spot prawn traps are set in deeper waters (600-1,080 ft; 180-330 m).<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Bycatch - NOAA Fisheries
In the Southeast, we worked closely with the trawl fishing industry to develop turtle excluder devices that reduce sea turtle deaths from shrimp trawl nets.Missing: prawn pots
[72]
White Shrimp | NOAA Fisheries
White shrimp are crustaceans with 10 slender, relatively long walking legs and five pairs of swimming legs located on the front surface of the abdomen. Their ...
[73]
[PDF] Northern Prawn Fishery Data Summary 2023
Apr 1, 2024 · This document summarizes catch and effort data for the Northern Prawn Fishery in 2023, including interactions with threatened, endangered and ...
[74]
North Sea Brown Shrimp - MSC Fisheries
Catch by Species. Species, Reported Catch Year, Metric Tonnes. Common shrimp (Crangon crangon), 2023, 12,043. Information is provided by an independent ...
[75]
FAO Report: Global fisheries and aquaculture production reaches a ...
Jun 7, 2024 · Global fisheries and aquaculture production in 2022 surged to 223.2 million tonnes, a 4.4 percent increase from the year 2020.
[76]
Prawn and shrimp (Pandalus spp.) by trap, 2025/2026 | Pacific Region
May 6, 2025 · The commercial fishery opens no earlier than May 1 to allow for increased growth of the prawns prior to harvest, improving catch weight and ...
[77]
Sources, Quantities and Cultivation Methods | Seafish
Monodon makes up ~15% of global production of farmed warm water prawns; much lower than vannamei which accounts for ~75%. The remaining ~10% is made up of minor ...
[78]
Super-intensive shrimp culture: Analysis and future challenges
Oct 19, 2022 · We define the super-intensive system for white shrimp, L. vannamei, as one that uses lined ponds, raceways, or tanks for stocking densities of ...
[79]
Annual farmed shrimp production survey: A slight decrease in ...
Oct 9, 2023 · Fig. 1: After a strong 2022, the global shrimp supply will be flat or slightly lower in 2023; but a return to growth is expected in 2024.
[80]
Mangroves are at Risk, Companies Can Help by Transforming ...
Jul 14, 2020 · During the 1970s-1990s, especially high rates of land conversion for shrimp farming may be accountable for 30-50% of this habitat loss. Food ...
[81]
The Real Difference Between Farmed Shrimp And Wild Shrimp
May 20, 2022 · The biggest difference between wild-caught and farmed shrimp for most consumers, however, is taste.
[82]
Born in Hawaii, SPF broodstock shrimp industry faces globalization
Jun 4, 2017 · The story of SPF shrimp began with a research program funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the late 1980s. Its goal was to promote ...
[83]
Recirculatory Aquaculture System (RAS) Innovation to Promote ...
Aug 1, 2024 · RAS is an innovative approach to shrimp farming that recirculates water, significantly reduces water usage, prevents disease transmission, and minimizes ...
[84]
Harnessing the Waters: Sustainable Aquaculture - World Bank
Jun 24, 2025 · Aquaculture could generate as many as 22 million new jobs by 2050, if stakeholders capitalize on the $1.5 trillion dollar investment opportunity ...
[85]
Shrimp Market Size, Share, Industry Trends, Forecast, 2032
The global shrimp market size was $40.35 billion in 2023 & is projected to grow from $42.90 billion in 2024 to $74.24 billion by 2032 at a CAGR of 7.09%
[86]
Tiger prawn - Rating ID: 361 | Good Fish Guide
The stock status of wild tiger prawns is uncertain. Shrimp farming often requires the control of local predators. Organic standards permit lethal control in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[87]
Sustainable Shrimp Farming: Global Growth and Challenges
Salt flats, mudflats, estuaries, tidal basins and coastal marshes can also be affected by shrimp farming. These areas represent essential hunting, nesting, ...
[88]
Seafood Species Vulnerable to Climate Change - Ocean Conservancy
Oct 31, 2022 · By the end of the century, scientists have projected that pink shrimp could lose nearly 70% of their habitat in the Gulf as waters warm. But ...Missing: prawn diseases
[89]
Diseases of marine fish and shellfish in an age of rapid climate change
White spot disease of crustaceans is an indisputable threat to shrimp cultivation worldwide, and by 2012, was estimated to have cost US$ >18 billion in losses.
[90]
Shrimp or Prawn | Sustainable fish - Marine Stewardship Council
Shrimp and prawn carrying the blue MSC label are certified sustainable. MSC labelled shrimp and prawn come from fisheries that have been independently assessed.Missing: conservation management IUCN
[91]
[PDF] ASC Shrimp Standard - Version 1.2.1
Jul 14, 2023 · An ASC audit follows strict process requirements. These requirements are detailed in the. CAR. Only ASI-accredited CABs are allowed to audit ...
[92]
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Dead shrimp blues: a global assessment of extinction risk in freshwater shrimps (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea)
[93]
Cold water prawn red listed - FishSec
Apr 30, 2015 · The Swedish species databank have red listed the cold water prawn (Pandalus borealis) as a threatened species. Main justification for the ...
[94]
How shrimp producers are redesigning farms to support mangrove ...
Sep 25, 2025 · Responsible shrimp farming paired with mangrove restoration can boost yields, protect coasts and support sustainable livelihoods.Missing: prawn future outlook 2030
[95]
[PDF] FUTURE PROOFING SHRIMP PRODUCTION
Oct 19, 2020 · representing an increase of 40% from 2017 to 2030, while wild shrimp production is expected to remain flat. Southeast Asia is expected to be ...<|control11|><|separator|>